9. Which of the following best characterizes the “ambiguous position” (line 10) in which Soviet scientists were placed during the decades that followed the Bolshevik Revolution? (A) The Soviet government demanded that their research result in scientific progress, although funding was insufficient to accomplish this goal. (B) They were exhorted to strive toward scientific advancements, while at the same time the freedoms necessary to make such advancements were restricted. (C) While they were required to direct research entirely toward military defense, most advancements in this field were being made by non-Soviet scientists with whom the Soviet scientists were prohibited contact. (D) They were encouraged to collaborate with Soviet colleagues but were prohibited from any discourse with scientists from other countries. (E) The Soviet government failed to identify those areas of research that it deemed most worthwhile, but punished those scientists with whose work it was not satisfied. The correct answer is (B). According to the passage, the ambiguous position of Soviet scientists was that the Soviet government encouraged and generally supported scientific research, while at the same time imposing significant restrictions upon its scientists (lines 10–12). Choice (B) restates this idea. Choice (C) is the easiest one to eliminate. (C) is wholly unsupported by the passage, which neither states nor suggests either assertion made in (C), which in any case does not describe an ambiguous situation. Choice (A) is unsupported by the passage. The author neither states nor suggests that the Soviets lacked sufficient funding. If true, (A) would indicate an ambiguous position for scientists, although that ambiguity is not the kind referred to in the passage. Choice (E) is also unsupported. Although some Soviet scientists were indeed punished by the government, the author neither states nor implies that the government failed to identify those areas of research that it deemed most worthwhile. If true, (E) would indicate an ambiguous position for scientists, but, as with choice (A), the ambiguity described in (E) is not the sort referred to in the passage. Choice (D) is the most tempting wrong-answer choice. It’s a better choice than either (A) or (E) because the passage supports it, at least implicitly. What’s more, (D), if true, would present an ambiguous position for Soviet scientists. However, as with choices (A) and (E), the ambiguity that (D) describes doesn’t reflect the nature of the ambiguity referred to in the passage. Inference Questions Inference questions test your ability to recognize what the author implies but does not state explicitly. In other words, you are tested on your ability to “read between the lines.” To make the inference, you’ll need to see a logical connection between two bits of information in the passage (usually in two consecutive sentences) and draw a reasonable conclusion from them. Inference questions resemble Critical Reading questions: To answer them, you need to distinguish a reasonable, well-supported conclusion from an unreasonable, poorly supported one. But don’t expect them to look exactly the same or require the same level of inferential reasoning as Critical Reading questions. Chapter 14: Reading Comprehension 403 www.petersons.com Look for two basic types of Inference questions on the GMAT. One type focuses just on the passage’s ideas. Your job is to infer a specific idea from what’s stated. The question stem will probably contain some form of the word “infer,” as in these examples: “It can be inferred from the passage that the reason for isthat “The discussion about most reasonably infers which of the following?” A second type of Inference question asks you to infer the author’s purpose in mentioning a specific idea. Look for a question stem like one of these: “The author mentions (lines X–X) most probably in order to” “The example discussed in lines X–X is probably intended to illustrate” In designing either type of Inference question, the test makers will often include a runner-up answer choice in which the inference is a bit more speculative than the inference in the best choice. Both of the following questions, based on passage 2 (page 397), incorporate this wrong-answer ploy. 10. Which of the following is most reasonably inferable from the passage’s first para- graph (lines 1–8)? (A) Expensive research projects such as the particle-accelerator program apply technology that can also be applied toward projects relating to national security. (B) Scientific knowledge had become so closely linked with national security that it could no longer be communicated to scientific colleagues without restriction. (C) Without free access to new scientific knowledge, scientists in different countries are less able to communicate with one another. (D) Governments should de-emphasize scientific projects related to military defense and emphasize instead research that can be shared freely within the interna- tional scientific community. (E) Government funding of scientific research undermines the ideal of scientific freedom to a greater extent than private funding. The correct answer is (B). The first two sentences establish that the link between science and national life undermined scientists’ freedom to communicate with other scientists. The next sentence points to the channeling of scientific research toward protecting national security as a manifestation of that link. Notice the almost unavoidable inference here—that national security concerns were part of the “national life” that took precedence over scientific freedoms. Choice (E) is the runner up. An argument can be made from the information in the first paragraph that government-funded research is more likely than privately-funded research to relate to matters affecting the national security (i.e., military defense). However, this inference is hardly as unavoidable as the one that (B) provides, is it? To compete with (B), the inference would need additional supporting evidence. Choice (A) is unsupported. The author implies no connection between the particle-accelerator program and national security. Choice (C) is nonsensical. Ready access to new scientific knowledge would require ready communication among scientists—not the other way around. Choice (D) is unsupported. The author neither states nor suggests which areas of scientific research should be emphasized. 