Guide to Grammar and Usage 373 Nominative (Pronoun as it we they who whoever Subject) Objective (Pronoun as it us them whom whomever Objective) Possessive (Ownership) its our, ours their, theirs whose whoever Clauses Clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a verb. • Independent clauses are complete sentences. • Dependent clauses are fragments. They cannot stand alone; they can only be part of a sentence. Clichés Clichés are descriptive phrases that have lost their effectiveness through overuse. Examples: sweet as sugar, tried and true, raining cats and dogs slow but sure Replace clichés with fresh, new descriptions. Colons See Punctuation. Commas See Punctuation. Comparative Adjectives and Adverbs Follow these rules to make correct comparisons with adjectives and adverbs. • Use the comparative degree (-er or more form) to compare two things. • Use the superlative form (-est or most form) to compare more than two things. • Never use -er and more or -est and most together. ilk Appendix C Review the following Part of Speech adjective adverb adjective adverb chart. Positive wide widely faithful faithfully Comparative wider more widely more faithful more faithfully Good and bad do not follow these guidelines. They have Part of Speech adjective adverb adjective adverb Positive good well bad badly Comparative better better worse worse Superlative widest most widely most faithful most faithfully irregular forms. Superlative best best worst worst Conjunctions Conjunctions connect words or groups of words. Examples: and, but, or for, because, although Contractions Contractions are two words combined. When you contract words, add an apostrophe in the space where the letters have been taken out. Examples: • does + not = doesn't • we + re = we're • I + will = I'll Don't confuse contractions with possessive pronouns. Study this chart. Contraction Possessive Pronoun it's (it is) you're (you are) they're (they are) who's (who is) its your their whose Guide to Grammar and Usage 375 D Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that describes something that has been left out of the sentence. • Dangling: Making startling new discoveries in science, the Renaissance was a time or rebirth. • Correct: The Renaissance was a time of rebirth when people made startling new discoveries in science. Diction Diction is a writer's choice of words. Be sure you select words that are suitable for your audience, purpose, and tone. Depending on your audience, you can use words that are formal or words that are informal. Informal language includes slang. This level of diction is not suitable for formal discourse. Be sure to avoid sexist language. This is language that assigns qualities to people on the basis of their gender. This language discriminates against people by limiting what they can do. Here are some guidelines: • Avoid using he to refer to both men and women. Sexist: He is a good writer so he knows how to select suitable words. Okay: Good writers know how to select suitable words. • Avoid using man to refer to men and women. Sexist: Man is a social creature. Okay: People are social creatures. • Avoid language that denigrates people. Sexist: lady lawyer, male nurse Okay: lawyer, nurse 376 Appendix ( Double Negatives Use only one negative word to express a negative idea. Here are the most frequently used negative words: -n't no not only neither no one nothing scarcely never nobody nowhere Exclamation Marks See Punctuation. F fragments A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought. Most times, a fragment is missing a subject, a verb, or both. Other times, a fragment may have a subject and a verb but still not express a complete thought. Example: The writer gone to the office. The verb is not complete. The sentence should read: The writer has gone to the office. You can correct a fragment two ways: • Add the missing part to the sentence Fragment: In the cabinet over the bookshelf. Complete: I keep the aspirin in the cabinet over the bookshelf. • Omit the subordinating conjunction or connect it to another sentence. Fragment: When you go to the convention. Complete: When you go to the convention, be sure to wear comfortable shoes. Guide to Grammar and Osage 377 l Interjections Interjections show strong emotion. Often, interjections are set off with an exclamation mark. Examples: Oh!, Wow!, Look out! M Misplaced Modifiers A misplaced modifier is a describing word that is placed too far away from the noun or the pronoun that it is describing. As a result, the sentence does not convey its meaning. It may also produce confusion or amusement. To convey the error, move the modifier as close as possible to the word or phrase it is describing. Example: The writer read from his new book wearing glasses. The modifier wearing glasses is in the wrong place. The sentence states that the book, not the writer, was wearing glasses. Move the modifier so that the sentence reads: The writer wearing glasses read from his new book. N Nonstandard English Nonstandard English are words and phrases that are not considered correct usage. Here