Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy Part 7 doc

Transport 193 only after there is a drastic reduction (of the order of magnitude) in terms of fuel-cell stack system and energy storage system. Future Progress is being made at such a rapid pace that Toyota is launching gasoline-electric hybrids (successor to Prius), and Nissan and Honda are launching fully electric vehicles. Honda is launching hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle (New York Times, Oct. 21, 2009). Advanced technology vehicles are expected to play a key role, particularly after 2020. Governments need to promote simultaneously the development of EVs, PHEVs and FCVs, batteries, recharging infrastructure, while providing incentives for the market promotion of such vehicles. A practical way will be for governments is to choose regions and metropolitan areas which have shown enthusiasm to implement the new approaches. Biofuels may find increasing use in LDVs. Currently biofuels production is dom- inated by ethanol from grain crops and biodiesel from oil-seed crops. This should be phased out. Governments should provide incentives to shift to second generation biofuels from non-food feedstocks. Such fuels have to be sustainable, low GHG and cost-efficient, with minimum adverse land-use impacts. It is possible to reduce CO 2 emissions by shifting the passenger travel to more effi- cient modes such as mass transit systems (as Singapore has done successfully). Such a modal shift brings other benefits such as lower traffic congestion, lower pollutant emissions and more livable cities. Also, citizens may be encouraged to make short trips on foot or by bicycle (as Paris has done). Fig. 15.4 (source: Transport, Energy and CO 2 : Moving towards sustainability, 2009; © OECD-IEA) shows the extent different technologies and fuels contribute to CO 2 reductions from LDVs in the BLUE Map scenario by 2050. These projections are no doubt uncertain, but the curves do tell a story. It is possible to bring about reductions of the order of 5 Gt in CO 2 equivalent emissions from LDVs, at a marginal cost of about USD 200/tonne with oil at USD 60/bbl. If a higher price of USD 120/bbl is assumed, the emission reductions can be realized at a marginal cost of about USD 130/tonne. There is a good possibility that most of the emission reductions could be achieved at costs far below this. It is expected that most reductions, particularly up to 2030, could come about from incremental improvements in internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid vehicles, at very low average cost. 15.4 TRUCKING AND FREIGHT MOVEMENT Trucks come in many shapes and sizes – ranging from small delivery vans to heavy duty tractor-trailers which can carry loads of about 300 tonnes. For most vehicles, fuel costs represent a significant part of the operating costs. Fuel efficiency gains may be achieved in the following ways: (i) Downsizing and downweighting, (ii) Improve- ments in the engine/drivetrain efficiency through turbo-charging, advanced higher compression diesel engines, and computer controls, (iii) Hybrid drivetrains – they improve the efficiency of urban delivery trucks and short-haul vehicles, by 25 to 45%, 194 Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy 0 0 100 200 300 400 Cost per tonne GHG saved well-to-wheel (USD/t CO 2 eq) 12 GHG savings (G† CO 2 eq/year) 120 USD/bbl oil price 60 USD/bbl oil price 3456 FC hybrid EV, 150 km of range CI plug-in hybrid SI plug-in hybrid CI hybrid BTL Ligno-cellulosic ethanol SI hybrid Sugar cane ethanol Figure 15.4 Projected GHG reduction of light duty vehicles and fuels. Transport, Energy and CO 2 : Moving towards Sustainability, 2009, Executive Summary, p. 37 SI = Spark Ignition (gasoline) vehicle; CI = Compressed Ignition (diesel) vehicle; ICE = Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicle; Hybrid = Hybrid vehicle; BtL = Biomass-to-Liquids (Biodiesel); FC = Fuel Cell; EV = Electrical vehicle (iv)Aerodynamic improvements, particularly for long-haul trucks, through better inte- gration of tractor-trailer integration, (v) low-rolling, second generation resistance tyres, (vi) More efficient auxiliary improvement., such as cabin heating/cooling systems and lighting – long haul trucks use substantial amount of fuel while stationary. Technology improvements in trucks pay back their costs in fuel savings over the life of the trucks. As has happened in the case of LDVs, hybrid propulsion systems are being used with medium-duty delivery trucks (Duleep, 2007). Electric and fuel-cell powered delivery trucks and buses used in urban setting, have a good future, as they are often centrally fuelled. It is unlikely that electric and fuel cell-powered long haul trucks will be viable in the near future, because of the problems of fueling and durability (long-haul trucks need to travel 100 000 