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Achievements and Challenges in Sedimentary Basins Dynamics 203 b a Major increase in the DZW due to outward migration of deformation (no strain localisation) Linear increase in the DTW (strain localisation) CBr01 (WLC) CBr02 (no WLC) 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 Time (sec) 300 Undeformed region Undeformed region Boundary effects Boundary effects Boundary effects Boundary effects DZW DZW CBr01 (WLC) CBr02 (no WLC) Deformed zone width (mm) Fig. 43 Consequences of presence or absence of lower crustal weakness zones on localization of deformation in extended lithosphere. a) Increase of width of deformed zone during ongoing extension; b) Planview of extending lithosphere for two end-member models: model incorporating lower crustal weakness zone (WLC), top; model without crustal weakness zone, bottom (from Corti et al., 2003) passive margins, foreland basins and foothills domains. Geological processes operating in sedimentary basins are too complex to be addressed by a single, multi- process numerical tool. Therefore, it is quite important to generate easy-access databases and to allow for the import and export of files from one code to the other in order to develop interactive workflows and more inte- grated approaches. Moreover allowance must be made for switching back and forth between basin-scale and reservoir-scale studies. In the following, we describe such an inte- grated workflow, which couples analytical work and Evolution through time on top views Cross section in the << south >> Volcanics Future SDRs Future break-up Fig. 44 Application of rifted continental margin of Mid-Norway (from Sokoutis et al., 2007) 204 F. Roure et al. modelling, and addresses the interactions between selected but complex geological processes operating at various temporal and spatial scales in sedimentary basins. Dynamic Controls on Reservoir Quality in Foreland Fold-and-Thrust Belts Integration of various datasets ranging from seismic profiles to thin-sections, analytical work and mod- elling is a prerequisite for the appraisal of sub-thrust sandstone reservoirs, the porosity-permeability evo- lution of which results from mechanical and chemi- cal compaction, both processes interacting in response to sedimentary burial, horizontal tectonic stress and temperature. First results of the SUBTRAP (SUB-Thrust Reser- voir Appraisal) consortium studies have shown that in the Sub-Andean basins of Venezuela and Colombia the main episode of sandstone reservoirs deterioration occurred in the footwall of frontal thrusts at the time of their nucleation when the evolving thrust belt and its foreland were mechanically strongly coupled. The related build-up of horizontal tectonic stresses in the foreland induced Layer Parallel Shortening (LPS) at reservoir-scales, involving pressure-solution at detrital grain contacts, causing the in-situ mobilization of sil- ica, rapid reservoir cementation by quartz-overgrowth and commensurate porosity and permeability reduc- tions (Fig. 45; Roure et al., 2003, 2005). The age and duration of such quartz-cementation episodes can be roughly determined by combining microthermometric fluid inclusion studies with 1D and 2D petroleum gen- eration modelling. In the case of the Oligocene El Furrial sandstone of eastern Venezuela, homogenization temperatures (Th) in quartz overgrowth reflect a very narrow temper- ature range, averaging 110–130 ◦ C, whereas the cur- rent reservoir temperature exceeds 160 ◦ C. When plot- ted on burial/temperature versus time curves derived from 1D or 2D basin models calibrated against bot- tom hole temperatures (BHT) and the maturity rank of organic matter, it becomes obvious that cementa- tion occurred during a short time interval, no longer than a few millions years, when the reservoir was not yet incorporated into the orogenic wedge (Roure et al., 2003, 2005). The technique of combined microthermometry and basin modelling can also be used for dating any other diagenetic episodes, provided the reservoir was in ther- mal equilibrium with the overburden at the time of cementation (without advection of hot fluids). More- over, forward diagenetic modelling at reservoir scales can benefit from such output data from basin mod- elling as e.g., reservoir temperature, length of the dia- genetic episode and, in the case of diagenesis in an open system, fluid velocities. For the quantification of fluid-rocks interaction in the pore space of a reser- voir or along open fractures transecting it, informa- tion on these parameters is indeed required. Further- more, the composition