Biometric Authentication in Broadband Networks for Location-Based Services R eferences ANSI: American National Standards Institute Retrieved from http://www.ansi.org Gens Software Ltd (n.d.) Retrieved from http:// www.gensoft.com ISO: International Organization for Standardization Retrieved from http://www.iso.ch Personal Information Protection Act, S.A 2003, c P-6.5 (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.psp gov.ab.ca/index.cfm?page=legislation/act/index html Reisman, J G., & Thomopoulos, S C A (1998) Data fusion architecture for automated fingerprint identification for very large databases In Proceedings SPIE (Vol SPIE-3374) SAFLINK Corporation (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.saflink.com Stapleton, J (2003, June 23-26) KPMG, State of Biometric Standards Presentation at the BiometricTech Conference, New York The BioAPI™ Consortium (2005) Retrieved from http://www.bioapi.org The BioAPI™ Consortium: BioAPI™ Specification version 1.1 (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www bioapi.org Thomopoulos, S C A., & Reisman, J G (1993) Fusion-based, high volume Automatic Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) In Proceedings of SPIE 93, Innsbruck, Austria (Vol SPIE-2093) Thomopoulos, S C A., Reisman, J G., & Papelis, Y E (1996) Ver-i-Fus: An integrated access control and information monitoring and management system In Proceedings of SPIE (Vol SPIE-2934, pp 1991-200) E nd N ote The project “Bioathletics” has been funded by the General Secretariat of Research & Technology (GSRT) of the Greek Ministry of Development under the Contract AΘ 17+32 / 2-10-2003 This work was previously published in Secure E-Government Web Services, edited by A Mitrakas, P Hengeveld, D Polemi, and J Gamper, pp 84-96, copyright 2007 by IGI Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global) 432 433 Chapter XLVIII Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services George Kakaletris University of Athens, Greece Dimitris Varoutas University of Athens, Greece Dimitris Katsianis University of Athens, Greece Thomas Sphicopoulos University of Athens, Greece Abstr act The globally observed recession of mobile services market has pushed mobile network operators into looking for opportunities to provide value added services on top of their high cost infrastructures Recent advances in mobile positioning technologies enable services that make use of the mobile user location information, offering intuitive, attractive applications to the potential customer Mobile tourism services are among the primary options to be considered by service providers for this new market This chapter presents the key concepts, capabilities, and considerations of infrastructures and applications targeted to the mobile tourist, covering data and content delivery, positioning, systems’ interactions, platforms, protocols, security, and privacy as well as business modelling aspects Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services Introduct ion During the last decade of the 20th century, wireless data networks have invaded everyday life and have gradually started taking over areas traditionally considered as being only suited to wired applications Due to their versatility, wireless telecommunications systems have become a widespread standard, leading to hardware price drops and radical quality increases Today there exist a bunch of technologies that allow the delivery of information to mobile or wireless devices and their users, all presenting different characteristics in performance/ quality, autonomy and cost These technological advances accompanied by the reach of the saturation level (Ellinger, Barras, & Jackel, 2002; Gruber, 2005; Gruber & Verboven, 2001) in the mobile telephony market pushed hardware vendors and network and service providers into looking for new business opportunities The needs of tourism-related information provision and services were amongst the first to be considered for new applications in the field of communication devices In traditional fixed systems, the location of a terminal and its user was a part of its identity and remained constant for a long period during its lifetime In this new mobility era, this observation no longer holds: the physical position of the user might be highly variable, introducing a whole new range of issues and opportunities to be taken into account The use of intelligent systems that exploit the positional information of the client, accompanied by the ability to provide feedback over a wireless medium, can lead to the provision of innovative highly intuitive services that were not available in the near past (Grajski & Kirk, 2003; Kakaletris, Varoutas, Katsianis, Sphicopoulos, & Kouvas, 2004; Rao & Minakakis, 2003; Staab & Werthner, 2002; Yilin, 2000) But, although mobile telephony networks offer maximum mobility, they are not the only means for providing location-based services (LBS) for tourism Local fixed wireless networks in their 434 various forms are another of the modern and popular technologies facilitating relevant services In addition to telecommunication systems and from a technological perspective, there are a wide range of other systems such as global positioning system (GPS) (Dana, 1994; ETSI, 2006; GARMIN, n.d.), or ID tags (Bohn & Mattern, 2004; Tarumi, Morishita, & Kambayashi, 2000) which might have a significant role in the development and deployment of e-tourism applications based on location information This chapter presents the technological concepts associated with the provision of location-aware tourism-related services under a service-oriented approach capable of supporting open value chains and to lead financially viable open and powerful communication systems The rest of the chapter is organised as follows: The “Background” section presents the technological and business background of location-based services; the “Technology Overview” section gets into details of the technological aspects and issues raised in the domains of positioning and data/content delivery, which are fundamental elements of the examined class of services; the section on “Mobile Tourism Services” captures the specific needs and opportunities in the specific application area and presents issues and considerations with respect to integrating the various parts into an open system capable of delivering such services In the “Conclusion,” technology and market conclusions and trends are presented Finally, due to the large number of acronyms and the frequency of their appearance, a table of acronyms is provided at the end of the chapter in order to ease reading through it (see Appendix) Ba ckground The application of the above-mentioned technologies and concepts in tourism gave birth to the ubiquitous tourism1 concept (OTC, 2003), which refers to the existence and access of tourism related Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services services at any place, any time Although tourism-related services are mostly related to content provision, more applications can be identified In its entirety, content provision for e-tourism covers a large number of thematic areas: culture, urgencies, transportation, events, and so on Thus, content might be both temporally and spatially labelled (LoVEUS, 2002; M-Guide, 2002) In addition, information seeking and avalanche-like content provision might guide the user to areas quite outside her/his initial focus areas The information technology (IT), the Internet and the mobile telecommunications revolutions of the last decades of the 20th century made it possible for enterprises to enable massive access to their applications and data Users are able to access applications and information through a variety of integrated “channels” including the Internet, mobile telephony, and voice interfaces and thus bring forward the concept of multi-channel architectures Consequently, multi-channel content delivery and media-independent publishing have emerged in order to address the demand for personalised content that can adapt to the end-user device capabilities Devices, such as PDAs, cellular phones, smartphones, and television set-top boxes, introduced the need for additional channels for publishing content The approach of maintaining independent