km/yr). Truck operational efficiency can be improved in the following ways: (i) On-board diagnostic systems (real-time, fuel economy computers, data loggers help the drivers and companies to ensure that they are optimally driven and maintained, (ii) Speed governors and advanced cruise-control systems helps the drivers to drive safely and efficiently, (iii) Driver training programmes and good vehicle maintenance system help to improve trucking efficiency, (iv) Logistical improvements, such as, computerized truck dispatching and routing, and use of terminals and warehouses. As the Canadian experience has shown, regular training of drivers in fuel-efficient driving techniques can yield fuel saving of up to 20% per vehicle kilometer. Trucking has been growing rapidly during the last two decades, and this is expected to continue. Trucks can be made 30% to 40% more efficient by 2030 through techno- logical measures, operational measures and logistical improvements in handling and routing of goods. In order to optimize the process, governments need to work with the trucking companies to regulate the driver training programmes and create incentives for better efficiency. Japan is a pioneer in this effort, Transport 195 Biodiesel produced from biomass gasification and liquefaction can be readily used in trucks. Shifting to electricity or hydrogen is not a viable option in the case of trucks due to constraints of range and energy storage limitations. Thus, second generation, non-food based biofuels is effectively the only way to decarbonise the trucking fuel. Shifting to rail transport constitutes an attractive option to save energy and cut CO 2 emissions. Rail transport in the OECD countries costs one-fifth of the truck transport. Bulk raw materials like coal are often transported by rail. China moves a billion tonnes of coal per year, using dedicated rail links and trains with payloads of 25 000 tonnes. High speed rail Trains with cruise speed of more than 200 km/hour exist in Japan, Europe, and western USA. High speed rail (HSR) trips of about three hours (700–800 kms.) constitute an attractive alternative to air travel, as they avoid the hassles of traveling to the airport, checking-in and security checks. Since electricity used in HSR trips will be generated primarily by zero-carbon sources after 2030, there will be saving in energy and CO 2 emissions. Studies made in Europe and Japan show that the energy consumption per line-km in HSR is about one-third to one-fifth of the aeroplane and car energy use per passenger line-km (ENN, 2008). The total CO 2 emissions of rail systems are near zero (ignoring possible fossil-fuel use to heat the rail stations). The cost of HSR construction varies from country to country, ranging from USD 10 million to 100 million per line-km, depending upon the land costs, labour costs, financing methods and topography. Europe has 2000 km of HSR in operations, and plans to add 4000 km by 2020. China is expected to build 3 000 km of HSR in the next 15 years. IEA estimates that HSR travel will save 0.5 Gt of CO 2 per year by 2050. 15.5 AVIATION Commercial travel has been growing at the rate of about 5% per year in terms of passenger-kilometers. There has been a steep drop in air travel after September 11, 2001 attack in US, but it picked up later. In 2006, global average growth rate has been 5% in passenger air traffic and 6% in cargo traffic. As air traffic increases, there would be increase in fuel use and CO 2 emissions. IEA estimates that the technical potential for efficiency improvement (in terms of energy – intensity reduction) of aviation will be 0.5% to 1% on an average, i.e. 25% to 50% by 2050. Load factor improvement in energy efficiency may be 0.1–0.3% per annum. The total potential annual rate of change may be 0.7 to 1.2%. Large aircraft burn up to a billion litres of jet fuel over their life times. So reducing fuel use could provide enormous fuel cost savings. So improvements in the aircraft design and operation are cost-effective, definitely in the long-term. Apart from CO 2 , aircraft emissions include nitrogen oxide, methane, and water vapour which are capable of radiative forcing (i.e. climate warming). More work is needed to understand the impact of GHG emissions due to aviation. Improvements in aviation fuel efficiency can be brought about through increasing engine efficiencies, lowering weight, and lift-to-drag ratio (Karagozian et al, 2006). 