of the fluids involved and the kinetic parameters, which control the growth or disso- lution of various minerals present in the system, must be known. Pore Fluid Pressure, Fluid Flow and Reac tive Transport When dewatering processes are slowed down by per- meability barriers, which impede the vertical and lat- eral escape of compaction fluids, pore fluid pressures do not remain hydrostatic but can build up to geo- static levels. The build-up of excess of pore fluid pressure can impede mechanical compaction, stopping pressure-solution at quartz grain contacts, but can also cause hydraulic fracturing and failure of seals encasing a reservoir. New basin modelling tools have been implemented for 2D simulation in tectonically complex areas of the pore fluid pressure evolution and the migration veloc- ity water and hydrocarbons circulating in such subsur- face conduits as reservoir intervals and open fractures. First tested in the Venezuelan and Canadian foothills (Schneider et al., 2002; Schneider, 2003; Faure et al., 2004, Roure et al., 2005), the CERES modelling tool (a numerical prototype for HC potential evaluation in complex areas) has now been applied in many fold- and-thrust belts around the World. It is noteworthy t hat the main results of fluid flow modelling in fold-and- thrust belts accounts for long episodes during which deep reservoirs behave as a closed system, whilst rela- tively short episodes of fast fluid expulsion are directly controlled by fold and thrust propagation (squeegee episodes). Figure 46 documents the main results of Achievements and Challenges in Sedimentary Basins Dynamics 205 El Furrial 0 10 30 40 20 90 100 110 120 130 Tt (C) Frequency Burial curve and thermal - diagenetic evolution of the Oligocene Merecure reservoirs in subthrust wells ST 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 km 25 M.a. 0 M.a. Present End Oligocene B = onset of the tectonic accretion of the El Furrial trend = end of LPS and Q cements = onset of oil accumulation Increasing tectonic and sedimentary burial comtemporaneous with thrust - emplacement Sedimentation of the Middle - Upper Carapita flexural sequence 20C 80 - 90C 120C 140C A B A = onset of the quartz cementation B = end of the main quartz cementation 5 to 7 M.a. 14 - 15 M.a. 8 - 9 M.a. F r a c t u r i n g C e m e n t a t i o n Q u a r t z - L . P . S . Middle-Late Miocene Hydrodynamism / Layer Parallel Shortening Pliocene - Quaternary / Fracturing rough topography rough topography Hydro dynamism NEW FOREDEEP S 1 S 3 Meteoric water Long range migration Orinoco Ta r belt Sedimentary traps M e t e o r i c w a t e r H y d r o t h e r m a l b r i n e s Short range migration Fracturing E.F. E. F. P. S 1 S 2 L.P.S. Q overgrowth low salinity asphaltenes Active kitchen S 2 a A b c Fig. 45 Geodynamic control on quartz cementation in Sub- Andean basins (Subtrap-Venezuelan transect, after Roure et al., 2003, 2005): a) Thin-section evidencing various families of fluid inclusions in a detrital quartz and its diagenetic overgrowth; b) Diagram outlining the use of micro-thermometry (Th) and 1D thermal modelling to date the diagenetic event; c) Cartoon depicting the development of LPS (Layer Parallel Shortening) and quartz-cementation in the footwall of the frontal thrust such combined kinematic and fluid flow modelling applied to a case study in the Albanian foothills (Vilasi et al., 2008). The CERES modelling tool requires, however, mod- ification to be able to handle the long term poros- ity/permeability parameters for individual faults (faults can change from non-sealing to sealing, depending on regional stresses and compaction/cementation pro- cesses), and to address these topics in 3D. Numerical models require further improvement to properly handle reactive transport at reservoir- and basin-scales, since it probably controls the long-term porosity/permeability evolution of the main subsurface fluid circulation systems, such as porous and fractured rock units and fracture and fault systems (including hydrocarbon reservoirs). Apart from serving the petroleum industry, new societal challenges such as CO 2 sequestration and water management also require the implementation of basin-scale reactive transport models. In such appli- cations, basin geometries can be kept constant, whilst the time resolution required is much smaller (months or years instead of millions of years). Promising results have already been obtained in the simulation of thermo-haline circulations in the Northeast German Basin, thus accounting for the advection of saline water derived from Permian salt layers up t o the surface (Fig. 47; Magri et al., 2005a, b, 2007; Magri et al., 2008). 