404 PART V: GMAT Verbal Section www.petersons.com 11. The author quotes an article from Literatunaya Gazeta (lines 13–16) most probably to (A) illustrate the general sentiment among members of the international scientific community during the time period. (B) support the point that only those notions about science that conformed to the Marxist-Leninist ideal were sanctioned by the Soviet government. (C) show the disparity of views within the Soviet intellectual community regarding the proper role of science. (D) underscore the Soviet emphasis on the notion of a national science. (E) support the author’s assertion that the Marxist-Leninist impact on Soviet scientific freedom continued through the decade of the 1970s. The correct answer is (D). This part of the passage is concerned exclusively with pointing out evidence of the Soviet emphasis on a national science; given the content of the excerpt from Literatunaya Gazeta, you can reasonably infer that the author is quoting this article as one such piece of evidence. Choice (A) is easy to rule out because it distorts the nature of the quoted article and runs contrary to the passage. The article illustrates the official Soviet position and possibly the sentiment among some members of the Soviet intellectual or scientific community. However, the article does not necessarily reflect the views of scientists from other countries. Choice (C) is not likely to be the author’s purpose in quoting the article, because the author does not discuss disagreement and debate among Soviet intellectuals. Choice (E) is a bit tempting because it might in fact be true and because it is indeed supported by the information in the passage. But the author gives no indication as to when the article was written or published; thus, the article itself lends no support to (E). Choice (B) is the runner-up choice that helps make this question tougher than it would be otherwise. The quoted article does indeed reflect the Marxist-Leninist ideal (at least as interpreted and promulgated by the government) and may in fact have been published only because it was sanctioned (approved) by the Soviet government. However, since this conclusion would require speculation and since the quoted excerpt makes no mention of government approval or disapproval of certain scientific notions, it is not likely that (B) expresses the author’s purpose in quoting the article. Method Questions Method questions ask you to recognize how the author goes about making his points—rather than focusing on the points themselves. Some Method questions ask for the author’s overall approach in the passage, while others ask how a specific point is made or about the structure of a particular paragraph. In Method questions, the answer choices are usually stated very generally, and it’s up to you to connect the general wording of the choices with what’s going on in the passage. A Method question can appear in many different forms. Here are just a few examples of what the question stem might look like: “Which of the following best describes the approach of the passage?” “In the last paragraph (lines X–X), the author proceeds by” TIP For Inference questions, you need to know the difference between a reasonable inference, which no rational person could dispute based on the passage’s information, and mere speculation, which requires additional information to hold water. Chapter 14: Reading Comprehension 405 www.petersons.com “How does the second paragraph function in relation to the first paragraph?” “Which of the following most accurately describes the organization of the second paragraph (lines X–X)?” “Which of the following techniques is used in the second paragraph (lines X–X)?” When you see a Method question, first let the question guide you to the appropriate area of the passage. Your notes or outline might suffice to determine how the author proceeds in making her points there. If not, reread that section carefully. Focus on what the author is doing; don’t get bogged down in details. Again, Method questions concern how the author makes points, not what those points are. Here’s the last paragraph of a passage about Francis Bacon, a sixteenth-century philosopher of science. (As a whole, the passage explores the link between his thinking and the modern-day scientific establishment.) Read the paragraph, and then answer the Method question based on it. Line No one questions the immense benefits already conferred by science’s efficient method- ology. However, since individual scientists must now choose between improving standards of living and obtaining financial support for their research, there is cause for concern. In light of current circumstances, we must ask certain questions about science that Francis Bacon, from a sixteenth-century perspective, could not possibly have put to himself. 