196 Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy Potential for improved aerodynamics The higher the lift-to-drag ratio, the less the fuel consumption. The lift-to-drag ratio can be increased in the following ways: (i) Wing modifications- retrofitting the aircraft with winglets has improved the lift-to-drag ratio by 4% to 7%, (ii) Hybrid laminar flow control: when hybrid laminar control processes are applied to fin, tail-plane and nacelles as well as to the wings, fuel consumption has been found to be reduced by 15%. Improvement of 2 to 5% efficiency are more typical, (iii) Flying wing/blended wind-body configuration: In this design, the entire aeroplane generates lift, and the body is streamlined to minimize drag, leading to a high lift-to-drag ratio, and 20% to 25% less fuel consumption. The commercialization of flying wing aircraft may be possible by 2025. Structure/materials-related technology potential Fuel efficiency can be improved and GHG emissions reduced by making the aircraft lighter through the use of new materials and composites. (i) Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic: Carbon fibre – reinforced plastic (CRPF) has many merits: it is stronger and more rigid than metals such as aluminium, tita- nium and steel. Its density is half of that aluminium, and one-fifth that of steel. It is corrosion-resistant, and fatigue-resistant. If aluminium is fully replaced by CRPF, the weight of the aircraft will be reduced by. 10–15%. Boeing 787 uses CRPF for 50% of the body (on a weight basis) and one-third of the fuel efficiency gain of 20% in this kind of aircraft is attributed to this substitution. As CRPF technology matures, it will be used for wings, wing boxes and fuselages. (ii) Fibre-metal-laminate (FML): FML is made up of a central layer of fibre sand- wiched between thick layers of aluminium. It is stronger than CRPF. About 3% of the fuselage skin of Airbus A 380 is made up of FML. It is also finding increasing use in the construction of aircraft wings. (iii) Reduction in the weight of engines: New composites not only reduce the weight of the engines, but they also allow higher operating temperatures and greater combustion efficiency, which have the consequence of reduced fuel consumption. Baseline scenario envisages 25% technical efficiency improvement. BLUE Map scenario projects 35% technical efficiency improvement by 2050. Operational system improvement potential Fuel consumption can be reduced in the following ways: (i) Continuous Descent Approach (CDA): Computerised CDA systems ensures smoother descent that reduces changes in the engine thrust, and thereby saves fuel and reduces noise. (ii) Improvements in CNS/ATM system: Improvement in communications, naviga- tion and surveillance (CNS) and air traffic management (ATM) systems would enable the optimization of flight paths, with resulting fuel economy. The Inter- national Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) projects fuel savings of about 5% by 2015 in USA and Europe by this approach (ICAO, 2004). Transport 197 (iii) Multi-stage long distance travel: Today’s technology is standard for a range of 4000 km. Fuel efficiencies may be improved by developing fleets with ranges of 5000 to 7500 km. This may not be acceptable to all travelers, however. Alternate Aviation Fuels Aviation fuel needs to satisfy a number of stringent requirements: it should have large energy content per unit mass and volume; it should be thermally stable (in order to avoid freezing at low temperatures; and it should have the prescribed viscosity, surface tension, and ignition properties. Synthetic jet fuels, derived from coal, natural gas or biomass, have characteristics similar to conventional jet fuel, and could serve as alter- nate aviation fuels. Also, their use reduces GHG emissions. Liquid hydrogen is another possibility, as it delivers a large amount of energy per unit mass. Its use as fuel require major modifications in aircraft design (Daggett et al, 2006). Other alternatives, such as methane, methanol and ethanol, do not make the grade because of their low energy density. Thus, high-quality, high energy-density aviation biofuels hold great potential as low-GHG aviation fuels in future. Their sustainability is dependent upon produc- tion from non-food sources. In the BLUE map scenario, second-generation biofuel, such as biomass-to-liquid (BTL) fuel, will be providing 30% of the aircraft fuel by 2050. In the BLUE scenario, air travel growth can be tripled rather than quadrupled by 2050, through alternatives such as high-speed rail systems, and substituting telecon- ferencing for long-distance trips. Governments and businesses are urged to promote these developments through appropriate policy actions. 