content sets per channel proved to be highly inefficient in terms of maintenance, until the wide adoption of eXtensible Markup Language (XML) and related technologies, such as eXtensible Stylesheet Language / XSL Transformation (XSL/XSLT), offered a standard solution to this challenge Technology is not the sole reason behind the emergence of the ubiquitous tourism concept The existing 2/2.5G2 mobile market has reached saturation as analysts have predicted, but its effects have only been acknowledged lately, due to the high expectations of the emerging 3G3 markets The costs of licensing (Andersson, Hulten, & Valiente, 2005; Katsianis, Welling, Ylonen, Varoutas, Sphicopoulos, Elnegaard, et al.,2001; Yan 2004) and deployment of 3G networks led mobile network operators4 (MNOs) into a global recession era and a global pessimism for their adoption which actually reflects user attitudes towards the new standard In order to confront that, business opportunities based on existing mobile and wireless networks have been further investigated (Katsianis et al., 2001; Varoutas, Katsianis, Sphicopoulos, Loizillon, Kalhagen, & Stordahl, et al., 2003) The provision of value added services over 2.5/3G networks not only allows providers and users to make the most out of the existing infrastructures, but also encourages usage and drives expectations for the next generation of mobile networks (Varoutas, Katsianis, Sphicopoulos, Stordahl, & Welling, 2006) To provide such services, the integration of various components and base-services is required, which breaks the current status of most MNOs that have traditionally been formed as almost monolithic self-contained service(s) providers This need for integration of various market stakeholders in complex business models aiming for the provision of high quality services has been indicated not only by mobile market analysts but also by information systems architects The service-oriented approach (Brown, Johnston, & Kelly 2003; Colan, 2004), a whole new IT perspective which is rushing into the industry, underlies the concepts and offers the guidelines that render possible such complex collaboration schemes In the LBS domain, mobile positioning protocol and mobile location protocol (Ericsson; OMA, 2002) already exercise concepts in-line with current service-oriented architectures (SOA) common practices Nevertheless, the design of services, such as location-based ones, will always have to face domain specific challenges concerning technical, economical or even ethical and social factors of the service application (Daoud & Mohan 2002) Nowadays it is possible and desirable to build open systems that can support the delivery of tourism-related location-dependent content to an 435 Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services end-user on top of the technological and business background already described, allowing: • • • • • Seamless interoperability of systems and content provided by several market stakeholders towards providing a large range of high-quality location-based content delivery services, through standards and loosely coupled elements Exploitation of state-of-the-art and future technology in positioning, mobile devices, and network infrastructures Compliance with requirements and standards for personalisation and quality of service (QoS) Low-cost implementation and upgrade roadmap from 2/2.5G to 3G and other current and future mobile and wireless networks Guarantees of privacy As already mentioned, provision of tourismrelated content can be shown that covers a large portion of the information that is usually delivered through location-based services A number of studies already exist that focus on various aspects of technologies, architectures and business models of this area (Devine & Holmquist, 2001; EMILY, 2002; M-Guide, 2002) This chapter presents the design aspects of such services in a generic way, capturing the needs of many location-dependent services since it assumes a highly heterogeneous network infrastructure leveraged by the Internet protocol (IP) layer In this way, dealing with the details of mobile or other wireless network infrastructures is avoided yet interoperability and integration issues are been identified and investigated T echno logy O ver v iew In the following sections the technologies involved in the provision of mobile tourism services are introduced Connectivity, which essentially allows 436 delivering data to a device, and positioning, which is the ability to locate a device and consequently its user in space, are the fundamental enabling technologies for the provision of location-based services Assuming these, tourism related information could be delivered to devices capable of presenting it (e.g., mobile phones), with a multitude of options (quality, depth, size, etc.), derived from exactly the same content that would drive traditional applications (Web sites, printed elements, etc.) The driving force behind these is modern software platforms and system architectures that facilitate the creation of the various nodes of a complex structure of collaborating service elements W ireless and Mobile D ata S ervices Since the last decade of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, the mobile user has come to enjoy the provision of many technologies and services that were hard to even imagine several years before (Lin & Chlamtac, 2001) Besides voice, some of the most common ones are: • • • Information services (News, Directories, Weather, Athletics, Financial, etc.) Entertainment (Chat & Flirt Services, Guess who, Alerts, Horoscope, ringtones, etc.) Communication tools (SMS, MMS, e-mail, instant messaging, etc.) Apart from these common services, a series of other, more complex ones are being offered to the user like navigation, local news, SMS vote, microbilling, and so forth Enabling these services is achieved through various means the most important of which being the Web, SMS, and MMS These higher-level information exchange media are based on lower level communication channels offered by an infrastructure provider The most important ones are briefly described below: Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services • • • Global system for mobile telecommunications (GSM) refers to 2nd generation mobile telephony networks (Mouly & Pautet, 1995), which although digital, was designed with voice communications in mind, thus giving data rates of 9.6kbis/s, which is rather slow for multimedia applications Additionally data transfer is not packet switched thus not optimised for computer type communications requiring circuits to be allocated even if no data are exchanged Since its initial appearance, several enhancements where proposed as side-by-side technologies that enable higher performance data transfers (Korhonen, Aalto, Gurtov, & Lamanen, 2001) General packet radio services (GPRS) is a wireless communication protocol based on the same modulation as GSM, designed to be provided as a complementary medium to facilitate data transfers over GSM networks It is packet-based and delivers data rates of approximately 40kbps5 (Korhonen et al., 2001; Pahlavan & Krishnamurthy, 2002; Patil, 2003; Tisal 2001) It supports continuous connection to the Internet for mobile equipment users Since GPRS radio resources are utilised only when devices have data to exchange, its end-user cost is lower in both terms of money and power consumption Packet switching allows more users to be simultaneously connected to the Internet, yet performance drops on high load and no strict guarantees can be given Enhanced data rates for global evolution (EDGE) facilitates high-speed mobile data transfer over which can reach a peak rate of 384kbps and is aimed to mobile network operators that might not be able to obtain UMTS (further information is provided below) spectrum but would not like to be left out the modern high speed data services (Halonen, Romero, & Melero, 2003; Rysavi 2005) Even higher speeds may be available • • • in good radio conditions EDGE provides the same benefits of GPRS (e.g., packet switching, always connected) however by using a different modulation schematic achieves much higher speeds High speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) overcomes the limitation