Electronic Business: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications (4-Volumes) P247 doc

2394 Dialogue Act Modeling uses both views, because it aims to focus on both pragmatics and semantics of the system in WBIS analysis. It uses the pragmatic view in dialogue act modeling and the descriptive view in object modeling and behavior modeling. Part Two: Dialogue Act Modeling for Building Dialogue Act Model for the Web Site of WBIS To cop e w it h t he W BIS cult u re in W BIS a nalysis, a modeling technique is needed for capturing and specifying the interaction pattern (i.e., interac- tive communication) required by the user. Such user requirements are called communicational requirements in this approach. However, none of current modeling approaches (Conallen, 2003) has provided this needed technique, because they do not focus on communicational requirements. Although some lifecycle models for Web develop- ment such as ones presented by Burdman (1999), Fleming (1998), and Lynch and Horton (1999) have DGGUHVVHG WKHVSHFL¿FQHHG RI:HE VLWHV WKH\ have limited user input to such requirements. In terms of these approaches, Web developers only FDQ JXHVV RU LPDJLQH ZKDW XVHUV ¿QG HDV\ RU confusing in interactive communication, but they cannot capture what the user actually wants. To overcome this problem, the dialogue act model- ing approach provides a dialogue act modeling technique that creates a dialogue act model for the Web site part of WBIS by WBIS analysis (see Figure 3). This modeling technique focuses on commu- nicational requirements and the pragmatic aspects of WBIS. It describes business participants as speakers and hearers of dialogues, performers of dialogue acts, and seekers of business information in the dialogue act model. (a) Communicational Requirements In traditional IS analysis, user requirements are either functional requirements (i.e., what the sys- tem needs to do) or nonfunctional requirements (i.e., what constraints are on the system, such as performance and security constraints). However, in WBIS analysis, users can make additional re- quirements for the Web site part of WBIS. They may provide their own opinions and judgments on layout and display of a Web site and request to develop the Web site of WBIS according to their needs (e.g., easy-to-understand and follow) rather than according to the developer’s need (e.g., easy-to-implement). To distinguish them from functional and nonfunctional requirements, Figure 3. Dialogue act modeling in WBIS analysis WBIS analysis with dialogue act modelling approach Business contexts and states WBIS (speaker/hearer) WBIS developer creates Dialogue act modelling WBIS user (speaker/ hearer) Website part (Dialogue act model) IS part Web page Dialogue (communication) Dialogue act (obligation / function) Dialogue act (responsibility/ commitment) interact 2395 Dialogue Act Modeling they are called communicational requirements by this approach. Modeling communicational requirements can draw a developer’s attention to the user’s need for the Web site of WBIS at the early stage of development and avoid the WBIS FKDQJHVFDXVHGE\DGLI¿FXOWWRXVH:HEVLWHRI WBIS after development. The following user concerns about the WBIS Web site are considered communicational requirements of WBIS: • Business contexts: They are the ranges of e-business and information resource man- agement. In WBIS, they are initiatives and entrances required by the user for starting interaction with the Web site. They can be EXVLQHVVDFWLYLWLHVVXFKDV³FDUIRUVDOH´RU E X V L QH V V L QG H [H V V X F K D V³F D U V ´ V H H)L J X U H  Different business contexts may cover similar things or even another business context. For example, the car company may want a busi- QHVVFRQWH[W³FDUIRUVDOH´DQGLWVFXVWRP- HUVPD\ZDQWDEXVLQHVVFRQWH[W³FDUV´WKDW LQFOXGHV³FDUIRUVDOH´ • Dialogues: They are the conversations preferable to the user in a business context. The user wants to use them to communicate with the system interactively on the Web site and will consider them visible feedbacks from the system in a business context. For example, after car buyers enter into the EXVL QHVVF RQW H [W³FDUV´WKH V\VW H PG LVSOD\V WKHGLDORJXH³FDUOLVW´RQWKHVFUHHQDVWKH IHHGEDFNUHVXOWRIWKHGLDORJXHDFW³RIIHU car” demanded by car buyers (see Figure 7). Commitments of the user or the system VXFKDV³RIIHUFDU´FDQEHLGHQWL¿HGEDVHG on the dialogues. 