ELSEVIER''''S DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES phần 4 pptx

196 Runciman, W. G. (1966/1980). Relative dep- rivation and social justice. London: Routledge. Walster (Hatfield), E., Walster, G., & Ber- scheid, E. (1978). Equity: Theory and research. Boston: Allyn & Ba- con. Hatfield, E., Utne, M., & Traupmann, H. (1979). Equity theory and intimate relationships. In R. Burgess & T. Huston (Eds.), Social exchange in developing relationships. New York: Academic Press. EQUITY THEORY OF WORK. See WORK/CAREER/OCCUPATION, THEO- RIES OF. EQUIVALENCE PRINCIPLE. See JUNG’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY. ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PERSONAL- ITY. The German-born American psychoana- lyst Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) attempted to revive the structure of psycho- analysis after the death of Sigmund Freud in 1939. Erikson considered himself to be a Freudian psychoanalyst in spite of some opin- ions that he fell outside the Freudian tradition. Erikson helped to establish the theoretical approach called ego psychology, along with the Austrian-born American psychoanalyst Heinz Hartmann (1894-1970), the German psychologist Ernst Kris (1901-1957), and the Hungarian-born American psychologist David Rapaport (1911-1960). The theme of ego psy- chology is that the “ego” is capable of func- tioning autonomously and is not confined to internal conflicts with the “id” and the “super- ego” as in Freudian doctrine. Erikson’s major contributions to contemporary psychoanalytic theory include a psychosocial theory of devel- opment and psychohistorical analyses of fa- mous persons. According to Erikson’s theo- retical approach, the term psychosocial refers to the stages of an individual’s life from birth to death and focuses on the social/environ- mental influences that interact with the physi- cal and psychological growth of the person. Erikson's psychosocial theory, which de- scribes “stages” of development, supplements S. Freud’s psychosexual stage of development theory, J. Piaget’s cognitive stage develop- ment theory, and H. S. Sullivan’s interper- sonal stage development theory. The notion of “stage” in developmental theories refers to the more or less clearly defined ages at which new forms of behavior appear in response to new maturational and social variables. Erikson coined the term identity crisis and posited that development proceeds in eight consecutive stages, where the first four stages occur during infancy and childhood, the fifth stage occurs during adolescence, and the final three stages occur during adulthood up to old age. Each stage contributes to an individual’s whole personality in an epigenetic sense (i.e., overall development unfolds via interaction with the environment), but different people may have different timetables for entering and progres- sive through each stage (cf., psychosocial moratorium - denotes a “time-out” from life during which a person may retain a “fluid identity,” such as young adults taking time out to travel before settling into more fixed identi- ties constrained by relationships and work responsibilities). Erikson asserted that each of the eight stages is characterized by a specific psychological conflict that seeks resolution. The eight stages are: basic trust versus basic mistrust - infancy period, when very young children develop attitudes of trust or mistrust concerning people; autonomy versus shame/ doubt - early childhood, when the child grows older and, in its attempt to gain control over muscles and bones, develops attitudes of autonomy, independence, and success, or of shame, doubt, and failure; initiative versus guilt - occurs during preschool age, when the child is about four years old and is seeking behavior roles to imitate; if she learns the socially acceptable behaviors, then initiative is required, but if there is failure, a sense of last- ing guilt develops; industry versus inferiority - when the child begins school, he attempts to master the world in certain social ways, and success is characterized by industry or compe- tence, whereas failure is associated with the development of inferiority feelings; identity versus identity confusion/diffusion - when the young adult approaches adolescence and pu- berty, she must decide “who she is” and “where she is going” (Erikson’s role confu- sion hypothesis states that role confusion 197 arises from an individual’s failure to establish a sense of identity during this fifth stage); at this stage, also, decisions concerning sexual identity, occupation, and adult life-plans gen- erally are made; intimacy versus isolation - during young adulthood, when the person has “found himself” and knows where he’s going, then intimacy with another person is possible; however, if adolescence has passed without proper role identity and resolution, isolation from others may be the result; generativity versus stagnation - while in middle or full adulthood, the person must choose to continue her mental growth, health, creativity, and pro- ductivity or else risk the chance of stagnation and loss of growth; integrity versus despair - this last stage is a “crisis of old age or matur- ity” that challenges a person to choose be- tween maintaining feelings of worth and in- tegrity that have been built up or to yield to opposing feelings of despair and resignation where one senses that life has been a futile waste of time and energy. Also, according to Erikson’s psychosocial theory, each individ- ual’s personality may be viewed as the result of an encounter between the person’s needs and the society’s needs at, or during, a particu- lar chronological or historical time frame (“epoch”) wherein each person