is a list of words and phrases to avoid in writing and speech. Nonstandard English Standard Written English irregardless regardless kind of a kind of off of off being that because had ought ought this here this 378 Appendix ( continued Nonstandard English hisself the reason is because like I told you that there Standard Written English himself the reason is that as I told you that Nouns A noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing. Nouns come in different varieties. • Common nouns name a type of person, place, or thing. Examples: boy, city, food • Proper nouns name a specific person, place, or thing. Examples: Harris, Pensacola, Rice-a-Roni • Compound nouns are two or more nouns that function as a single unit. A com- pound noun can be two individual words, words joined by a hyphen, or two words combined. Examples: Individual words: time capsule Hyphenated words: step-brother Combined words: sunshine P Parts of Speech English words are divided into eight different parts of speech according to their function in a sentence. See Adjectives, Adverbs, Conjunctions, Interjections, Nouns, Prepositions, Pronouns, and Verbs for a description of each kind. Periods See Punctuation. Guide to Grammar and Usage 379 Phrases Phrases are groups of words that function in a sentence as one part of speech. Phrases do not have subjects or verbs. Examples: by the lake, near the closet, with them, a large publishing house Plural Nouns Plural nouns name more than one person, place, or thing. Follow these guidelines to form the plural of nouns: • Add s to form the plural of most nouns. Singular bird hat Plural birds hats • Add es if the noun ends in s, sh, ch, or x. Singular class inch box • If the noun ends Singular city lady • If the noun ends Singular essay monkey • If the noun ends Singular Plural classes inches boxes in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to / and add es. Plural cities ladies in y preceded by a vowel, add s. Plural essays monkeys on o preceded by a vowel, add s. Plural radio radios ratio ratios 380 Appendix C • If the noun ends in o preceded by a consonant, the noun can takes es, s, or either s or es. Singular Plural Takes es potato potatoes hero heroes Takes s silo silos solo solos Either zero zeros, zeroes tornado tornados, tornadoes • Add s to most nouns ending in/ Singular Plural brief briefs chief chiefs Exceptions: Change the/or fe to v and add es. Singular self wolf leaf knife life wife half thief Plural selves wolves leaves knives lives wives halves thieves • In compound words, make the main word plural. Singular Plural sister-in-law sisters-in-law mother-in-law mothers-in-law Guide to Grammar and Usage 381 • Some nouns change their spelling when they become plural. Singular Plural child children man men foot feet tooth teeth louse lice mouse mice • Some nouns have the same form whether they are singular or plural. Singular Plural swine swine series series deer deer sheep sheep moose moose species species Possession Possession shows ownership. Follow these rules to create possessive nouns. • With singular nouns, add an apostrophe and s. Examples: girl, girl's manuscript; student, student's ideas • With plural nouns ending in s, add an apostrophe after the s. Examples: girls, girls' manuscript; students, students' ideas • With plural nouns not ending in s, add an apostrophe and s. Examples: women, women's books; mice, mice's tails Prepositions Prepositions are words that link a noun or a pronoun follow it to another word in the sentence. 382 Appendix ( Here are some of the most common prepositions: about above across after against along amid around as at before behind below beneath beside between beyond but by despite down during except for from in inside into like near of off on onto opposite out A prepositional phrase is a preposition and its object. Examples: on the wing, in the door Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement See Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent. Pronouns Pronouns are words used in place of a noun or another pronoun. • Personal pronouns refer to a specific person, place, object, or thing. First person Second person Third person Singular I, me, mine, my you, your, yours Singular he, him, his she, her, hers, it Plural we, us, our, ours you, your, yours Plural they, them, their theirs, its • Possessive pronouns show ownership. Examples: yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, whose outside over past since through toward under underneath until upon with within . Example: The writer gone to the office. The verb is not complete. The sentence should read: The writer has gone to the office. You can correct a fragment two ways: • Add the missing part . to the sentence Fragment: In the cabinet over the bookshelf. Complete: I keep the aspirin in the cabinet over the bookshelf. • Omit the subordinating conjunction or connect it to another. to the word or phrase it is describing. Example: The writer read from his new book wearing glasses. The modifier wearing glasses is in the wrong place. The sentence states that the