of GSM circuit switched data, which supports the allocation of one user per channel per time slot and allows multiple channels to be virtually merged thus offering higher data rates (Halonen et al., 2003; Korhonen et al., 2001) However the allocation of multiple channels raises the connection cost of the end-user, rendering the service rather inappropriate when compared to other modern techniques Universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS) utilises WCDMA (wideband CDMA) over a 5MHz bandwidth thus allows speeds the increase of mobile network speed in order to allow high-speed transfers UMTS is one of the five types of 3G radio interfaces specified in the ITU6’s IMT-2000 recommendation It allows various classes of service, ranging from more than 100kbps for a fast moving user up to a 2Mbps for a fixed client “lab” speed (3GPP, 2002; Lin & Chlamtac, 2001; UMTS, n.d.) High-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) is deployed as an upgrade to UMTS networks and captures the observation that most end-user high-bandwidth demanding applications require one-way high-speed communications, downstream (i.e., towards the end-user) On-demand video, TV and data downloading are some applications that expose such a transfer pattern thus can benefit quite significantly from the speed offered by HSDPA which is up to 3.5 times faster compared to the maximum rate of 14Mbps of today’s 3G UMTS (Holma & Toskala, 2004; Kaaranen, 2005; Rysavy, 2005) 437 Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services • • Wireless fidelity (WiFi) is a term that in general refers to the 802.11 family of wireless network protocols (Muller, 2003; Smith, 2003) A variety of protocols (e.g., 802.11b, 802.11g) that operate in 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands, being the most popular ones, belong to this family, offering nominal speeds of up to 108MBps (802.11.Super-g) WiFi networks are fixed, local-area, wireless networks thus not offer the mobility capabilities provided by mobile networks Additionally, although they can operate without an infrastructure (e.g., on a computer-to-computer way), yet another (usually fixed) connection to the Internet is required in order to obtain worldwide access Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) is a short-range, relatively low performance communications protocol It is designed so that it allows low power consumption and it is very simple to implement so that it can be easily adopted by “dummy” devices such as headphones, computer mice, keyboards,and so forth (Bluetooth.org, 2001; Miller & Bisdikian, 2002; Morrow, 2002; Muller, 2001; Xiao & Pan, 2005) Location-B ased S ervices Location-based services are an entire class of mobile services that utilise positional (mostly geospatial) information of the mobile user in order to provide intuitive, easy access to content and tools The term covers a quite large group of services since it can range from global scale services to highly spatially constrained ones (within a room or a building, such as a museum or a conference center) One of the main aspects of location-based services is positioning, that is, the estimation of the user position, a topic to be covered in detailed sub-sequent sections Depending on the service class, the mobile equipment and the infrastructure, different approaches and accuracy levels can be applied (Dao, Rizos, & Wang, 2002; Northstream, 2001) In this chapter, the focus is on global scale services, but the elements and concepts presented are not restricted to this particular class of services (Kakaletris et al., 2004) Most location-based services can be categorised into four main business applications: • Tracking services (with two sub categories): emergency services and fleet management services In the case of emergency services (such as the E-911), the network Table Typical wireless and mobile data networks Technology End-user relative cost Scope Compatibility GSM 9.6Kbps High Global Very high GPRS 40Kbps Medium Global High HSCSD 64Kbps Very High Global Low EDGE 115Kbps Medium Global Low UMTS 220Kbps Medium Global Medium (in deployment) HSDPA 750kbps Medium Global Low WiFi 11Mbps8 Low Local/indoors High Bluetooth 438 Typical Performance7 500Kbps Low Indoors High Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services • • has the ability to locate persons who are in danger or missing (with special interests for kids) and give them the necessary protection (Reed, Krizman, Woerner, & Rappaport, 1998) Emergency services are first priority for USA (FCC, 2001) and US companies focus on these class services Road assistance and tracking of stolen equipment (cars, boats, etc.) are other similar services (Fritsch & Scherner, 2005) Fleet management services cover scenarios such as radio-taxi coordination, transportations, delivery, and so on, and in the general case, require high accuracy (Feng, Zhu, Mukai, & Watanabe, 2005; Iwasaki, Kawaguchi, & Inagaki, 2005) Information services: In this category of services content relative to the location of the user is provided to him/her However in global scale services the focus is not on the accuracy of user’s position acquisition but rather on the content and the way it is presented (Taylor & Ryan, 1995) Local news, cultural information, events highlighting, or even advertising are some of the applications of this category Such services may be provided near sightseeing or within museums (Zimmermann, Lorenz, & Specht, 2003) In high granularity services (e.g., within museums) positioning has to be accurate and in many cases highly sophisticated since it might even need 3-dimensional location of the user and directional clues (Pateli, Giaglis, & Spinellis, 2005) Fun and entertainment: Player positionaware games are a new opportunity for service providers and the first flavors are already out Despite the criticism, chat and flirt is another very popular type of service In this area, location-aware systems will have the opportunity to refine partner matches within a certain distance (Gratsias, Frentzos, Delis, & Theodoridis, 2005; Karagiozidis, • Markoulidakis, Velentzas, & Kauranne, 2003; Lee, Prabhu, & Park, 2002) Billing: Billing also can adopt locationaware schemes Creating attractive options such as allowing users to exercise cheaper communications when in certain hot spots (such as home, etc.) is a possible scenario of location-based billing (Gratsias et al., 2005; Koutsopoulou, Panagiotakis, & Alonistioti, 2005) Positioning Location-based tourist information requires positioning of the mobile user with a variable accuracy (Kakaletris et al., 2004; Yilin, 2000) Yet this does not imply that automated acquisition of positional information is always required or desired in order to consume such a service, as when checking available information by forehand, not being physically present in some area It is obvious that locating the user requires that one is equipped with a module that has some kind of connection to a fixed infrastructure However the elements of this composition might vary: • • • Equipment can be a PDA, a 2G or 3G mobile phone, a personal computer, an ID tag, an IR Scanner, a GPS receiver, and so on Connection to the infrastructure can be unidirectional or bidirectional utilizing systems such as WiFi, GSM, GPRS, UMTS, satellite antenna/receiver, IR receiver/transmitter, and so on Infrastructure can be mobile or fixed network such as a satellite system, a mobile telephony/data network (GSM, GPRS, UMTS, etc.), a set of WiFi or Bluetooth access points, installed RF tags, fixed IR scanners, and so on Positioning can be categorised under two main classes: 439 Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services • • Active: The client is the only one responsible for the computational load of the position estimation Passive: The client (user/mobile equipment) is being located without adding any logic to positioning by itself Infrastructure obtains simple to extract information from client and calculates the position Hybrid methods also are very popular, allowing for high accuracy and availability systems Exploitation of the positional information also can vary quite significantly: • • In self-contained systems, such as GPS enabled PDAs, the content