7KH EHQH¿WV RI FDSWXULQJ FRPPXQLFDWLRQDO requirements in WBIS analysis are expected to be the following: • The Web site of WBIS developed based on communicational requirements should be user-centered and not complicated and frustrating to use: The research on the use of the Web has found that errors occur frequently mainly because users GRQRWNQRZRUFDQQRW¿QGWKHULJKWZD\ to interact when communicating with the system. Therefore, it is very important to make the Web experience as predictable as possible and to create a predictable Web site that is understood quickly and easily used by a user (Lazar & Norcio, 2000). Although Lazar and Norico (2000) pointed out that, in fact, the Web experience is inherently unpredictable due to the nature of the Web itself, we still can try to predict a user’s Web experience by understanding the user’s way of interacting with WBIS from the user’s point of view. This at least can reduce er- rors caused by a user’s misunderstanding of interaction. A successful Web site of WBIS must offer contents needed by users, and the content must be found easily by inter- active communication. Otherwise, it will leave users frustrated and possibly unable to achieve their goals (Preece et al., 1994). This requires the developer to understand communicational requirements deeply. • Recognition of feedbacks displayed on the computer screen as dialogue: Dix, Finlay, Abowd, and Beale (2004) emphasize that interactivity is at the heart of all modern interfaces and is important at many levels. Interaction between user and computer is affected by social and organizational fac- tors. Awareness of the factors can help to limit any negative effects on the interaction. %DU¿HOGVDLG “The system’s role in the interaction is to provide the user with information about the interaction. This information, this communication between the system and the user, is feedback and it is what helps the user build up the model that the designer wants to build up. … Feedback is new media means keeping the 2396 Dialogue Act Modeling user informed about what is going on” (p. +HGH¿QHGWKUHHIHHGEDFNV { Feedback after: The user should know that the system heard their request and is doing it. When the request is done, the user should be made aware of this and see the results. { Feedback before: The system should tell the user what will be going on if the user takes a particular action. The user must be told what actions he or she can initiate, and it should be clear how he or she can initiate them. { Feedback during: The user should EHQRWL¿HGDERXWZKDWLVKDSSHQLQJ when it has started happening, how it is progressing, and when it is expected to ¿QLVKGXULQJJHQHUDWLRQRIIHHGEDFN Capture of communicational requirements helps to identify the feedbacks expected by the user for the business context and decide what the system needs to do for them. It has been known that some modeling approaches and techniques for traditional IS analysis, such as use case model- ing, object modeling, and behavior modeling with 80/WKH8QL¿HG0RGHOLQJ/DQJXDJH%RRFK et al., 2005), can be adopted in order to capture and specify functional and nonfunctional require- ments for the IS part of WBIS (Conallen, 2003). However, none of them can help to capture and specify communicational requirements for the Web site part of WBIS. Therefore, we investigated a wide range of approaches and found that the Speech Act Theory (Austin, 1962) in the social science could help do this because dialogue means speech to act. According to the theory, a dialogue between a user and a system means one or more dialogue acts in an e-business society. This can help to analyze the role of the user and the system as well as user commitments and system obliga- tions. In WBIS design and implementation, a system obligation may mean a function of WBIS, and a user commitment may mean a precondi- tion of functions. Navigation structures and user interfaces should be designed and implemented based on communicational requirements. (b) Speech Act Theory and Interactive Communication Analysis Although there are many theoretical frameworks developed by researchers in social science for con- versation analysis, the language/action perspective KDVEHHQPRVWLQÀXHQWLDOLQKXPDQFRPSXWHULQWHU- action and applied as a social approach for analysis and design of computer-mediated conversations for people interacting with each other (Preece et al., 1994). For example, Winograd (1988) showed an approach that used this perspective to view languages as a means by which people act. This perspective often refers to the speech act theory GH¿QHGLQLWLDOO\E\$XVWLQIRUGHVFULELQJ the phenomenon in a social society that people use speech to act; for example, demanding or promising something. The theory was expanded E\6HDUOHZLWKWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIDVSHHFK act with four different subacts: 1. Utterance acts with uttering words. 