15.6 MARITIME TRANSPORT International water-borne shipping has grown very rapidly in the recent years due to the high economic growth of countries like China and India. It now represents about 90% of all shipping use, the rest 10% being used through in-country river and coastal shipping. The average DWT of the ships is increasing, and so are tonne-kilometres of goods moved. The structure of the shipping industry continues to be heavily fragmented, in terms of ownership, operation and registration. This has constrained optimizing the ship efficiency. It is not uncommon for a ship to be owned by the Greeks, registered in Panama and operated by Philippinos. There will be endless legal problems when the ship runs into trouble (e.g. oil leak). The world shipping fleet made use of 200 Mtoe of fuel in 2005, which is about 10% of the total transport fuel consumption. During the last decade, the shipping fuel consumption and CO 2 emissions have been growing at the rate of 3% per annum. International shipping involves three types of freight movement: dry bulk cargo, container traffic, crude oil and other hydrocarbons such as liquefied petroleum gas. Among these, the container traffic has been growing at the fastest rate of about 9% (Kieran, 2003). It is projected that the container shipping will increase eight-fold by 2050. 198 Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy Efficiency technologies There are a number of ways to improve energy efficiency and reduce GHG emissions of maritime transport. The fuel consumption of ocean-going ships can be reduced by 30% through the optimization of the propulsion plant configuration, such as, operating one engine instead of two per shaft at moderate speeds, reducing auxiliary electricity demand through greater use of thermostats to regulate ship-board temperatures, and use of secondary propulsion systems, such towing sail. Towing sails can be retrofitted to existing ships. It has been claimed that the computerized operation of the towing sails, can bring down average fuel costs by 10% to 35% (SkySails, 2006). Changes in hull design by tailoring the stern flaps and wedges to reduce energy consumption, and increasing ship speed, can reduce the fuel consumption and related CO 2 emissions by 4% to 8%. Using advanced light-weight materials in ship design can reduce the hull weight by 25 to 30%, resulting in significant reduction in fuel consumption. It has been found that if the ship speed is reduced from 25 knots to 20 knots, there will be fuel savings of 40 to 50%. So slowing down is a cost-effective approach to reduce CO 2 emissions. Even if a 10% reduction in speed may require 10% more ships, that would still be worth it. Use of high-efficiency, inter-cooled, recuperative (ICR) gas turbine engines can reduce fuel consumption by 25% to 30%. Alternative Fuels Ships presently use heavy fuel oils (HFO). Significant reductions can be achieved if the ships shift to new carbon-free fuels. Some of the large ship engines with output exceeding 50 MW have dual-fuel configuration involving natural gas (NG) and HFO and have thermal efficiencies of over 50%. It is feasible to introduce other liquid and gaseous fuels (H 2 ) in such a set-up. Carbon-free “Green’’ crude produced from algae has the potential to be used as a fuel in ships. It may presently be more expensive than heavy fuel oil. Some kinds of bio-crude are not as stable as petroleum fuel. Catalytic cracking or hydro-treating of bio-crude could upgrade it to the acceptable level, but that will add costs to the bio-crude. Despite these constraints, bio-crude or its derivative products have good potential as low-carbon fuels usable in ships. Liquid hydrogen (LH 2 ) has high gravimetric energy density, as it is 2.8 times lighter than HFO. It increases useful payload, and hence brings higher economic returns. Most importantly, it is extremely clean. Much R&D effort is needed to develop LH 2 based fuel-cell systems for ship propulsion (Velduis et al, 2007). In BLUE map scenario, biofuels share is expected to go up by 30% of overall fuel use by 2050. International agreements are needed to bring about improvement in international shipping efficiency and CO 2 reduction. CO 2 cap-and-trade system may be made appli- cable to shipping. A standard ship efficiency index to which all new registration of ships have to adhere (and old ships need to be retrofitted), may be designed and be brought into existence through institutions such as UN International Maritime Organization (IMO). Transport 199 15.7 RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT BREAKTHROUGHS REQUIRED FOR TECHNOLOGIES IN TRANSPORT Table 15.4 Technology breakthroughs in transport sector Technologies RD&D Breakthroughs Stage Vehicles Hydrogen fuel Material investigation for solid storage; Cost Basic science/Applied cell vehicles reduction and improvements in durability and R&D/Demonstration reliability of hydrogen on-board gaseous and liquid storage; cost reduction for fuel-cell system; durability improvement of fuel cell stack and balance of system components (system controller, electronics, motor, and various synergistic fuel economy improvements, etc.) Plug-in Hybrid/ Energy storage capacity and longer life for Basic science/Applied Electric vehicles deep discharge (further development of Li-ion R&D/Demonstration batteries, e.g. Li-polymer, Li-sulphur, etc.) ultracapacitors and fly-wheels; systems