might be already present on the mobile equipment and a local piece of software acts on them, thus no further connection to the outside world is required The range of location-based services to be supported in this case is limited, navigation being the most popular one In always-connected systems a medium for exchanging information with the infrastructure and usually the world (the Internet) is required This can be done in order to acquire the position, or exchange information that will allow position estimation, or access the core service/content The rest of this section presents the details of some of the most important positioning methods, their requirements, and their characteristics There are a number of ways for obtaining user’s position and the following sections describe some of the current applied automated methods: The GPS GPS positioning (ETSI, 2006; GARMIN, n.d.) is based on a network of 24 earth orbiting satellites It was originally designed and implemented to cover the needs of the US military forces, however since the 1980’s it has been used for wide spectrum of applications ranging from civil engineering to recreational systems Communication is oneway; consequently clients only receive signals, thus guaranteeing privacy A GPS client/device receives signals from several satellites with at least three satellites needed for 2-dimensional coordinate estimation (latitude, longitude) while four are required for three-dimensional position- Figure GPS operation GPS Satellite Network (Optional precision message) Surface Transmitter (Optional) 440 GPS Receiver GPS Enabled Mobile Equipment Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services ing (latitude, longitude, and altitude) Signals are time-tagged, enabling the client to calculate distance from each satellite using the send/receive time difference Accurate position estimation requires combining the aforementioned distances for multiple satellites Bookkeeping of coordinates is a way to calculate the speed and direction of moving GPS devices, a facility provided by almost all modern receivers In such systems end-user devices are quite small and due to low power consumption tend to be highly autonomous Civilian GPS satellite signal is low power (i.e., less than 50 watts in 1575.42 MHz) It penetrates glass and plastic, but cannot go through metal, ground or concrete, effectively preventing indoors GPS usage Dense urban use also can be problematic in some cases Additionally, the GPS signal is vulnerable to signal travel time errors that lead to false distance estimation Reflection of signal on solid objects as well as other orbital/ stratospheric phenomena can result to wrong time estimations Utilizing more satellites is a way to deal with such problems One of the strongest points of GPS however is accuracy, which can range from to 15 meters for civilian systems This fact, accompanied by the simplicity of the relevant devices and the availability of the service which can be utilised at no cost (apart from equipment) makes it capable of driving major successful commercial applications, such as navigation for tourists As already mentioned, GPS is controlled by the U.S Department of Defence, nevertheless it is expected that the European Galileo system will be competing with it by 2008 (Di Fazio, Mocci, Rossini, D’Angelo, Lorelli, & Jarosh, 2004; El-Rabbany, 2002; Prasad & Ruggieri, 2005) GPS has to be accompanied by a supplementary network in order to drive interactive on line systems where satellite coverage is unavailable Pseudo-GPS systems emulate the existence of satellites for indoors use without requiring any additional equipment, yet they are not widely adopted solutions (Schmid, Neubauer, Ehm, Weigel, Lemke, Heinrichs, 2005) GSM-Positioning GSM positioning (ETSI, 2006; Mao & Douligeris, 2000; Spirito, 2001; Zhao, 2002) is a facility potentially provided by GSM mobile network operators Its operation is based on the fact that there is always some type of raw information on the location of a certain GSM mobile device in order for the network to be able to deliver information to the user Since it can be originated from the network, it is raising serious privacy and security concerns, which can be overlooked for emergency purposes but not without risk of misuse GSM positioning is always available in some form, as long as network coverage is provided However depending on the network infrastructure and method utilised its accuracy might vary quite significantly ranging from 100m to more than 500m (even several kilometers) (Caffery & Stuber, 1998b; Drane, Macnaughtan, & Scott, 1998) Although due to this low level of accuracy GSM positioning is of little use for high accuracy demanding application, it is accompanied by a bidirectional communication channel (voice or data) thus enabling interactive applications Its network-side activation, whenever applicable, makes it ideal for some special emergency and tracking cases • • Cell ID is a location technology that utilises the well-known location of fixed network elements, that is, the base station transceivers (BTS), to identify the mobile equipment location (Figure 2) It can be easily combined with timing advance (TA) in GSM networks and round trip time9 (RTT) information in WCDMA networks in order to improve accuracy TA is a technique that utilises the timing advance information applied by the GSM network to determine the approximate distance a MS is from a base station Enhanced-observed time difference (EOTD) is a more complex method for calculating device position (Caffery & Stuber 441 Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services DHTML Dynamic HTML LMU location measurement unit ECMA European Computer Manufacturers Association ME mobile equipment EDGE enhanced data GSM environment MLP mobile location protocol E-OTD enhanced observed time difference MMS multimedia messaging service GIS geographical information system MNO mobile network operator GMLC gateway mobile location center MPC mobile positioning center GPRS general packer radio service MPEG Motion Picture Expert Group GPS global positioning system MPP mobile positioning protocol GSM global system for mobile communication MSID mobile subscriber ID HSCSD high speed circuit switched data NAT network address translation HSDPA high-speed downlink packet access OMA Open Mobile Alliance HTML Hypertext Markup Language OpenLS OpenGIS location services HTTP hypertext transfer protocol PDA personal data assistant information and telecommunication technology QoS quality of service ICT RDF resource description framework IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers RF radio frequency IP Internet protocol RTT round trip time IR infrared SAP service access point IS information systems SMS short message system IT information technology SOA service oriented architecture ITU International Telecommunication Union SOAP simple object access protocol JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group’ TA timing advance LAN local area network TCP transport control protocol LBS location-based services TDMA time division multiple access LIF location interoperability forum TOA time of arrival 467 Design and Implementation Approaches for Location-Based, Tourism-Related Services UDDI universal description, discovery, and integration UMTS universal mobile telecommunications system URI uniform resource identifiers URL uniform resource locator W3C World Wide Web Consortium WAG wireless application gateway WAN wide area network WAP wireless access protocol WCDMA wideband CDMA WiFi wireless fidelity, any type of 802.11xx network WLAN wireless LAN WML Wireless Markup Language WSRF Web services resource framework XLS XML for location services XML eXtensible Markup Language XSL eXtensible Stylesheet Language XSL-FO XSL formatting objects XSLT XSL transformation This work was previously published in Information and Communication Technologies in Support of the Tourism Industry, edited by W Pease, M Rowe, and M Cooper, pp 114-161, copyright 2007 by IGI Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global) 468 469 About the Contributors Trias Aditya is a lecturer and researcher at the Department of Geodetic & Geomatics Engineering, UGM, Indonesia His research interests