develops a unique psychohistory. Erikson defines psycho- history as “the study of individual and collec- tive life with the combined methods of psy- choanalysis and history.” His interest in psy- choanalyzing famous historical personages include Martin Luther, William James, and Thomas Jefferson. Evaluations by psycholo- gists of Erikson’s theoretical approach often indicate a positive attitude toward the face validity of his formulations, which are a rich source of hypotheses that may be tested, even- tually, and also indicate a preference for Erik- son’s psychosocial stage theory over Freud’s psychosexual stage theory. Some psycholo- gists feel that Erikson has done for personal- ity-development theory what Piaget has done for cognitive/intellectual development theory. On the other hand, however, Erikson has been criticized for “watering down” Freudian the- ory, for creating an overly optimistic view of the concept of ego and of human beings (just as Freud has been criticized for his overly pessimistic view of people), and for the poor quality of the empirical foundations (i.e., per- sonal/subjective observation method) of his theory. Erikson’s theory, taken as a heuristic scheme, has had a marked impact on contem- porary developmental psychology, especially the psychology of adolescence, and investiga- tions of adolescent identity formation have started to move in the direction of testing spe- cific predictions based on his theory. See also DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY; FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY; PERSONAL- ITY THEORIES; PIAGET’S THEORY OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES; PSYCHO- ANALYTIC THEORY; SULLIVAN’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY. REFERENCES Erikson, E. H. (1950/1963). Childhood and society. New York: Norton. Erikson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther. New York: Norton. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton. Erikson, E. H. (1974). Dimensions of a new identity. New York: Norton. Erikson, E. H. (1975). Life history and the historical moment. New York: Nor- ton. ERROR, LAW OF. See PROBABILITY THEORY/LAWS. ERRORLESS DISCRIMINATION LEARNING, PHENOMENON OF. See SPENCE’S THEORY. ESSENTIAL IDENTITY LAW. See ALL- OR-NONE LAW/PRINCIPLE. ESTES’ STIMULUS SAMPLING THE- ORY. = statistical-learning theory/model = stochastic learning theory. The American psychologist William Kaye Estes (1919- ) formulated a mathematical learning theory that seeks to predict the exact numerical de- tails of experimental results. The term mathe- matical learning theory denotes a type of ap- proach to theory construction rather than a single, specific set of postulates that could technically be called a theory. Estes developed a form of mathematical learning theory in the 1950s called stimulus sampling theory (SST). SST started as a form of stimulus-response (S- 198 R) associationism that assumed that organ- isms learn by attaching new adaptive behav- iors to stimulus situations where they formerly had inappropriate behaviors (cf., S-S learning model/theory - a learning approach that fo- cuses on the association between stimuli, in- cluding both intervening variables and cogni- tive structures). Estes accepted E. L. Thorn- dike’s empirical law of effect (i.e., reinforcers strengthen and guide behavior), although he does not subscribe to the “satisfaction” or “drive-reduction” properties of rewards. In SST, learning and performance are treated explicitly as a probabilistic or stochastic proc- ess (i.e., as a sequence of events that can be analyzed in terms of probability). The main dependent variable of statistical learning the- ory is the probability of various responses of a participant at any point in time (within a given learning theory), and a statistical learning model consists of assumptions about how the participant’s probability of a correct response changes from trial to trial as a result of the outcomes experienced on each trial. In SST, the stimulus situation is represented as a popu- lation of independent variable components and the total environment (“stimulus ele- ments”). At any given moment, only a sample of elements from the total population is effec- tive or active, where the less variable the ex- perimental conditions, the less variable are the successive trial samples of stimulus elements. The assumption of SST concerning responses is that their probabilities are determined by the proportions of stimulus elements in the sample connected to the various responses. The early experimental work in SST employed the prob- ability-learning paradigm where the partici- pant’s task was to predict on each trial which of two events was going to occur; after the predictive response was made, the actual event was shown. Events in these probability learning experiments occurred in a random sequence with no information available to help in predicting perfectly which event will occur. The phenomena of forgetting and spon- taneous recovery were interpreted by Estes in terms of random changes in factors in the stimulating environment from one experimen- tal session to the next (e.g., factors such as temperature, humidity, participants’ receptor sensitivity and attitudes). Estes’ fluctuation theory of stimulus change accounts for the shapes of forgetting and recovery curves; it has been applied, also, to the phenomena of retroactive and proactive inhibition and verbal short-term memory. SST considers stimulus generalization in a manner similar to Thorn- dike’s identical elements theory: a response associated with a stimulus population will generalize to a test stimulus to the extent that the second population shares common stimu- lus