206 F. Roure et al. Depth (m) Length (m) Length (m) Length (m) 5000 Depth (m) 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 100000 102000 104000 106000 108000 110000 112000 114000 116000 118000 120000 122000 12400 126000 980009600094000 6000 7000 70000 72000 74000 76000 78000 80000 82000 84000 86000 88000 90000 92000 8000 Depth (m) 800007000060000500004000030000 16000 14000 12000 10000 2000 4000 6000 8000 0 90000 100000 110000 120000 130000 140000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 Fig. 46 Ceres fluid flow and pore fluid pressure modelling in the Albanian foreland fold-and-thrust belt (after Vilasi et al., 2009) Achievements and Challenges in Sedimentary Basins Dynamics 207 1 5 10 20 30 50 100 130 350 Concentration (g/L) Km Km –1 –2 –3 –4 –5 0 90 Fig. 47 Brine concentration (filled pattern, g/l) and temperature profiles (dashed lines, ◦ C) calculated from a transient thermo-haline simulation based on a profile of the Schleswig-Holstein region (North German Basin; after Magri et al., 2005a, b, 2007, 2008) 0 25 km Fig. 48 Temis 3D modelling of drainage areas and fully quantitative prediction of HC trapping (after Rudkiewicz and Carpentier, 2005). Blue pattern outlines dry prospects, whereas gas (vapor phase) and oil (liquid phase) accumulations are shown in reg and green, respectively. Coeval migration path for gas and oil between the active kitchens (structural lows) and trapps (structural highs) are indicated with red and green lines, respectively 208 F. Roure et al. 3D Kinematic Evolution of Complex Structures A fully quantitative prediction of the hydrocarbon charge to a given structural or stratigraphic prospect requires 3D modelling in order to properly take into account lateral and vertical heterogeneities of the source rocks and their maturity, the drainage areas and migration conduits, and the interconnection between the various fault systems and reservoirs. One of the main limitation of current tools, however, is the over simplistic assumptions made by most models for the architecture of faults, which can hardly be handled dif- ferently than as vertical boundaries (Fig. 48). Thus, only vertical motion (subsidence and compaction) is taken into account during modelling, with the bor- der lengths and surface areas of the models being kept constant through times, no matter whether lateral extension or contraction occurred or not. Therefore, a major effort is currently being made to develop new tools, which are able to reconstruct the kinematics of real faults in 3D (low angle thrust faults and high-angle normal or strike-slip faults; Fig. 49; Moretti et al., 2006). This is a prerequisite for com- bined 3D thermal and fluid flow modelling of tectoni- cally complex areas (Fig. 50; Baur and Fuchs, 2008). Geomechanics, Frac turing and Reservoir Prediction Pressure-solution related cementation and fracturing are important processes that can have repercussions of the porosity/permeability evolution of carbonate and KINE 3D 1: Analyze of the block 2 1 3 4 5 KINE 3D 2: Cross-section construction and restoration KINE 3D 2: Surface restoration KINE 3D 3: 3D restoration KINE 3D 1: Incorporation of all data Coherent 3D Model Fig. 49 Kine 3D. The workflow for 3D kinematic modelling of complex structures requires the integration of 2 and 3D seis- mic data, geological maps and sections when constructing the present-day architecture of the model (1), to extrapolate the fault planes from one section to the other (2), and then to proceed to the restoration of the sections (3), maps (4) or full 3D restoration (5) (after Moretti et al., 2006) Achievements and Challenges in Sedimentary Basins Dynamics 209 a b c Fig. 50 3D distribution of source rock maturity resulting from coupling complex kinematics with thermal modelling. Notice that current models cannot yet handle fluid flow and HC migration in complex tectonic environments. a) Transformation ratios (red: gas window; blue: immature); b) Temperatures and Ro -vitrinite reflectance- computed for present-day architecture (c) (petromod; after Baur and Fuchs, 2008; Bauer et al., 2009) sandstone reservoirs, but also on the overall the long- term evolution of fluid flow and the pore-fluid pressure regime of sedimentary basins. Once purely geometric, basin models must be progressively modified to account for more realistic physics and rock mechanics in order to better con- trol changes induced by such processes as Layer Par- allel Shortening (LPS) and stress-related opening and closure of fractures. In this respect, it is important to assess the structural