include interoperable GIS and Geovisulaization I Budak Arpinar is an assistant professor of Computer Science and member of the Large Scale Distributed Information Systems Lab at the University of Georgia His interests are Semantic Web and Semantic Web Services Yuqi Bai received the PhD degree in cartography and GIS from the Institute of Remote Sensing Application, Chinese Academy of Science, in 2003 He is currently a post-doctoral research associate at CSISS, GMU His research interests focus on geospatial information web publishing and global sharing, and semantic integration Miguel A Bernabe, BSc in land surveying, MA in fine arts, and PhD in education He is a professor at the School for Topographic Engineering (UPM) His research interests in thematic cartography, visualization of geoinformation, perception, spatial data infrastructures, geoportal usability, and user interfaces. Magesh Chandramouli is a graduate researcher at the Schulich school of Engineering, University of Calgary and his research involves GeoVisualization and VR He is pursuing his second master’s degree at the Department of Geomatics Engineering Aijun Chen received the PhD degree in remote sensing and GIS from the Beijing University, Beijing, China, in 2000 He is currently a research assistant professor at Center for Spatial Information Science and Systems (CSISS), George Mason University (GMU) His research interests include geospatial information sharing and interoperability, geospatial grid, geospatial semantics grid and geospatial knowledge intelligent discovery He has published more than 30 papers in journals and proceedings Kevin M Curtin, PhD, is associate professor of Geography at George Mason University He specializes in network geographic information science, transportation geography, operations research, logistics, and optimal facilities location Jose E Córcoles, PhD in computer science by the Castilla-La Mancha University Currently he is associate professor at the Department of Computer Systems of the University of Castilla-La Mancha He is member of the Laboratory of User Interaction and Software Engineering (LoUISE) research group of the Computer Science Research Institute of Albacete He is author of several papers on Software Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited About the Contributors Engineering and Geographical Information Systems and he is member of several Program Committees of different conferences Antonio Corral received his BSc (1993) from the University of Granada, and his PhD (2002) in Computer Science from the University of Almeria (Spain) He is an assistant professor at the Department of Languages and Computation, University of Almeria Arianna D’Ulizia received the degrees in computer science engineering From 2005 she is PhD student in computer science at the “Roma Tre” University jointly with the CNR of Italy Her main interests are HCI, multimodal interaction, visual interfaces, geographical query languages Liping Di received the PhD degree in remote sensing and GIS from University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA in 1991 He is currently the director and full professor of CSISS, GMU He has engaged in geoinformatics and remote sensing research for more than twenty years and mainly focuses on the following two areas: geographic information standards and the development of web-based distributed data, information, and knowledge systems for Earth science He has published over 100 papers in professional journals and refereed conference proceedings Fernando Ferri received his degrees in electronics engineering and PhD in medical informatics at the University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’ He is researcher at the CNR of Italy and is the author of more than 100 international papers His scientific interests are HCI, visual languages, sketch-based and multimodal interfaces, and GIS Pascual González MSc and PhD in computer science by the Polytechnic University of Madrid Currently he is associate professor at the Department of Computer Systems of the University of Castilla-La Mancha He leads the Laboratory of User Interaction and Software Engineering (LoUISE) research group of the Computer Science Research Institute of Albacete He is author of several papers on software engineering and geographical information systems and he is member of several program committees of different conferences Michael Gould is professor of Information Systems at the Universitat Jaume I (Spain) Gould received a PhD in Geographic information systems from State University of New York at Buffalo His research interests include innovations in spatial data infrastructures and virtual globes Carlos Granell is a postdoctoral researcher at Universitat Jaume I (Spain), specializing in web services integrated in spatial data infrastructures He has a PhD in computer science from the Universitat Jaume I Patrizia Grifoni received her degree in electronics engineering at the University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’ She is a researcher of the CNR Her scientific interests are HCI, multimodal interaction, Herve Gontran holds a Msc in surveying engineering from the Ecole Spéciale des Travaux Publics in France, and a PhD in geomatics from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Since 2000, he has gained a significant experience in developing real-time techniques to monitor landslide-prone sites and to automate terrestrial mobile mapping In 2006, he was the recipient of the Best Student Paper and Best Presentation awards during the ION Conference in Fort Worth From then, he has been working as a senior geodatabase administrator in a leading surveying company in Switzerland 470 About the Contributors Henrik Hanke is a web application and database specialist A business economist and electronic commerce expert, he has been working as information systems and information management consultant with different information technology companies such as Hewlett-Packard Farshad Hakimpour is a research associate at the Large Scale Distributed Information Systems Lab at the University of Georgia His research interests are databases with focus on spatial information and semantic technologies Stefan Hansen studied computer science at Universität Bremen where he earned his masters degree For his thesis he did joint research with the Cooperative Research Center for Spatial Information (CRCSI) together with the project partner LISAsoft Pty Ltd He is now fully employed by LISAsoft (Melbourne, Australia) and is developing software solutions for intelligent navigation support Péter Hegedüs is a student in branch of Engineering Management at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics and a product manager assistant in FreeSoft Development and IT Services Corporation Stephen C Hirtle is professor in the School of Information Sciences at the University of Pittsburgh, with joint appointments in psychology and intelligent systems, and is the founding editor of Spatial Cognition and Computation Gábor Hosszú, PhD is a full-time associate professor at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics He published several papers, books and leaded research projects in the field of multicasting and P2P communication Bo Huang is an associate professor at the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) and his research interests are centered upon GIS, spatial database, web-based visualization, and spatial statistics Muhammad Usman Iqbal is enrolled as a PhD student at the School of Surveying and Spatial Information Systems, The University of New South Wales, Australia His area of research is privacy aware automotive telematics Alexander Klippel is assistant professor for GIScience at The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Geography (GeoVISTA Center) He worked as a research associate at The University of Melbourne, UC Santa Barbara, and the Universität Bremen, where he received his PhD in informatics (2003) His research concentrates on the design of interfaces for spatial information Ferenc Kovács, doctor of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, he is currently professor on the Péter Pázmány Catholic University, Faculty of Information Technology He published more than 140 