elements with the first population. Con- cerning discrimination learning, SST adopts the concept of selective attention and its asso- ciative relevant cues to help explain behav- ioral outcomes. Estes indicates that different learning models follow from SST when a small number of stimulus elements is as- sumed. Such “small-element models” fit the experimental data as well as do the original large-element models. Recent developments in Estes’ theory have changed in a direction closer to cognitive psychology and away from his original Guthrian stimulus-response ap- proach. For example, Estes deals with the issue of participants’ decision-making in pref- erential choice situations through his scanning model, which provides a viable approach to a process theory of decision-making. Estes also developed a hierarchical associations theory of memory that compares favorably with the “duplex” ideas of British associationism and with the “higher-order memory nodes” in J. Anderson and G. Bower’s theory of memory. Although SST today has relatively few adher- ents as a “total” theory, the basic ideas of SST have been assimilated into a common stock of useful theoretical constructs. To date, Estes’ SST is probably the most significant and ra- tional attempt at a global quantitative learning theory in psychology. See also ASSOCIA- TION, LAWS/PRINCIPLES OF; ATTEN- TION, LAWS/PRINCIPLES/THEORIES OF; DECISION-MAKING THEORIES; DIS- CRIMINATION/GENERALIZATION HY- POTHESIS; FORGETTING AND MEM- ORY, THEORIES OF; GENERALIZATION, PRINCIPLES OF; GUTHRIE’S THEORY OF BEHAVIOR; HULL’S LEARNING THEORY; IDENTICAL ELEMENTS THE- ORY; INTERFERENCE THEORIES OF FORGETTING; PROBABILITY THEORY/ LAWS; THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT. 199 REFERENCES Estes, W. (1955a). Statistical theory of distri- butional phenomena in learning. Psychological Review, 62, 369-377. Estes, W. (1955b). Statistical theory of spon- taneous recovery and regression. Psychological Review, 62, 145-154. Restle, F. (1955). A theory of discrimination learning. Psychological Review, 62, 11-19. Estes, W. (1959). The statistical approach to learning theory. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science. Vol. 2. New York: McGraw-Hill. Bower, G. (1972). Stimulus-sampling theory of encoding variability. In E. Martin & A. Melton (Eds.), Coding theory and memory. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere. Anderson, J., & Bower, G. (1973). Human associative memory. Washington, D.C.: Winston. Estes, W. (1976). The cognitive side of prob- ability learning. Psychological Re- view, 83, 37-64. ETHICAL DETERMINISM, DOCTRINE OF. See DETERMINISM, DOCTRINE/THE- ORY OF. ETHICAL-RISK HYPOTHESIS. See KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORALITY. ETHOLOGICAL MODELS OF PER- SONAL SPACE. See INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION THEORIES. ETHOLOGICAL THEORY. See AG- GRESSION, THEORIES OF; HABIT AND HABIT-FORMATION, LAWS/PRINCIPLES OF; HYDRAULIC THEORY; INFANT AT- TACHMENT THEORIES; McDOUGALL’S HORMIC/INSTINCT THEORY/DOCTRINE. EUCLID’S LAW. See EMMERT’S LAW. EUDEMONISM, DOCTRINE OF. See HEDONISM, THEORY/LAW OF. EUGENICS, DOCTRINE OF. See GAL- TON’S LAWS. EUSTRESS THEORY. See SELYE’S THE- ORY/MODEL OF STRESS. EVENT-STRUCTURE THEORY. See ALLPORT’S THEORY OF ENESTRU- ENCE; PERCPETION (II. COMPARATIVE APPRAISAL), THEORIES OF. EVERSION THEORY OF AGING. See AGING, THEORIES OF. EVIDENCE, THEORY OF. See MEI- NONG’S TEORIES. EVOLUTION, LAWS OF. See DARWIN’S EVOLUTION THEORY. EVOLUTIONARILY STABLE STRAT- EGY. See HAWK-DOVE/CHICKEN GAME EFFECTS. EVOLUTIONARY/CIRCADIAN THE- ORY. See SLEEP, THEORIES OF. EVOLUTIONARY HIERARCHICAL MODEL. See FRASER’S INTERDISCI- PLINARY TIME THEORY. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY. See DAR- WIN’S EVOLUTION THEORY. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY OF COLOR VISION. See LADD-FRANKLIN/FRANK- LIN COLOR VISION THEORY. EWALD’S SOUND-PATTERN THEORY. See AUDITION/HEARING, THEORIES OF. EXAFFERENCE, PRINCIPLE OF. See REAFFERENCE THEORY/PRINCIPLE. EXCHANGE/SOCIAL EXCHANGE THE- ORY. The terms exchange and social ex- change refer to a model of social structure that is based on the principle that most social be- havior is predicated in the individual’s expec- tation that one’s actions with respect to others will result in some type of commensurate return. Exchange theory is a body of theoreti- cal work in sociology and social psychology that emphasizes the importance of the reward- cost interdependence of group members in 200 shaping their social interaction patterns as well as their psychological responses to one another (cf., behavior-exchange model/theory - the conjecture that human behavior, espe- cially interactive behavior, may be understood as an exchange of rewards and costs). The most comprehensive social exchange theories are those of the American social psychologists John W. Thibaut (1917-1986) and Harold H. Kelley (1921-2003) and the American soci- ologists George C. Homans (1910-1989) and Peter M. Blau (1918-2002). Social exchange theories involve an analogy between eco- nomic relationships and other kinds of social relationships where an exchange is assumed to occur when each of the parties involved con- trols goods valued by the others, and each values at least some of the goods that others control more than at least some of the goods that she or he controls (goods may be any commodity, condition, person, or act that has value for the individual). Social exchange theories differ in their conceptual language and in the explicit reference to economic or behavioral psychology concepts. Homans’ theory borrows concepts and language (e.g., frequency, value, reward, satiation, and