that combine storage technologies, (such as batteries with ultracapacitors); and optimization of materials characteristics and components for batteries Fuels Advanced biodiesel Feedstock handling; gasification/treatment; Applied R&D/ (BtL with FT process) co-firing of biomass and fossil fuels; syngas Demonstration production/treatment; better understanding of cost trade-offs between plant scale and feedstock transport logistics Ethanol (cellulosic) Feedstock research; enzyme research (cost Applied R&D/ and efficiency); system efficiency; better data Demonstration on feedstock availability and cost per region; land use change analysis; and co-products and biorefinery opportunities Hydrogen Development of hydrogen production; Applied R&D distribution and storage systems (Source: ETP, 2008, p. 590) Chapter 16 Electricity systems U. Aswathanarayana 16.1 OVERVIEW About one-seventh of the electricity produced worldwide is lost. Out of this, Trans- mission and Distribution (T&D) losses account for 8.8%. In developing countries, considerable amount of electricity is lost through pilferage, often with the con- nivance of the local employees of electricity corporations. The total Transmission and Distribution losses are the highest in India (31.9%), and the lowest in Japan (8.7%). Transmission and Distribution losses as a percentage of gross electricity production in various countries are given in Table 16.1 (source: ETP, 2008, p. 402). Unlike other energy carriers, such as coal or oil, it is not possible to store electricity in large quantities (except in the form of other types of energy, such as pumped storage or compressed air). Electricity demand varies according to the time of the day (lower demand in the night) and climate and season (air conditioning demand during the summer, and heating demand in the cold countries during winter). Consequently, peak national grid demand may be two to three times more than the minimum demand. In an electricity grid, it is imperative that electricity production should keep pace with consumption. If this condition is not ensured, there would be instability in the grid with severe voltage fluctuations. In order to cope with this variability in electricity demand, grids make use of three types of power generating stations: (i) Base-load plants, that can provide consistent supply of electricity over long periods, such as coal-fired thermal power stations and nuclear power stations. Though both capital and operating costs of coal-fired stations are low, moves 202 Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy Table 16.1 Transmission and distribution losses Direct use T&D Pumped Country in plant (%) losses (%) storage (%) Total (%) India 6.9 25.0 0.0 31.9 Mexico 5.0 16.2 0.0 21.2 Brazil 3.4 16.6 0.0 20.0 Russia 6.9 11.8 −0.6 18.1 China 8.0 6.7 0.0 14.7 EU-27 5.3 6.7 0.4 12.5 USA 4.8 6.2 0.2 11.2 Canada 3.2 7.3 0.0 10.5 Japan 3.7 4.6 0.3 8.7 World 5.3 8.8 0.2 14.3 are afoot to phase them out because of their environmental and climate change impacts. The capital costs of nuclear power are high, but the operating costs are low. As they have no carbon footprint, they are being favoured, even though the problems of disposal of nuclear waste, safety and proliferation continue to be troublesome issues. (ii) Shoulder-load plants, that can provide electricity during periods of extended high demand, such as, a natural gas combined cycle plant (NGCC) plant or gas turbine which has lower capital and operating costs. Such plants can also serve as base-load plants. (iii) Peak-load plants, which can provide highly flexible power supply of short duration, in order to meet the fluctuations in demand, such as, pumped (hydroelectric) storage. Variable renewables like wind and solar PV need to have back-up systems based on storable fuels, like coal or biomass. The load duration curves have significant impact on CO 2 mitigation costs. In Europe and USA, the peak demand is double that of minimum demand. Irrespective of whether a power station is used as a base-load plant or peak-load plant, they will require the same capital investment. The base-load plant is likely to be coal-fired, whereas the peaking plant is likely to be gas-fired. CCS (CO 2 capture and storage) of an NGCC plant costs twice as much as coal-fired plant. At USD 50/t CO 2 , the costs of mitigating CO 2 may turn out to be much higher for shoulder-load and peak-load plants than for base-load plants. 16.2 TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES Power generating units supply electricity to the consumers through a network of trans- mission and distribution (T&D) grids. Through an intelligent use of the grid system, France is able to cater to a total supply capacity with one-quarter of the total demand potential. This is possible because not all consumers will draw the maximum potential demand at the same time. [...]