technical papers and seven books His fields are the real-time applications of VLSI circuits and the low-power biomedical instruments Menno-Jan Kraak is professor in Geovisualization, Geo-information Processing Department, International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), The Netherlands 471 About the Contributors Wei-Shinn Ku received his PhD degree in computer science from the University of Southern California (USC) in 2007 He also obtained both the MS degree in computer science and the MS degree in electrical engineering from USC in 2003 and 2006 respectively He is an assistant professor with the Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering at Auburn University His research interests include spatial and temporal data management, mobile data management, geographic information systems, and security and privacy He has published more than 30 research papers in refereed international journals and conference proceedings He is a member of the ACM and the IEEE Alina Lazar received the PhD degree in computer science from Wayne State University Since August 2002 she has been an assistant professor in the Department of Computer Science and Information Systems at Youngstown State University Guangxuan Liao is a professor and director of the State Key Laboratory of Fire Science (SKLFS) at University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) His research interests include industrial fire hazard control, fire dynamic theory, application of GIS and remote sensing in fire hazard control area, and computer-aided emergency responding and decision support system for urban fire accidents For the past fifteen years, Samsung Lim’s research has been focused on the area of GNSS and GIS Samsung’s research interests are in theoretical problems related to RTK-GPS, geo-spatial information technologies, and geographic 3D modelling Md Mahbubur Meenar is a GIS specialist of the Center for Sustainable Communities and adjunct assistant professor of the Community and Regional Planning Department at Temple University Research interests: environmental modeling, 3-D GIS visualization Miguel A Manso is a telecommunication engineer, senior lecturer at the School of Topographic Engineering, Technical University of Madrid (UPM) Research topics include Geodata automatic metadata extraction, geoservices design, spatial data infrastructures, historical digital map libraries. Alf Neumann is a research analyst specialized in information and communication technology He has worked with various institutions, such as the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and the United Nations Development Programme, and different technology enterprises Mihály Orosz, PhD, student is a head of the Online Department at FreeSoft independent software vendor He published several papers, articles and held some conference presentations in the field of multicasting, multimedia communication and network technologies Maikel Garma de la Osa, bachelor’s degree in computer science from University of Havana Honorable Mention at the 38th International Mathematical Olympiad, Mar del Plata, Argentina Principal instructor professor of Computer Graphics and Design and Analysis of Algorithms at the University of Havana Andrés Pazos is research assistant at Universitat Jaume I He received his degree on computer engineering at University Jaume I His research interests include GIS, open systems and interoperability Matthew Perry is a PhD student at the Large Scale Distributed Information Systems Lab at the University of Georgia His research interests focus on bringing Semantic Web technologies to the geographic information science domain 472 About the Contributors José Poveda is associate graduate faculty at University of Texas at Brownsville He received his doctorate on advance geographic information systems at University Jaume I His research interests include emergent topics on GIS and computer graphics Quddus is a lecturer in transport studies at Loughborough University He received his PhD at Imperial College London in 2005 His major research areas are geographic information science (GIScience), econometric modelling, and traffic safety Kai-Florian Richter received a diploma in computer science at Universität Hamburg and a PhD in computer science at Universität Bremen where he is currently postdoctoral researcher He is concerned with automatic wayfinding assistance; his work focuses on characterizing and representing wayfinding situations such that cognitively ergonomic descriptions can be automatically generated, on automatically choosing appropriate levels of granularity, and on questions of how to automatically identify and extract information from the environment that can be used to describe actions in space Yurai Núđez Rodríguez is a PhD student at the School of Computing, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada He got his BS degree in computer science from University of Havana, Cuba, in 2000 He was an instructor at the Department of Computer Science of University of Havana, Cuba, from 2000 to 2004 He also worked in the research and development of geographic information systems tools for the Spanish company CADIC S.A from 2001 to 2004 His current research focuses in computational geometry and its applications Boris Rachev received his MEng (1970) from the Sankt Petersburg University of Electrical Engineering (Russia) and his PhD (1974) in information science from the same University He is a professor at the University of Rousse (Bulgaria) and an associate professor at the Technical University of Varna (Bulgaria) Yissell Arias Sánchez, bachelor’s degree in computer science and master in computer science, Mention: Algorithms, Graphics and GIS from University of Havana Principal instructor professor of Computer Graphics and Data Base Systems at the University of Havana Brad A Shellito (BS in computer science, Youngstown State University, 1994; MA in geography, The Ohio State University 1996; PhD in geography, Michigan State University, 2001) is a professor at Youngstown State University in Youngstown, Ohio Amit Sheth is a professor of Computer Science, director of the Large Scale Distributed Information Systems Lab at the University of Georgia and an IEEE Fellow His interests are Semantic Web and services sciences Iftikhar U Sikder is an assistant professor of Computer and Information Science at Cleveland State University He holds a PhD in computer information systems from the University of Maryland, Baltimore His research interests include spatial data warehousing and data mining, uncertainty management in spatial databases, collaborative spatial decision support systems His papers appeared in the Journal of Risk Analysis, Expert Systems with Applications, Information Resources Management Journal, International Journal of Management & Decision Making, and International Journal of Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences He has authored many book chapters and presented papers in many national and international conferences 473 About the Contributors John Sorrentino is an environmental economist and associate professor in the Economics Department of Temple University He is an associated faculty of the Center for Sustainable Communities His research interests include energy, environment and environmental information systems Marianal Stoeva received her MEng (1978) from the Technical Univ of Varna, master in maths (1980) from the Technical Univ of Sofia and her PhD (2003) in computer science from the Technical University of Varna (Bulgaria) She is an assistant professor at the Technical University of Varna Irena Valova received her MSc degree in computer science from the Technical University of Rousse (Bulgaria) in 1988 She is principal assistant at the University of Rousse, Department of Computer Science She teaches disciplines: software engineering and databases Her research interests include: databases, image databases, database management systems Michael Vassilakopoulos received his BEng (1990) from the Univ of Patras and his PhD (1995) in computer science from the Aristotle Univ of Thessaloniki (Greece) He is an associate professor at the Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki Haojun Wang is a PhD candidate in the computer