fabric of a given horizon as pre-existing fractures are likely to play an important role in the pattern of fractures opening during suc- cessive tectonic episode. Nearby outcrop analogues can be used to calibrate basin-scale flow models in both frontier and mature basins, in order to properly describe the 3D architecture of sub-seismic fracture systems and complement the fragmentary information provided by cores and FMI (formation micro imager) logs (Fig. 51). Average reservoir porosity values and directional permeability anisotropies derived from production data are currently applied in field-sized reservoir models. This information could be extrapolated to fine-tune basin-scale models. Aspects of Future Basin Study The feedback between methodology development and multi-scale observations is the key to validate models for tectonic controls on intraplate continental topog- raphy. In order to separate the contribution of surface and tectonic processes t o the development of modern landscapes, high resolution dating of Quaternary strata must be combined with process-oriented modelling, linking the Quaternary record to long-term deep Earth processes. Some pertinent developments are in the forefront of this research domain, which is the focus of the TOPO-EUROPE Project (Cloetingh et al., 2007), one of the new challenges that has been endorsed by ILP and the European Union. Other projects address- ing the evolution of continental topography, adopt- ing similar approaches and workflows, though focus- ing less on its Quaternary and recent development and related societal implications, are the TOPO-ASIA Project (Himalayas and Asian intra-cratonic basins), the TOPOAFRICA Project (Guillocheau et al., 2006, 2007a, b; Braun et al., 2007) and the German SAMPLE 210 F. Roure et al. Restored red surface with length preservation Final deformed geometry Real initial geometry -2000 2000 16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 –2 000 0 16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 -2 000 -2000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000 12 000 14 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 –2000 16 000 500 –500 –1000 –2000 –2500 –3500 –4500 –3000 –4000 –5000 –5000 –4500 –4000 –3500 –3000 –2500 –2000 –1500 –1000 0 –500 500 –1500 0 0 0 4000 6000 8000 10 000 12 000 14 000 16 000 18 0000 –2000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000 12 000 14 000 16 000 18 000 18 000 16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8000 6000 4000 2000 -2000 -2000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000 12 000 14 000 16 000 18 000 0 0 0 N E N Z E Fig. 51 Coupling of sand box experiment (basin inversion) and numerical modelling (unfolding of surfaces) (after Mattioli et al., 2007; Saeed et al., 2008). Notice that the restored surface is quite smaller (about 20% less) than the initial surface of the model. Part of this discrepancy relates to 3D strain, i.e., thickening of the sand layers (there is only little compaction operating in the sand box experiment). In natural cases, pressure-solution would also account for a change in the rock volume, the study of which requiring further investigations by means of mechanical modelling Achievements and Challenges in Sedimentary Basins Dynamics 211 Project (conjugate South Atlantic Margin develop- ment; Bünge et al., 2008) and ANDES Project (Oncken et al., 2006). To a large extent these integrated projects apply the analytical and modelling tools summarized in the previous paragraphs. Although the Solid Earth has continuously changed, the record of its evolution is stored in sedimentary basins and the lithosphere. The aim of the ILP Task Force on Sedimentary Basins is to facilitate network- ing between the various communities (i.e., geologists and geophysicists, academy and industry) involved in the study of sedimentary basins, and to secure a wide diffusion of integrated workflows and new modelling concepts worldwide. A major challenge is to eluci- date the role played by internal lithospheric processes and external forcing as controlling factors of erosion and sedimentation rates. The sedimentary cover of the lithosphere provides a high-resolution record of chang- ing environments, and of deformation and mass trans- fer at the Earth surface, as well as at different depth levels in the lithosphere and sub-lithospheric man- tle. Important contributions were made to explain the relationships between lithosphere-scale tectonic pro- cesses and the sedimentary record, demonstrating, for example, the intrinsic control exerted by lithospheric intraplate stress fields on stratigraphic