ex- tinction) from B. F. Skinner’s behavioral psy- chology, and focuses on concepts of equili- bration in exchange, attempting to explain social interaction in small groups. Homans also uses the concepts of expectancy and dis- tributive justice in which the parties to an exchange should receive rewards proportional to their costs and investments. Blau’s theory, although similar to Homans’, makes more explicit use of economic concepts such as indifference curves, power, and normative obligation. Much of Blau’s theory is con- cerned with the roots of emergent social struc- ture in social exchange patterns in small groups. Thibaut and Kelley’s theory uses the language of group problem solving (with two- person, dyadic groups) in which many of the assumptions are common to the reinforcement concepts of behavioral psychology. Thibaut and Kelley make extensive use of reward-cost matrices derived from game theory, which led to the development of various indices of indi- viduals’ interdependence, such as definition of parties’ power over each other and their con- flicts of interest (“correspondence” versus “noncorrespondence” of outcomes). Thibaut and Kelley also invoke the concept of reflex- ive control, which refers to the extent that an individual can unilaterally affect her or his own outcomes in a relationship via chosen behaviors. Through analyzing the particular aspects of power in a given encounter, Thibaut and Kelley were able to predict the likely course of social interaction. They also ana- lyzed persons’ attractions to relationships based on how the outcomes received in a rela- tionship compare to the individual’s “com- parison level” (i.e., a standard for evaluating the goodness of outcomes from a relationship based on a central tendency of the distribution of all outcomes from previous salient relation- ships). Although Thibaut and Kelley’s analy- ses are concerned primarily with dyadic rela- tionships, their same principles have been applied to larger groups in studying topics such as coalition formation, status, and role differentiation in groups. Some theoretical approaches to social exchange argue that the concrete nature of the outcome sought affects the nature of the exchange. For example, U. Foa and E. Foa advance a classification of rewards based on “concreteness” versus “ab- stractness” and on situational specificity in which some outcomes are not exchangeable (e.g., love will be exchanged for love, but not for money). According to I. Altman and D. Taylor’s social penetration theory, which addresses the nature and quality of social ex- change and close bonds, relationships progress from superficial exchanges to more intimate ones as people begin to give more of them- selves to one another; their exchanges become both broader (including more areas of their lives) and deeper (involving more intimate and personally meaningful areas). The social penetration process may involve a greater sharing of possessions or physical intimacy, but the most important commodity of all may be the sharing of innermost thoughts and feel- ings with another in the act of “self- disclosure.” In his gain-loss theory, E. Aronson also has applied the principles of social exchange theory to the factors that promote interpersonal attraction. For example, long-distance relationships may have the po- tential to be as rewarding as proximal ones; however, the former have higher costs associ- 201 ated with them in terms of time, effort, and financial expenditure and, thus, people usually choose to have relationships with individuals who live close by. See also ATTRIBUTION THEORY; EQUILIBRIUM HYPOTHESIS; EQUITY THEORY; GAME THEORY; IN- TERPERSONAL ATTRACTION THEO- RIES; LOVE, THEORIES OF; SEXUAL ORIENTATION THEORIES. REFERENCES Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organ- isms: An experimental analysis. New York: Appleton-Century. Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups. New York: Wiley. Homans, G. C. (1961). Social behavior: Its elementary forms. New York: Har- court, Brace, & World. Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley. Altman, I., & Taylor, D. (1973). Social pene- tration: The development of inter- personal relationships. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Simpson, R. (1973). Theories of social ex- change. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press. Foa, U., & Foa, E. (1974). Societal structures of the mind. Springfield, IL: Tho- mas. Heath, A. (1976). Rational choice and social exchange: A critique of exchange theory. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1978). Inter- personal relations: A theory of in- terdependence. New York: Wiley. Gergen, K., Greenberg, M., & Willis, R. (Eds.) (1980). Social exchange: Ad- vances in theory and research. New York: Plenum. Aronson, E. (1972/1984). The social animal. San Francisco: Freeman. Alessio, J. (1990). A synthesis and formaliza- tion of Heiderian balance and social exchange theory. Social Forces, 68, 1267-1286. EXCITATION TRANSFER THEORY. See EMOTIONS, THEORIES/LAWS OF. EXCLUDED MIDDLE/THIRD, LAW/ PRINCIPLE OF. In the context of formal logic, the principle of excluded middle (or third) formulates one aspect of the simple and universal condition of knowledge: every judgment must be either true or false. That is, between the assertions that express the truth and the falsity of any significant judgment, there is no medium- or middle-ground; one or the other must be true. J. M. Baldwin suggests that in order to avoid confusion regarding the scope and nature of the principle of excluded middle/third, one must take care to insure that the assertions do no more than express the truth or falsity of some relations represented in thought - a