science department at the University of Southern California (USC) He has an M.S degree in computer science from the Oregon Graduate Institute His research interests include spatial and temporal data management, mobile data management, locationbased services, and peer-to-peer systems Yaxing Wei received the BS degree in computer science from Department of Computer Science, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Hefei, Anhui, China in 2002 He is currently a research assistant at CSISS, GMU His research interests focus on geospatial information sharing and knowledge discovering Wenli Yang is a principal research scientist at the Center of Spatial Information Science and Systems, College of Science, George Mason University. He received his PhD in geography from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. His current research areas include geospatial information standards and Web-based geospatial data and information systems Xiaojun Yang is a faculty member at the Florida State University His research interests are remote sensing, geographic information science, environmental modeling, urban analysis, and coastal studies Sharmin Yesmin is a graduate student of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Temple University Research interests: digital signal processing, wireless communication Genong (Eugne) Yu is a post-doctoral research associate at the Center of Spatial Information Science and Systems, George Mason University He has a PhD in geography from Indiana State University, while he is pursuing his PhD in computer science from George Mason University His research interest is in multi-agent, Semantic Web, and data mining 474 About the Contributors May Yuan (BS, 1987, National Taiwan University; MS, 1992, and PhD, 1994, State University of New York at Buffalo; http://ags.ou.edu/~myuan.html) is Edith Kinney Gaylord Presidential professor and associate dean of Atmospheric and Geographic Sciences and the director of Center for Spatial Analysis at the University of Oklahoma May’s research interest is in temporal GIS, geographic representation, spatiotemporal information modeling, and applications of geographic information technologies to dynamic systems Her research projects center on representation models, algorithms for spatiotemporal analysis, and understanding of dynamics in geographic phenomena, such as wildfires, rainstorms, air-pollution plumes, and behavior and activities in complex social systems She explores multiple perspectives of dynamics, analyzes the drivers and outcomes of geographic dynamics, extracts spatiotemporal patterns and behavioral structures of dynamic systems, and draws insights into the system development and evolution to derive an integrated understanding, interpretation, and prediction of activities, events, and processes in dynamic geographic systems Peng Yue is a PhD student at the State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University Currently he is a visiting research assistant in the Center for Spatial Information Science and Systems, George Mason University His research interests include spatial database, GIS network analysis and Semantic Web Service Baohua Zhao is a professor in the department of Computer Science at University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) He is the vice director in the Research Center of Computer Software His research interests include software engineering, protocol theory and protocol engineering, and wireless sensor Web Peisheng Zhao is a research assistant professor at the Center of Spatial Information Science and Systems, College of Science, George Mason University He received his PhD in cartography and remote sensing from the Chinese Academy of Sciences His current research areas include intelligent geospatial Web service and workflow Roger Zimmermann received his MS and PhD degrees from the University of Southern California (USC) in 1994 and 1998 He is currently an associate professor with the Department of Computer Science at the National University of Singapore (NUS) He is also an investigator with the Interactive and Digital Media Institute at NUS His research interests are in the areas of distributed and peer-to-peer systems, collaborative environments, streaming media architectures, geospatial database integration, and mobile location-based services He has co-authored a book, two patents and more than ninety conference publications, journal articles and book chapters He is a senior member of the IEEE and a member of ACM 475 476 Index Symbols 2.5 G 466 G 466 3D surface, analyzing 78 3D surface models 73–81 3G networks 435 3GPP 466 A A-GPS 466 accessibility 397 access point 454 Access Rights Controller 426 adaptation 371 agentification 198 agent vs Web service 198 alpha index 116 Amsterdam RealTime 393 angular distortion 92 AOA 466 Application Programming Interface (API) 427 application programming interface (API) 172 application service provider (ASP) 459 architectures 424 areal distortion 92 artificial neural networks 122–128 artificial neural networks (ANNs) 30 artificial neural networks, applications 126 ASP 466 asynchronous JavaScript and XML (AJAX) 31 attributes 374 automatic composition of geospatial Web services 205–212 automatic service composition 206 azimuthal projection 91 B BANs 422 beta index 116 binary space partition 67 Bio-API 427 BioAPI 425 biometric ID 422 biometric identification 424 biometric verification 424 Bluetooth 389, 422, 438, 439, 446 blue trapezoidation 68 Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited Index boolean operators 69 BS 466 BTS 466 business -to-business (B2B) 459, 466 -to-consumer (B2C) 459, 466 C cartographic labour process 391 CCITT 466 CDMA 466 chaining geospatial services 190 civilian GPS satellite signal 441 CMS 466 cognitive mapping 370 cognitive mapping, hierarchical structuring 59 cognitive mapping, knowledge acquisition 59 cognitive maps 58–64 Collaborative mapping 388 Collective Initiative Research Trust 394 Colorado 2-1-1 system 375 Colorado Institute of Public Policy (CIPP) 370 common catalogue query language (CCQL) 46 community-based 370 community-based participatory planning 390 community resources 375 conical projection 90 consensus-based location 396 Constraint XML query language (CXQuery) 16 content management system (CMS) 448 provider (CP) 458 content-based image retrieval (CBIR) 21 COO 466 copyright-free geographic data 390 CSS 466 cylindrical projection 90 D democratisation 388 DHTML 467 digital elevation model (DEM) 74 digital line graph (DLG) 117 digital terrain model (DTM) 74 distance distortion 92 distortion indexes 91 DLLs 427 dual incidence matrix encoding (DIME) model 117 E e-services 443 e-tourism 435 ECMA 467 EGNOS 422 enhanced -observed time difference (E-OTD) 441, 467 data rates for global evolution (EDGE) 437, 467 Enhanced 911 391 eta index 116 ETSI 440 European spatial data infrastructure (ESDI) 37 eXtensible Stylesheet Language (XSL) 435 extensible markup language (XML) 31 G Galileo system 441 gamma index 116 GARMIN 440 gateway /SAP session 457 mobile location center (GMLC) 445 GDI accessibility 42–50 general packet radio services (GPRS) 437, 439, 467 /UMTS Phones 446 geocognostics 61 geographical information systems (GIS) 369 geographic information infrastructure 388 geographic information system (GIS) 443, 445, 467 Geographic information systems 389 geographic information systems (GIS) 37 geographic information systems, network models 116 geographic knowledge, schematization 60 Geography Markup Language 393 geography markup language 397 geography markup language (GML) GEON project 184 geoportals 42–50 georeferencing, real-time 54 geospatial and Semantic analytics 161–170 geospatial data infrastructure (GDI) 42 geospatial data integration, multi-agent systems 197 geospatial data mining 200 geospatial data serving 217 geospatial image metadata catalog services 171– 177 477 Index geospatial information, rough sets 154–160 geospatial ontology 180 geospatial Semantic reasoning 183 geospatial Semantic Web 178–188 geospatial Web service chaining 189–195 geospatial Web services, automatic composition 205–212 geovisualization and communication 148 Geowiki 394 GIS 370 GIS analysis 375 GIS analysis technique 372 global positioning