... 600 70 0 110–130 200–240 300–350 350–400 350–400 340–420 n.a 0. 27 0.21 8.20 5. 97 1 .77 0.46 0.00 3.00 200 0 .77 0. 47 12.52 6. 57 2.16 2.00 1 .79 5.68 4.28 70 –100 250–300 260–310 n.a 90–110 170 –200 n.a 70 0–900 70 0–900 90–120 250–300 76 00–9220 n.a 100–120 4000–4600 3500–4500 1400– 170 0 1400– 170 0 1.00 27. 14 1.40 41. 57 n.a 4480–5 370 n.a 13200–15810 BIGCC – Biomass Integrated Gasification with Combined Cycle IGCC... III and Generation III+ technologies could deliver the needed outcomes for ACT and BLUE scenarios Generation IV technologies are, however, needed to reduce costs and minimize nuclear waste and enhance reactor safety Table 17. 4 is designed to provide the policy makers with information about the technologies available for reducing CO2 emissions at least cost 220 Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy. .. H2 and fuel transformation Industrial motor systems Total RD&D (USD bn) BLUE Map ACT Map BLUE Map 8.96 2.89 2.00 1.30 0.22 0. 67 0.56 0.66 0.66 6.98 6.50 15.13 4.85 2.80 2.14 1.45 1.32 1.19 0.69 0.69 8.24 7. 00 3200– 376 0 70 0–800 600 75 0 600 70 0 100–120 200–240 300–350 350–400 350–400 320–440 n.a 3860–4 470 1300–1500 650 75 0 600 70 0 110–130 200–240 300–350 350–400 350–400 340–420 n.a 0. 27 0.21 8.20 5. 97. .. et al (2008) Land Clearing and Biofuel Carbon Debt Science, v 319, no 58 67, p 1235–1238 Florides, G.A et al (2002) Measures used to Lower Building Energy Consumption and Their Cost Effectiveness Applied Energy, v .73 , no.3, p 299–328 Hector, E., and T Berntsson (20 07) Reduction of greenhouse gases in Integrated Pulp and Paper Mills: Possibilities for CO2 capture Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden... Use and Reduce Emissions ICAO Circular 303-AN/ 176 , ICAO, February Montreal, Quebec IEA (2008) Energy Technology Perspectives Paris: OECD-IEA, IEA (2009) Transport, Energy and CO2 :Moving towards sustainability Paris: OECD-IEA Jakob, M., and R Madlener (2004) Riding Down the Experience Curve for Energy Efficient Building Envelopes: the Swiss case for 1 970 –2020 International J Energy Technology and Policy, ... evaluation and scenario simulation for sustainable technologies; field studies of reservoir performance Hydro-small scale – Address technological, organizational and regulatory issues Ocean: tidal and wave: Wave and tidal energy converters; develop international standards for wave and tidal energy technology; deployment and commercialization of ocean waves and marine current systems Onshore and offshore... saves energy, reduces the costs to the consumer, and improves reliability and transparency Fig 16.3 depicts the general layout of the electricity systems and Fig 16.4 shows the arrangement of grid Future electricity systems are likely to have large component of intermittent power sources such as wind power and solar PV Under these circumstances, smart grid would 208 Green Energy Technology, Economics and. .. wastes and nuclear proliferation coupled with cost overruns and production relays, led to reduction in RD&D in nuclear power 224 Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy As RD&D is proprietary in the private sector, the actual amounts involved are rarely declared Some large firms, like Siemens, General Electric and Toshiba, do undertake a vast, multidisciplinary RD&D effort which includes energy. .. Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electrical Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (EVS-22), Yokohoma, Japan Oct 23–29, 2006 Conference Paper NREL/ CP-540-40485 www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/vsa/pdfs/40485.pdf SkySails (2006) SkySails – Turn Wind into Profit Technology Information, Hamburg, Germany http://skysails.info/index.php?id=6&L=1 214 Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy Srinivas, S (2006) Green Buildings... gasification research on refractory and metallic materials; gas clean-up and black liquor delivery systems; fluid dynamics study of black liquor gasifiers Separation technologies, including drying and membrane systems: Advanced separation systems and retrofits; new drying and membrane technologies 17. 4.5 Buildings and Appliances Heating and cooling: Energy saving potential and environmental benefits of heat . stations and nuclear power stations. Though both capital and operating costs of coal-fired stations are low, moves 202 Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy Table 16.1 Transmission and distribution. increase eight-fold by 2050. 198 Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy Efficiency technologies There are a number of ways to improve energy efficiency and reduce GHG emissions of maritime. 8.0 6 .7 0.0 14 .7 EU- 27 5.3 6 .7 0.4 12.5 USA 4.8 6.2 0.2 11.2 Canada 3.2 7. 3 0.0 10.5 Japan 3 .7 4.6 0.3 8 .7 World 5.3 8.8 0.2 14.3 are afoot to phase them out because of their environmental and