requirement not easily met if there is any ambiguity in the subject of the particular assertions that are in question or under analysis. See also EXCLUSION, LAW OF; KOLMOGOROV’S AXIOMS/THEORY; THOUGHT, LAWS OF. REFERENCE Baldwin, J. M. (Ed.) (1901-1905). Dictionary of philosophy and psychology. New York: Macmillan. EXCLUSION, LAW OF. In the context of experiments on phenomena such as recogni- tion and tonal memory, the law of exclusion was used to explain how a perceiver’s judg- ment concerning comparison stimuli occurs. The German psychologist Oswald Kulpe (1862-1915) - who is the author of the first experimental psychology textbook (1895) in the world, and who, in opposing the “struc- turalist” theories of Wilhelm Wundt, founded the Wurzburg “imageless thought” school - asserted that in a stimulus comparison situa- tion, there is no mediation of a comparison by a memory image, but the judgment is passed immediately after the perception of the second stimulus just as occurs in direct recognition. Also, Kulpe maintained that such judgments of stimuli are passed independently of any centrally excited sensations. Thus, through a law of exclusion of intermediate terms (which plays a large part in the determination of idea- tional connection in general), direct compari- son and direct recognition involve a transfor- mation process where the direct form is a derivative of the indirect. The law of exclusion (a sort of “short-cut” through experience) may 202 be formulated as follows: When a simultane- ous or successive connection of three con- tents, A, B, and C, has established a “liability” of reproduction between A and C, C gradually comes to be excited directly by A, without the intermediation of B. See also EXCLUDED MIDDLE/THIRD, LAW OR PRINCIPLE OF; PSYCHOPHYSICAL LAWS/THEORY; THOUGHT, LAWS OF. REFERENCE Kulpe, O. (1895). Outlines of psychology. London: Sonnenschein. EXCLUSION, METHOD OF. This method of investigation is a portion of the English philosopher Francis Bacon’s (1561-1626) general view of induction (i.e., the formula- tion of general rules or explanations) that con- sists of elimination by comparison of cases, particularly negative cases, all that is nones- sential (the “residue”). Bacon’s radical em- piricist method of exclusion for discovering forms of nature was to prepare exhaustive and comparative listings of apparently unrelated concrete instances and, by stripping away all nonessential characteristics, to arrive at the one common underlying cause or form of the phenomenon under study. See BACONIAN METHOD; PARSIMONY, LAW OR PRIN- CIPLE OF. REFERENCE Bacon, F. (1620/1960). Novuum organum. In F. Anderson (Ed.), The new organon and related writings. New York: Liberal Arts Press. EXEMPLAR THEORY OF BEHAVIOR CHOICE. = exemplar choice theory of be- havior = exemplar choice theory. This particu- lar version of choice theory, called exemplar choice theory (ECT), applied to human social behavior, posits that the person/actor (when he or she chooses what to do in a given situation) relies on stored memory representations of past instances or examples of actions observed previously (cf., general exemplar theory - holds that particular desirable characteristics or traits may be personified by certain indi- viduals; e.g., the patience/faithfulness of Job in the scriptures). ECT attempts to achieve a theoretical integration in various areas in psy- chology including motor learning, perception, categorization- and concept-learning, priming phenomena, and social judgment. ECT is a “social” theory, in the broad sense that the observed actions may have been performed by persons other than the observer (i.e., the ob- served actions are sources of “social influ- ence”) and, in a particular sense, ECT may be viewed as a theory of “imitation” (i.e., the manifest symptom of “social influence” may be that the actor chooses to do the same thing as the observed fellow actor). Just as some of the early “imitation” theories of psychologists and sociologists (such as William McDougall and C. L. Morgan) held “imitativeness” to be an innate/instinctive tendency, ECT proposes the existence of an innate “imitative” motiva- tional mechanism. The basic claim of the new ECT is that human beings are “intelligent imitators;” that is, they try to behave the way a prototypical (or “average”) individual/actor would have done in the same situation. ECT may be viewed, also, as an updated, and more general, version of the old doctrine of “ideo- motor action” (i.e., an overt act initiated by an idea in early ideomotor theory) such as that described by William James in the late 1800s. Specifically, ECT differs from the older/classical ideomotor theories in its ac- count of how the actor stores and uses infor- mation about observed acts (e.g., the content of “movement ideas,” the memory representa- tions of movements, how the ideas are derived from experiences with actual movements, and the ways in which the movements are “en- coded” by the actor). However, the ECT shares enough certain common or basic struc- tural features with the classical theory of ideomotor action (e.g., both theories essen- tially are “information-processing” models that attempt to explain behavior in terms of stored-action representations) that it poses a great challenge for ECT to distinguish itself as a truly novel approach in the area of choice theory. See also CHOICE THEORIES. REFERENCES James, W. (1890/1950). The principles of psychology. New York: Holt/Dover. Kvadsheim, R. (1992). The intelligent imita- tor: Towards an exemplar theory of behavioral choice. Amsterdam: North-Holland. 