sequences and on the record of relative sea-level change in sedi- mentary basins (Cloetingh et al., 1990; Guillocheau et al., 2000; De Bruijne and Andriessen, 2002; Hen- driks and Andriessen, 2002; Robin et al., 2003). By now, there is a growing awareness that neotectonic processes can seriously affect the fluid flow in sedi- mentary basins and that fluid flow can have a major effect on the geothermal regime, and hence on calcu- lated denudation and erosion quantities (Rowan et al., 2002; Goncalves et al., 2003; Schneider et al., 2002; Schneider, 2003; Ter Voorde et al., 2004; Vilasi et al., 2008). Monitoring of the sedimentary and deformation record provides constraints for present-day deforma- tion rates. Whereas in the analysis of sedimentary basins, tec- tonics, eustasy and sediment supply are usually treated as separate factors, an integrated approach is required that is constrained by fully 3-D quantitative subsidence and uplift history analyses. Recent work has also elu- cidated the control exerted by inherited mechanical weakness zones in the lithosphere on its subsequent evolution, as expressed by the geological and geophys- ical record of orogenic belts and sedimentary basins in intraplate domains and the related development of topography. The mechanical properties of the litho- sphere depend on its temperature regime and com- position (Ranally and Murphy, 1987; Ranalli, 1995; Cloetingh et al., 2003a, b; Andriessen and Garcia- Castellanos, 2004; Cloetingh et al., 2004; Cloetingh and Van Wees, 2005). Therefore, it is necessary to fully integrate geothermochronology and material property analyses in reconstructions of the evolution of the lithosphere as derived from the record of sedimen- tary basins. In doing so, traditional boundaries between endogen and exogen geology will be trespassed. The sedimentary basin community, and Earth Sci- ences as a whole, face new societal challenges owing to on-going climate changes and the needs for CO 2 sequestration. Therefore, basin models must be adapted to new time scales, changing from the long- term resolution required for hydrocarbon resource evaluation (millions of years) towards much shorter time intervals (from less than ten to hundreds of years). In basin and reservoir models geomechanics, reactive transport and fluid-rock interactions must be taken into account to cope with accelerated subsi- dence and hydro-fracturing induced by hydrocarbon and water production, water injection, as well as with rapid changes in reservoir porosities and permeabilities induced either by dissolution or by pore and fracture cementation related to CO 2 injection. In this context, the 4-D geophysical survey technology can be applied for reservoir monitoring. Sedimentary geologists and basin modellers are cur- rently building new bridges to the Deep Earth com- munity. The various lithospheric and sub-lithospheric mantle processes, which control the evolution of sed- imentary basins, will be implemented in the numer- ical codes currently used by the petroleum industry. This will be of importance for investigating the heat flow and thermal evolution of rifted basins and passive margins, as well as the history of vertical movements of the Earth’s surface in foreland basins and adjacent fold belts. Currently, modelling of global processes and deformation prediction of sedimentary strata, includ- ing reservoir rocks, is going through the important transition from kinematic to thermo-mechanic and dynamic modelling. These developments cannot take place without interaction with sub-disciplines that address the Earth’s structure and kinematics and the reconstructions of geological processes. In fact, the advances in 212 F. Roure et al. structure-related research, in particular the advent of 3-D seismic velocity models, have set the stage for studies on dynamic processes within the Earth. In short, structural information is a prerequisite for mod- elling both sedimentary basins and Solid-Earth pro- cesses. Similarly, information on present-day horizon- tal and vertical motions, as well as reconstructions of past motions, temperatures or other process character- istics, is used to formulate and test hypotheses concern- ing dynamic processes. Inversely, the results of process modelling motivate and guide observational research. Through the emphasis on process dynamics, the full benefits of coupling at spatial and temporal scales are expected to become apparent. The scale of processes studied ranges from the planetary scale to the small scale relevant to sedimentary processes, the depth scale being reduced accordingly. Despite the great success