12. Which of the following most accurately describes the technique that the author employs in the last paragraph of the passage? (A) An assertion is made and is backed up by evidence. (B) A viewpoint is expressed and an opposing viewpoint is stated and countered. (C) An admission is offered and is followed by a warning and recommendation. (D) Contradictory claims are presented and then reconciled. (E) A problem is outlined and a solution is proposed and defended. The correct answer is (C). The notion that no one questions the benefits of science does qualify as an admission in the context of the paragraph; that is, the author admits that science has given mankind enormous benefits. The author then goes on to voice his concern regarding the current state of the scientific enterprise. Note how the contrast signal word “however” flags us that some kind of change must come after the author admits that science has conferred immense benefits. Indeed, what comes next is, as (C) puts it, a warning: there is cause for concern. A recommendation appears in the final sentence, highlighted by the words “we must ask certain questions ”Every element in (C) is present and accounted for, so (C) aptly describes the technique used in the paragraph. Choice (A) indicates that the paragraph begins with an assertion, and we can surely accept that: the assertion that no one questions the benefits of science. Is this then backed up by evidence? No. The contrast signal word “however” tells us that some kind of change is coming, but does not provide evidence for the statement in the first sentence. And indeed, the paragraph does go in a different direction. Choice (B) doesn’t reflect what’s going on in the paragraph. (B) claims that the final paragraph begins with a viewpoint, which it does. But does an opposing viewpoint 406 PART V: GMAT Verbal Section 5 www.petersons.com follow—that is, an argument against the benefits of science? No; instead, concern is expressed about the way science is now conducted. Choice (D) is incorrect because there are no contradictory claims here. The author admits that science has given humankind enormous benefits but then goes on to voice his concern regarding the current state of the scientific enterprise. These things aren’t contradictory, and nothing in the paragraph reconciles them, so (D) can’t be the best choice. As for (E), it’s fair to say that a problem is outlined. (The problem is that securing financial support for scientific work might get in the way of scientists improving standards of living.) But does the author propose a solution? No. He recommends that serious questions be asked about the problem but offers no solution of his own. And the passage ends before any kind of defense of his recommendation is offered. Application Questions These questions, which require you to apply the author’s ideas to new situations, usually involve relatively broad inferences. You might be asked to interpret how the author’s ideas apply to, or are affected by, other situations. To do this requires you to make logical connections between the author’s stated ideas and other ideas not explicitly discussed in the passage. Or, you might be asked to assess the author’s attitude (agreement or disagreement) toward some new situation. Application questions often add or refer to new information, so there’s no predictable question stem to look for. But the stem might look something like one of these: “If it were determined that __________, what effect would this fact have on the author’s assessment of __________ as presented in the passage?” “Which of the following new discoveries, if it were to occur, would most strongly support the author’s theory about __________?” “Which of the following is most analogous to the situation of __________ described in the passage?” In dealing with Application questions: • Be on the lookout for wrong-answer choices that require you to make an inference not supported by the passage. • Eliminate answer choices that contradict the author’s main idea or position. • Eliminate answer choices that distort the passage’s ideas. Here’s another brief excerpt from a passage about Francis Bacon (the sixteenth-century philosopher of science), along with an Application question based on the excerpt. Line Francis Bacon contributed to the scientific enterprise a prophetic understanding of how science would one day be put to use in the service of technology and how this symbiotic relationship between the two would radically impact both man and his surroundings. As inseparable as they are today, it is hard to imagine science and technology as inhabiting separate domains. Chapter 14: Reading Comprehension 407 5 www.petersons.com 13. As discussed in the passage, the relationship between science and technology is best illustrated by which of the following scenarios? (A) A biologist writes an article documenting a new strain of influenza that is subsequently published and taught in medical schools around the world. (B) A breakthrough in the field of psychology enables psychoanalysts to diagnose patients with greater accuracy. (C) An engineering firm hires a public relations agency to advertise the benefits of a labor-saving mechanical device. (D) A physics discovery leads to the development of a machine that helps research- ers view previously uncharted areas of the ocean floor. (E) The development of a new software application helps research scientists isolate genes that are responsible for certain diseases. The correct answer is (D). If you’re not sure what “symbiotic” means, you can figure it out by its context. We’re told that science is used to help develop and contribute to technology and that technology also contributes to science. So we need to find the choice that illustrates the same sort of link. (D) fits the bill: A scientific discovery in one area (physics) leads to the invention of a machine (technology) that helps scientists in another field (oceanography) make new discoveries. The interplay between science and technology in this example is a good application of the author’s description of “symbiotic relationship.” Neither (A) nor (B) accounts for technology; each involves only science. Since there’s nothing in either choice about the interplay between science and technology, neither is as good a choice as (D). As for (C), if there’s a symbiotic relationship at work at all in (C), it’s between technology (a new mechanical device) and marketing. There’s nothing about science here, so this choice doesn’t illustrate the interplay between science and technology. Choice (E) is the runner-up choice. It illustrates how science (genetic research) can benefit from technology (a computer application). But it does not illustrate the reverse relationship—how technology can