203 EXERCISE, LAW OF. In his law of exer- cise, Edward Lee Thorndike (1898) recog- nized and renamed an older generalization in psychology and education concerning learning called the law of frequency. The law of exer- cise states that, other things being equal, the repeated occurrence of any act makes that behavior easier to perform and is less vulner- able or subject to error; that is, “practice makes perfect.” Thorndike regarded his law of exercise and his law of effect to be of equal importance until 1931, when the law of exer- cise was given a subordinate position in his system. Thus, Thorndike was led by his own research to renounce his former position and to argue against “exercise” as a factor working independently of “effect.” The phrase “other things being equal” in the definition of the law of exercise has been the topic of debate among learning theorists for decades. Another criti- cism of the law of exercise is that it does not take into account the important factor of “in- centive” (i.e., reinforcement value). See also DISUSE, LAW/THEORY OF; EFFECT, LAW OF; FREQUENCY, LAW OF; USE, LAW OF. REFERENCE Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the asso- ciative processes in animals. Psy- chological Review Monograph Sup- plement, 2, No. 8. EXISTENTIAL ANALYSIS THEORY. The Swiss psychiatrist/existentialist Ludwig Binswanger (1881-1966) developed this theo- retical form of psychoanalysis in the 1930s that is based on the philosophical/phenomen- ological movement called existentialism - advanced by the Danish philosopher Soren A. Kierkegaard (1813-1855), the German phi- losopher Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), and the French philosopher/writers Albert Camus (1913-1960), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), and Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986) - which emphasizes the existence of the individual as a free entity burdened with personal responsibil- ity (cf., the existentialist notion of bad faith - a form of self-deception in which individuals refuse to accept responsibility for their own freely chosen actions and depict themselves as the passive victims of worldly circumstance). Philosophical existentialism is an approach holding that one’s existence cannot be studied objectively, but is revealed via reflection on existence in space and time; it tends, also, to reject objective values and to discredit scien- tific knowledge and methodology. Psychoana- lytical existentialism (“daseinsanalysis”) seeks to reconstruct the inner experience of patients, not necessarily to cure symptoms; the goal of this therapeutic approach is to get patients to confront their existence and to exercise their personal freedom and autonomy. Binswanger’s case study of “Ellen West” - the pseudonym of a young woman patient with anorexia nervosa who experienced extreme mental distress, ending in her tragic death - is one of the most disturbing, and celebrated, case studies in the literature of existential analysis and psychiatry. See also FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY; MEANING, THEORY AND ASSESSMENT OF. REFERENCES Binswanger, L. (1942/1953). Grundformen und erkenntnis menschlichen das- eins. Zurich: Niehaus. Binswanger, L. (1958). The existential analy- sis school of thought. In R. May, E. Angel, & H. F. Ellenberger (Eds.), Existence. New York: Basic Books. Binswanger, L. (1973). Being-in-the-world: Selected papers of Ludwig Bins- wanger. New York: Basic Books. Vandereycken, W. (2003). New documenta- tion on the famous case of Ellen West. History of Psychiatry, 14, 133. EXISTENTIAL/PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORIES OF ABNORMALITY. See PSYCHOPATHOLOGY, THEORIES OF. EXPECTANCY EFFECT. See EXPERI- MENTER EFFECTS. EXPECTANCY-REINFORCEMENT THEORY. See ROTTER’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY; TOLMAN’S THE- ORY. EXPECTANCY THEORY. See LEARN- ING THEORIES/LAWS; TOLMAN’S THE- ORY; VIGILANCE, THEORIES OF. 204 EXPECTANCY THEORY OF WORK. See WORK/CAREER/OCCUPATION, THEO- RIES OF. EXPECTANCY-VALUE THEORY/MOD- EL. See DECISION-MAKING THEORIES; REASONED ACTION AND PLANNED BEHAVIOR THEORIES; ROTTER’S SO- CIAL LEARNING THEORY; TOLMAN’S THEORY. EXPECTED UTILITY THEORY. = utility theory. The Hungarian-born American mathematician John von Neumann (1903- 1957) and the German-born American economist Oskar Morgenstern (1902-1977) formulated the modern version of expected utility theory of decision-making which indi- cates that a human decision-maker chooses strategies/actions that maximize “expected utility” (i.e., the average subjective desirabil- ity of an outcome/event associated with one’s decision or preference for it - calculated by multiplying each of the possible outcomes of the decision by its probability and then sum- ming the resulting products), and where utili- ties are determined by “revealed preferences” (i.e., a preference inferred from observations of a decision-maker’s actual choices) [cf., maximizing/op- timizing hypothesis - posits that people act so as to gain as much utility (regarding happiness, money, etc.) as possible; this is in contrast to the American econo- mist/psychologist Herbert Alexander Simon’s (1916-2001) satisficing hypothesis which holds that people act to gain only a certain satisfactory utility level]. When the probabili- ties are phrased in subjective terms, it is called subjective expected utility theory - formulated by the American decision-theorist Leonard J. Savage (1917-1971) and named by the Ameri- can psychologist Ward Denis Edwards (1927- ) - which suggests that a decision-maker chooses an alternative or strategy that maxi- mizes the expected utility of an event/outcome calculated from “subjective probabilities” (degree of belief; cf., taxicab problem) rather than from “objective probabilities” (relative frequencies of observable events). The general notion of utility for decision-making was first indicated in 1738 by the Swiss physicist /mathematician Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) who discussed “moral worth” and explained that the value of something to a person is not simply equivalent to its monetary value, but is based, also, on its subjective “moral worth” (i.e., utility). See also ALLAIS PARADOX/ EFFECT; DECISION-MAKING THEORIES; PASCAL’S PROPOSITION OR WAGER; PROBABILITY THEORY/LAWS; PROS- PECT THEORY; TAXICAB PROBLEM/ EFFECT; WELLS EFFECT. REFERENCES Bernoulli, D. (1738/1968). Hydrodynamica. New York: Dover. Neumann, J. von, & Morgenstern, O. (1947). Theory of games and economic be- havior. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Edwards, W. D. (1954). The theory of deci- sion-making. Psychological Bullet- in, 51, 380-417. Savage, L. J. (1954). The foundations of sta- tistics. New York: Wiley. Simon, H. A. (1957). Models of man: Social and rational. New York: Wiley. Lurie, S. (1987). A parametric model of utility for two-person distributions. Psy- chological Review, 94, 42-60. Rapoport, A. (1987). Research paradigms and expected utility models for the pro- vision of step-level public goods. Psychological Review, 94, 74-83. Luce, R. D. (2000). Utility of gains and losses: Measurement, theoretical, and experimental approaches. Mah- wah, NJ: Erlbaum. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY. See LEARNING STYLE THEORY. EXPERIENTIAL THEORY. See SCHIZO- PHRENIA, THEORIES OF. EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESIS. See NULL HYPOTHESIS; ORGANIZATION- AL/INDUSTRIAL/SYSTEMS THEORY. EXPERIMENTALLY-INDUCED FALSE MEMORIES. See APPENDIX A. EXPERIMENTER BIAS. See EXPERI- MENTER EFFECTS. 205 EXPERIMENTER EFFECTS. = experi- menter bias effects. When a researcher con- ducts an experiment, she or he hypothesizes that one or several variables will have a par- ticular outcome. The experiment is planned to test the hypotheses under investigation and to eliminate as many alternative or “rival” expla- nations as possible (cf., investigator paradigm effect - the tendency in researchers, at any one time and place, to be influenced by popular fads or conceptualizations and paradigms in vogue, that determine what particular research questions are asked, what kind of data is col- lected, and what conclusions are stated; per- turbation theory - provides means for dispos- ing of extraneous factors among true psycho- logical factors, controlling for errors such as observer’s biases, instrument calibration er- rors, and participant sampling errors; situ- ational effect - occurs when participants are placed in different settings or situations, such as in a bare room versus a well-furnished of- fice; often, performance in the former type of setting tends to be inferior to that in the latter type of surroundings; in the doctrine of situa- tionalism, it is posited that the environment and one’s immediate situational factors pri- marily determine one’s behavior). A major set of rival explanations in this process is called experimenter effect [also known as observer effect or Rosenthal effect - named after the German-born American psychologist Robert Rosenthal (1933- )], which refers to a number of possible effects upon participants in an experiment that may be traced to the biases or behaviors of the experimenter. One such ef- fect is called the experimenter-expectancy effect or expectancy effect, which refers to an experimenter artifact that results when the hypothesis held by the experimenter leads unintentionally to behavior toward the partici- pants that, in turn, increases the likelihood that the hypothesis will be confirmed; this is also called self-fulfilling prophesy. The phenome- non called experimenter bias (where experi- menters may unwittingly influence partici- pants’ behavior in the direction of the fomer’s expectations) is illustrated by the classic case of “Clever Hans” (Pfungst, 1911/1965), which points out that researchers often give cues to participants unintentionally through facial expressions and tones of voice. With this in mind, researchers are attempting constantly to eliminate experimenter-participant interac- tions that may lead to biased data and conclu- sions (cf., biosocial effect - an experimenter bias effect in which possible differential influ- ences may be placed on different participants by virtue of the experimenter’s differing atti- tudes and moods; and performance cue effect - knowledge of how a group performed previ- ously may influence an experimenter’s/rater’s judgments of the group’s current or subse- quent performance). Another type of experi- menter effect focuses on the factor of atten- tion, especially on how attention paid to par- ticipants by the experimenter may bias the research results. The classic illustration here is the study by F. Roethlisberger and W. Dick- son (cf. Mayo, 1933), who are credited with discovering the Hawthorne effect. This effect (named after the locale of the research - the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois, near Chicago - where ways to increase worker productivity were studied) refers to the positive influence of attention on participants’ performance. In the Hawthorne study (whose results and inter- pretation today are sometimes controversial), the effects of attention were so powerful that performance improved even when the objec- tive working conditions worsened. Thus, the Hawthorne effect has come today to refer generally to the fact that one’s performance in an experiment/study is affected by knowledge that one is participating in an experiment and refers to a change in behavior that results from participants’ awareness that someone is inter- ested in them. A phenomenon similar to the Hawthorne effect is called the nov- elty/disruption effect, which refers to a treat- ment effect that may result when an experi- mental treatment condition involves some- thing new or unusual. For instance, inserting a red-colored nonsense syllable in the most difficult position in a serial list of black-on- white nonsense syllables facilitates the learn- ing of that novel stimulus. When the novelty or disruption diminishes, the treatment effect may disappear. Experimenters may also pro- vide the conditions for the pretesting effect, which refers to the influence that administer- ing a pretest may have on the experimental treatment effect: it may sensitize the partici- [...]