system (GPS) 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 446, 453, 467 system for mobile telecommunications (GMT) 437 global satellite imagery 394 Global Spatial Data Infrastructure (GSDI) Association 37 GML-QL 15 GML-specific query language 14 GML as database 1–10 GMLC 467 GML querying 11–19 GPRS 422 GPS 422 GPSdrawing 394 Gquery 17 granular computing in geospatial information 154–160 granular computing in GIS, application 156 graph theory for network modeling 114 grid-enabled Web coverage service (GWCS) 218 grid-enabled Web map service (GWMS) 218 grid computing, application to geoinformatics 213–221 GSM 439, 441, 443, 467 mobile terminals 446 positioning 441, 442 gyroscope 443 H hand drawn cognitive map 373 hereditary segment tree 69 high-speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) 437, 467 downlink packet access (HSDPA) 437, 467 hillshade function 78 HLR 454 HTML 446, 467 478 HTTP 452, 456, 457, 467 I ID tag 443 image database indexing techniques 20–27 image databases (IDBs) 21 indicatrix of Tissot 92 information and communications technologies (ICT) 467 systems (IS) 467 technology (IT) 435, 467 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 467 802.15 (Bluetooth) 438 intelligent system 434 intelligent geospatial Web wervices 185 Internet -based protocols 450 protocol (IP) 442, 456, 467 interpolator selection, criteria 132–135 inverse distance weighted (IDW) 75 inverse distance weighting (IDW) 130 IR 467 scanner 439 ITU 467 J Jefferson County 377 JPEG 467 K kriging 131 L LAN 467 LANs 422 Latino 377 LB Services 431 legitimisation device 388 LegoDB solution LIF 467 linear referencing, networks 117 location -aware tourism-related services 434 -based services (LBS) 434, 435, 438, 467 Interoperability Forum (LIF) 445 measurement unit (LMU) 442, 467 location-aware devices 391 Index location-aware mobile devices 388 location-based services 390 Location-Based Services (LBS’s) 422, 431 London Free Map 394 M map algebra 69 map overlay problem 65–72 mapping methods 371 map projection process 90 map projections for geospatial applications 89–99 MapServer Open Source WebGIS package 394 mean squared error (MSE) 125 mean squared relative error (MSRE) 125 metadata generation 173 metadata ingestion 174 Micro Edition of the Java Platform (J2ME) 450 Microsoft NET Compact Framework 450 military precision 391 minimum curvature 132 MLP 467 MMS 436, 445, 446, 467 mobile equipment (ME) 457, 467 location protocol (MLP) 435, 445 network operator (MNO) 435, 457, 467 positioning 435, 445, 467 tourism services 436, 443 model-view-controller design pattern 448 MPEG 467 MSC 454 MSID 467 multi-agent systems 197 multi-agent systems for geospatial data integration 199 multi-agent systems for geospatial data mining 200 multi-agent systems for geospatial modeling 200 multiple constraint satisfaction (MCS) problem 22 Mumbai Free Map project 394 N naïve geography 61 napsterisation 398 NAT 467 national mapping agencies 388 needs assessments 383 network indices 115 network modeling 113–121 news industry text format (NITF) 447 News Markup Language (NewsML) 447 O OMA 467 Online communities 392 ontology 162 open geospatial consortium 393 Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) 43 OpenGIS location services (OGS) 445 OpenLS 445, 467 open source 392 OWL-based Web service ontology (OWL-S) 207 P PANs 422 parametric polymorphism, spatio-temporal extensions 138 PARC Xerox Map Server 389 participation 397 patents 390 personal digital assistant (PDA) 439, 440, 446, 467 Personal Information Protection Act (PIPA) 423 physical proximity 397 PICA 424 Pi index 116 pilot catalog service systems 172 point location problem 100–105 point location problems in simple cases 101 polyconic projections 91 population growth 377 Privacy 389 Private Information Protection Act (PIPA 424 projection process, distortion 91 provider resource database 383 pseudoconic projections 91 Q Quadtree 67 qualitative mechanisms 395 quality of service (QoS) 436, 451, 467 querying GML 11–19 querying XML 12 query languages query processing quick point location algorithm 102 R R-tree 68 479 Index radial basis functions 132 raster algorithms 69 Raster and TIN, pros and cons 77 raster formats 83 real-time extraction, of road geometry 51–57 real-time georeferencing 54 real-time mapping 52 relational database management system (RDBMS) repeat rate 375 replica location service (RLS) 218 resource description framework (RDF) 467 resource identification 371 resources 369, 370 RF 467 tags 439 road geometry, real-time extraction 51–57 rough set theory 155 round trip time (RTT) 441, 467 S scalable vector graphics (SVG) 84 SDI essential components 38 Semantic analytics 164 Semantic interoperability, enhancing 46 Semantic Web 163, 449 Semantic Web evaluation ontology (SWETO) 162 semi-structured data sensor Web enablement (SWE) 43 service -oriented 435, 449, 450, 454, 467 access point (SAP) 454, 457, 458, 467 service chaining, challenges 191 services 370 SGML 447 short text messages (SMS) 436, 442, 445, 467 /MMS 446, 457 simple object access protocol (SOAP) 467 social networks 389 social positioning method 389, 397 social proximity 389, 397 SPARQL 46 spatial type 139 spatial annotation 389 spatial data, classification problems 107 spatial data fusion 28–35 spatial data fusion, challenges 31 spatial data fusion, technologies 29 spatial data infrastructures (SDIs) 36–41 spatial interpolation 129–136 spatial interpolation methods 130 480 spatial OLAP (SOLAP) technology 30 spatial ordering algorithms 68 spatial partitioning algorithms 67 spatio-temporal databases 137 spatio-temporal object modeling 137–143 spatio-temporal OQL (STOQL) 140 spatio-temporal query language 140 spatiotemporal thematic contexts 166 ST type 140 structured query language (SQL) styled layer descriptor (SLD) 47 support vector machines (SVMs) 106 surveillance 389 SVM approach 107 synergetic inter-representation network 61 systems of care (SOC) 369 T technical capacity 372 temporal type 139 temporal GIS research and technology 144–153 temporal Semantic analytics 161–170 Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) 370 Thiessen polygons (or Voronoi polygons) 131 TIGER/Line data 394 time division multiple access (TDMA) 467 time of arrival (TOA) 442, 467 timing advance (TA) 441 TIN surface, creating 76 Tissot’s indicatrix 92 topologically integrated geographic encoding and referencing (TIGER) files 117 topological network data models 117 transport control protocol (TCP) 456, 467 /IP 452, 457 trapezoid sweep 68 travel agent (TA) 467 trend surface 132 triangulated irregular network or (TIN) 74 triangulation 131 U ubiquitous tourism 434 UMTS 422 uniform resource identifier (URI) 468 universal description, discovery, and integration (UDDI) 454, 468 Index mobile telecommunications system (UMTS) 437, 439, 468 URL 468 V vector algorithms 67 vector formats 84 viewshed function 78 Virtual Tourist 389 VLR 454 VPN 426 VPN tunneling 426 W X XLS 468 XML 435, 447, 450, 458, 468 XML querying 12 XParent XSL 445, 447, 458, 468 XSL-FO 468 XSLT 447, 458, 468 XSL Transformation (XSLT) 435 xxML 452 Z Zigbee 422 WAG 468 Web services 450, 468 Web Feature Server 393 Web feature server with transactional extension 394 Web feature service 397 Web feature services (WFS) 43 Web mapping services (WMS) 43 Web map servers 82–88 Web map service 86 Web technologies 388 wide area network (WAN) 468 wideband CDMA (WCDMA) 441, 468 WiFi 422 Wikipedia 394 wireless access protocol (WAP) 445, 446, 468 application gateway (WAG) 448 data network 434 fidelity (WiFi) 438, 439, 468 LAN (WLAN) 442, 443, 468 medium 434 WML 468 World Wide Web (WWW) 454 Consortium (W3C) 447, 468 481 ... Moureu, 2000; SnapTrack, 2001) CELL-ID + TA E-OTD GPS A-GPS Hybrids Accuracy 100 m 10km 100 m 500m 10m undefined 10m 100 m 1m 100 m Kick-off time Low Low High Very high Very high 2 2/3 2/3 (+direction)... geographic information science (GIScience), econometric modelling, and traffic safety Kai-Florian Richter received a diploma in computer science at Universität Hamburg and a PhD in computer science. .. geographical information systems (GIS) 369 geographic information infrastructure 388 geographic information system (GIS) 443, 445, 467 Geographic information systems 389 geographic information