also benefit from science. So (E) does not illustrate as completely as (D) the symbiotic relationship the author describes. Logical Continuation Questions In this question type, the test maker gauges your ability to determine the flow of the discussion and anticipate where it will go beyond the end of the passage—were the passage to continue. A Logical Continuation question stem might look something like one of the following: “Which of the following would be the most logical continuation of the passage?” “The author would probably continue the discussion by” To answer a question of this type, it helps to have a general outline of the passage so that you know how it flows and therefore how it would continue to flow. However, just the final few sentences probably provide enough information for you to eliminate some of the wrong-answer choices—and possibly even zero in on the best choice. In dealing with Logical Continuation questions: • Focus on the operative word (probably the first word) in each answer choice. This can help you narrow down the choices. 408 PART V: GMAT Verbal Section www.petersons.com • Be on the lookout for wrong-answer choices that rehash what’s already been covered in the passage. Although the discussion is unlikely to reverse course, don’t automatically rule out this possibility. Here’s the final paragraph of a passage about the geography of a South American mountain range. Based only on this paragraph, you can narrow down the choices—and probably even hone in on the best one. Line At the regional or macroscale level, vegetation patterns in the Northern and Central Andes tend to reflect climatic zones determined by latitude and altitude. At the local or mesoscale level, however, this correspondence becomes less precise, as local varia- tions in soil type, slope, drainage, climate, and human intervention come into play. 14. Among the following, the passage would most logically continue by (A) describing the climate and topography of the portions of the Andean cordillera other than the Northern and Central regions. (B) discussing how high- and low-pressure systems affect the climate of the Amazon. (C) exploring how proximity to the equator affects vegetation in the Andean cordillera. (D) identifying problems in determining the relation between soil type and vegeta- tion in the Andean cordillera. (E) examining the effects of vegetation patterns on the topography of the Andean cordillera. The correct answer is (C). In this paragraph, the author asserts that altitude as well as latitude (proximity to the equator) determines climatic zones as reflected by vegetation patterns. Accordingly, a more detailed discussion about why different forms of vegetation appear at different latitudes is a logical continuation. Choice (D) is the runner-up; it’s consistent with the content of the final paragraph, and the author does suggest a relationship between soil type and vegetation (presumably, soil type determines what forms of vegetation will thrive). However, the paragraph neither indicates nor suggests any potential problems in determining such a relationship. Choices (A) and (B) both ignore the direction of the paragraph. Choice (E) appears at first glance to be a viable answer because it includes the same subject matter (i.e., vegetation) as the paragraph. However, (E) is a bit nonsensical—it is unlikely that vegetation would have much effect upon topography; even if it did, nothing in the paragraph indicates that this is the direction in which the discussion is likely to turn. Beware: In handling a Logical Continuation question, the passage’s final few sentences are sure to help you narrow down the answer choices. But don’t ignore the rest of the passage. Check your notes or outline for the flow of ideas from the passage’s beginning to its end. The best answer choice should correspond with the overall flow. Chapter 14: Reading Comprehension 409 www.petersons.com TOP 10 WRONG-ANSWER PLOYS If you read the analysis of each sample question in this chapter carefully, you learned a lot about how the test makers design wrong-answer choices. Now here’s a review of the types they resort to most often: The response distorts the information in the passage. It might understate, overstate, or twist the passage’s information or the author’s point in presenting that information. The response uses information from the passage but does not answer the question. The information cited from the passage isn’t useful to respond to the question at hand. The response relies on speculation or an unsupported inference. It calls for some measure of speculation in that the statement is not readily inferable from the information given. The response is contrary to what the passage says. It contradicts the pas- sage’s information or runs contrary to what the passage implies. The response gets something in the passage backwards. It reverses the logic of an idea in the passage, confuses cause with effect, or otherwise turns information in the passage around. The response confuses one opinion or position with another. It incorrectly represents the viewpoint of one person (or group) as that of another. The response is too narrow or specific. It focuses on particular information in the passage that is too specific or narrowly focused in terms of the question posed. The response is too broad (general). It embraces information or ideas that are too general or widely focused in terms of the question posed. The response relies on information that the passage does not mention. It brings in information not found anywhere in the passage. The response is utter nonsense. It makes almost no logical sense in the context of the question; it’s essentially gibberish. KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL GMAT READING COMPREHENSION: THE BASICS We’ve covered a lot of ground in this chapter. To help you assimilate it all, here’s a checklist of the most salient advice for improving your reading efficiency and comprehension as you read GMAT passages. Apply