... expectancy-attribution model of the effects of placebos Psychological Review, 88, 40 8 -43 7 Rice, B (1982) The Hawthorne defect: Persistence of a flawed theory Psychology Today, 16, 70- 74 EXPRESSION THEORY See DEMBEREARL THEORY OF CHOICE/PREFERENCE EXTENSION OF MENTAL LIFE, LAW OF THE See CONDUCT, LAWS OF EXTENSIONS -OF- WAKING-LIFE THEORY See SLEEP, THEORIES OF EXTENSION THEOREM OF SEMANTIC ENTAILMENT See... CONSTRUCTIVISM, THEORIES OF; FORGETTING/MEMORY, THEORIES OF; INTERFERENCE THEORIES OF FORGETTING; SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM MEMORY, THEORIES OF REFERENCES Deese, J (1959) On the prediction of occurrence of particular verbal intrusions in immediate recall Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 17-22 Loftus, E F., & Palmer, J C (19 74) Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction... ASSOCIATION, LAWS/ PRINCIPLES OF; BARTLETT’S SCHEMATA THEORY; CONCEPT LEARNING/CONCEPT FORMATION, THEORIES OF; IMAGERY/MENTAL IMAGERY, THEORIES OF; INFORMATION/INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORIES; INTERFERENCE THEORIES OF FORGETTING; LEWIN’S FIELD THEORY; MEANING, THEORIES/ ASSESSMENT OF; SERIAL POSITION EFFECT; SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM MEMORY, THEORIES OF REFERENCES Ebbinghaus, H von (1885/19 64) Memory: A contribution... MODEL OF HUMOR; FREUD’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY; HUMOR, THEORIES OF; HYDRAULIC THEORY; MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES OF HUMOR; RELIEF/TENSION-RELEASE THEORIES OF HUMOR AND LAUGHTER; SPENCER’S THEORY OF LAUGHTER/ HUMOR REFERENCES Freud, S (1905/1916) Wit and its relation to the unconscious New York: Moffat Ward Freud, S (1960) Jokes and their relation to the unconscious New York: Norton FROEBELISM THEORIES OF THEORY... variations in the character of temporal modulation of the extant stimulus The law does not hold at all for very low modulation amplitudes See also TALBOT-PLATEAU LAW; VISION/SIGHT, THEORIES OF REFERENCES Ferry, E S (1892) Persistence of vision American Journal of Science, 44 , 192-207 Porter, T C (1902) Contributions to the study of flicker II Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 70A, 313-329 Porter,... employed) See also ASSIMILATION, LAW OF; ASSOCIATION, LAWS/PRINCIPLES OF; GUYAU’S THEORY OF TIME; MICHON’S MODEL OF TIME; OPPEL’S EFFECT/ILLUSION; ORNSTEIN’S THEORY OF TIME; TIME, THEORIES OF; VIERORDT’S LAW OF TIME ESTIMATION REFERENCES Fraisse, P (1963) The psychology of time New York: Harper & Row Funke, J (1988) Changes or effort? A test of two time-estimation theories Zeitschrift fur Experimentelle... (Ed.) (195319 64) , The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud London: Hogarth Press Freud, S (1920) Beyond the pleasure principle In J Strachey (Ed.) (195319 64) , The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud London: Hogarth Press Freud, S (1923) The ego and the id New York: Norton Abraham, K (19 24) A study of the developmental history of the libido... FORGETTING, LAW OF See FORGETTING/MEMORY, THEORIES OF FORGETTING/MEMORY, THEORIES OF Four major theories of forgetting and memory have been described consistently in the psychological literature: decay/trace theory, interference theory, reconstruction theory, and theory of motivated forgetting (cf., the law of forgetting - the principle that forgetting increases linearly with the logarithm of the time... tip -of- thetongue experience Psychological Bulletin, 109, 2 04- 223 Collins, A., Gathercole, S., Conway, M., & Morris, P (1993) Theories of memory Hove, UK: Erlbaum Verhave, T (1993) Network theories of memory: Before Wundt and Herbart Psychological Record, 43 , 547 552 223 Nairne, J S (2002) Remembering over the short-term: The case against the standard model Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 53-81 Tulving,... ATTITUDE/ATTITUDE CHANGE, THEORIES OF; ATTRIBUTION THEORY; BEM’S SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY; CONFLICT, THEORIES OF; DECISION-MAKING THEORIES; KELLY’S PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY; LEWIN’S FIELD THEORY; MOTIVATION, THEORIES OF; REINFORCEMENT THEORY REFERENCES Lewin, K (1935) A dynamic theory of personality New York: McGraw-Hill Heider, F (1 946 ) Attitudes and cognitive organization Journal of Psychology, 21, 107-112 . CONSTRUCTIVISM, THEORIES OF; FOR- GETTING/MEMORY, THEORIES OF; IN- TERFERENCE THEORIES OF FORGET- TING; SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM MEMORY, THEORIES OF. REFERENCES Deese, J. (1959). On the prediction of occur- rence. experience of emotion. Annual Review of Psy- chology, 40 , 249 -280. Izard, C. (1990). Facial expressions and the regulation of emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 48 7 -49 8 THEORY OF LEARNING. See LEARNING THEORIES/ LAWS. FACULTY THEORY. See MALE- BRANCHE’S THEORIES; MIND/MENTAL STATES, THEORIES OF; TRANSFER OF TRAINING, THORNDIKE’S THEORY OF. FAILURE, LAW OF.