of plate tectonic con- cepts, there are still fundamental questions on the evo- lution of the continental lithosphere and its interac- tion with the sub-lithospheric mantle. At the scale of a differentiating planet, processes controlling the growth of continental lithosphere, its thickness and dynamic coupling with the underlying mantle require focused attention from a number of Earth science sub- disciplines (see Artemieva, 2006). Equally important questions remain on mechanisms controlling defor- mation of the continents and their effects on vertical motions, dynamic topography, and the evolution and destruction of s edimentary basins. Of particular impor- tance are the dynamics of rifting culminating in split- ting of continents and the opening of oceanic basins, as well as of subduction of oceanic basins, the devel- opment of orogens (mountain building) and continent- continent collision, including their effects on continen- tal platforms. For the quantification of Solid-Earth pro- cesses the coupling of internal and external forcing has to be addressed. Starting from large-scale mantle and lithospheric structure and processes, and going to increasingly finer scales of crustal structure, processes must be analyzed to understand the dynamics of sed- imentary basins and their fill and the development of topography. Primary and most innovative objectives of integrated sedimentary basin studies are to link lithosphere-to-surface processes and to promote 4-D approaches that will lead to integrated interpretations of existing and newly acquired geomorphologic, geologic, geophysical, geodetic, remote sensing and geotechnologic datasets. A major challenge is the incorporation of different temporal and spatial scales in the analyses of sedimentary basins, Solid-Earth and surface processes. Assessment of the roles played by climate, erosion and tectonics on landscape and basin evolution will provide key constraints for quan- tifying feedback mechanisms linking deep Earth and surface processes. Monitoring horizontal and vertical surface motions and mapping the subsurface, using modern geophysical, geodetic, remote sensing and geotechnical techniques, can constrain present-day deformation patterns and related topographic changes, and can provide new guidelines for investigating the past. Analogue and numerical modelling, based on such constraints, can be used to test integrated interpretations and to provide information on dynamic processes controlling subsidence and topography development in intraplate domains, such as forelands of orogens and passive margins. The bathymetric evolution of passive margins, as well as the surface topography and morphology of con- tinents strongly depend on the interplay of subsurface and surface processes. Erosion of growing topogra- phy has an unloading effect on the lithosphere whereas sediment accumulation has a loading effect. This is clearly demonstrated by the strong correlation between denudation and tectonic uplift rates in zones of active deformation. During collision, surface processes con- tribute towards the localization and growth of moun- tain belts and fault zones, and ensure stable growth of topography (see also Burov, this volume). During crustal extension, erosion contributes towards widen- ing of rifted basins, so that apparent extension coef- ficients can increase by a factor of 1.5–2 (Fig. 52; Burov and Poliakov, 2001). Poly-phase subsidence and other deviations from time-depending asymptotic ther- mal subsidence can be also controlled by the feedback between surface and subsurface processes. The topographic reaction to surface loading and unloading depends on the mechanical strength of the lithosphere as well as on the strength partitioning between the crust and lithospheric mantle. Conse- quently, testing different rheological profiles in areas where data on denudation and/or sedimentation rates are well constrained may provide opportunities for constraining the long-term rheology of the lithosphere (e.g., Burov and Watts, 2006). Reliable information on (de)coupling processes at the crust-mantle and lithosphere-asthenosphere [...]... New Frontiers in Integrated Solid Earth Sciences, International Year of Planet Earth, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-2737-5 _6, â Springer Science+Business Media B.V 2010 235 2 36 indicated that there have been a decreasing number of fatalities (as a percentage of global population) resulting from earthquakes in recent decades (United Nations, 2002) A somewhat different perspective is provided when considering... 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