them to the Practice Tests in Part VI and then review them again just before exam day. 410 PART V: GMAT Verbal Section www.petersons.com Take Notes and Make Outlines As you’re reading, make notes to summarize paragraphs or indicate the flow of the passage’s discussion. Keep your notes brief, jotting down just enough key words to remind you of the particular idea. For complicated or high-density passages, an outline is a good way to organize information and to keep details straight in your mind. Pause Occasionally to Sum Up and Anticipate After you read each logical “block” (perhaps after each paragraph), pause briefly to evaluate the paragraph as a whole. Try to recapitulate or summarize the paragraph as two or three basic ideas. After each paragraph, answer the following questions for yourself: • How would I sum up the discussion to this point? • At what point is the discussion now? • What basic points is the author trying to get across in this paragraph? Do these ideas continue a line of thought or do they begin a new one? • Where is the discussion likely to go from here? Pay Attention to the Overall Structure of the Passage Different types of reading passages are organized in various ways. The passage might be orga- nized as a chronology of events, a critique of a theory, a comparison of two or more things, or a classification system. Understanding how the passage is organized—in other words, recognizing its structure—will help you to articulate the passage’s main idea and primary purpose, under- stand the author’s purpose in mentioning various details, and distinguish between main points and minor details. And all of these will in turn help you answer the questions. Look for Structural Clues or “Triggers” As you read a passage, be on the lookout for trigger words. They’ll help you see the passage’s structure and follow the author’s train of thought. Don’t Get Bogged Down in Details GMAT reading passages are packed with details: lists, statistics and other numbers, dates, titles, and so forth. Don’t try to absorb all of the details as you read; you’ll not only lose sight of the main points, but you’ll also lose reading speed. On your scratch paper, note where particular examples, lists, and other details are located. Then, if a particular question involving those details is included, you can quickly and easily locate them and read them more carefully. Sum Up the Passage After You Read It After reading the entire passage, take a few seconds to recap it. What was the author’s main point and what were the major supporting points? Remind yourself about the flow of the discussion without thinking about all the details. Chances are you’ll be able to answer at least one or two of the questions based just on your recap. Chapter 14: Reading Comprehension 411 www.petersons.com Don’t Bother Previewing Unless You’re Short on Time So-called previewing (skimming a passage or reading just the first and last few sentences of the passage) might allow you to make educated guesses and to answer certain detail questions, but use this strategy only if you’re running out of time. Try to Minimize Vertical Scrolling You’ll need to scroll to read the entire passage. But scrolling to reread the passage uses up valuable time and contributes to eyestrain and fatigue. The best way to minimize rereading (and scrolling) is to take good notes. KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL GMAT READING COMPREHENSION: ADVANCED TECHNIQUES Here are a few more tips for successfully applying more advanced techniques to solving Reading Comprehension problems. As with the basic tips, try to apply them when you take the Practice Tests in Part VI of this book; then review them again just before exam day. Don’t Second-Guess the Test Maker The directions for the GMAT Reading Comprehension sets instruct you to choose the “best” among the five answer choices. While there is an element of subjective judgment involved in reading comprehension, GMAT questions are reviewed, tested, and revised several times before they appear as scored questions on an actual GMAT. If you think there are two or more viable “best” choices, it’s likely that you—and not the test designers—have misread or misinterpreted the passage, the question, or the answer choices. Read Every Answer Choice in Its Entirety As you know, you’re looking for the “best” answer choice. Often, more than one choice will be viable. Don’t hastily select or eliminate answer choices without reading them all. GMAT test takers miss more questions for this reason than for any other. Don’t Overanalyze Questions or Second-Guess Yourself If you believe you understood the passage fairly well but a particular answer choice seems confusing or a bit nonsensical, do not assume that it’s your fault. Many wrong-answer choices simply don’t make sense. If an answer choice strikes you this way, don’t examine it further; eliminate it. Similarly, if you’ve read and considered all five choices, and one strikes you as the best one, more often than not your initial hunch will be correct. Don’t Overlook the Obvious Reading Comprehension questions vary in difficulty level, and this means that many of the questions are rather easy. If a particular choice seems obviously correct or incorrect, don’t assume that you are missing something. You might simply have come across a relatively easy question. 412 PART V: GMAT Verbal Section www.petersons.com . efficiency and comprehension as you read GMAT passages. Apply them to the Practice Tests in Part VI and then review them again just before exam day. 410 PART V: GMAT Verbal Section www.petersons.com Take. easy. If a particular choice seems obviously correct or incorrect, don’t assume that you are missing something. You might simply have come across a relatively easy question. 412 PART V: GMAT Verbal. (probably the first word) in each answer choice. This can help you narrow down the choices. 408 PART V: GMAT Verbal Section www.petersons.com • Be on the lookout for wrong-answer choices that