2. Prepositional acts with referring and predi- cating. 3. Illocutionary acts with stating, questioning, commanding, and promising. 4. Perlocutionary acts with causing an effect on hearers. The expanded theory considers an utterance as the speech within each turn (person A says something, then person B says something, then person A says something again, etc.) Often, the utterances of the conversation can be grouped into pairs: a question and an answer or a state- ment and an agreement. An utterance should be XQGHUVWDQGDEOHWRWKHOLVWHQHUDQGVKRXOGEHVXI¿- ciently unambiguous for the listener to understand (Dix et al., 2004). This means that the speaker 2397 Dialogue Act Modeling should be aware of the model of understanding the listener and vice versa. The speech act theory explains how people in a society use language for talking about events in the external world as observers and also for the communication act within the world as actors in the society (Agerfalk & Erisson, 2004). In com- SXWHUVRFLHW\,6ZDVHYHQGH¿QHGDVODQJXDJH systems in general used to perform communica- tion acts (Goldkuhl & Lyytinen, 1982). Current modeling approaches based on this theory include COMMODIOUS (Holm & Ljungberg, 1996), con- version-for-action schema (Winograd & Flores, 1987), DEMO (Dietz, 2001), and action-oriented conceptual modeling (Agerfalk & Erisson, 2004). Application of these approaches in IS analysis has SURYHG WKDWWKLV WKHRU\FDQ VXSSRUW VLJQL¿FDQW understanding of the pragmatic aspects of the system. This success has encouraged us to use this theory in WBIS analysis, because WBIS also uses a language on a Web site for interactive com- munication and other things such as demanding and promising something. However, current modeling approaches ob- serve interaction between users and IS in the developer’s perspective and regard it as input/ RXWSXW RI WKH V\VWHP VXFK DV GDWD ÀRZV DQG communication acts as data transformations internal through different media such as a com- SXWHUVFUHHQ6XFKREVHUYDWLRQLVQRWVXI¿FLHQWLQ WBIS modeling because WBIS in general not only deals with data transformations but also provides business information and customer services. The interactive communication between the user and : %, 6 L VPRUH W KD Q G DW D ÀR Z V E HFD X V H LW FD Q P H D Q  RWKHUWKLQJVVXFKDVLQIRUPDWLRQÀRZVHJFDU OLVWRUJDQL]DWLRQÀRZVHJVDOHVGHSDUWPHQW DQGVHUYLFHÀRZVHJEX\FDU7KHGLDORJXHDFW modeling approach treats the interactive com- PXQLFDWLRQDV GLDORJXHV,W GH¿QHV DVHTXHQFH RIGLDORJXHVDVDGLDORJXHÀRZDQGDVSHHFKDFW DVDGLDORJXHDFW,QDGGLWLRQLWGH¿QHVWKHIRXU VXEDFWVWKDWUHIHUWRWKHRQHVGH¿QHGE\6HDUOH (1969): 1. Utterance act is production and commu- nication of physical written messages such DV ³EX\ FDU´ GLVSOD\HG RQ WKH FRPSXWHU screen. 2. Prepositional act is perfo r med by an object VXFKDV³FDU´DQGLWVDWWULEXWHV 3. Illocutionary act is performed by a business VHUYLFHDFWLYLW\VXFKDV³VHOOFDU´ 4. Perlocutionary act VXFK DV ³EX\ FDU´ LV performed by the hearer. It has the effect on the business context. The problem with the language/action per- spective in practice is that conversations may be vague and may result in misunderstandings and promises failure. But Flores (1988) suggested that people would be better at communicating with each other if the types of commitments were made explicit to all parties involved during conversa- tions. This means that if the modeling approach can make commitments of the user and the system explicitly during interaction, misunderstanding can be reduced. The dialogue act modeling ap- proach thus aims to capture and specify such commitments and make them visible on the WBIS Web site for avoiding misunderstanding and for increasing usability. (c) Dialogue Act Model and Dialogue Act Diagram The approach provided a dialogue act diagram (see Table 1) along with the dialogue act modeling technique as a notation representing the dialogue act model. In WBIS analysis, this diagram is produced while building the dialogue act model for the Web site part of WBIS. It provides a com- munication medium in order for the analyst and the user to decide communicational requirements for the Web site of WBIS. 2398 Dialogue Act Modeling (d) Impact of Dialogue Act Model on User Interface Design in WBIS Design Communication requirements have an impact on design of WBIS user interface (Web site), which often is regarded as a whole of the system by the user (Dix et al., 2004). The user’s metal model of IS has a critical impact on the user’s ability to use systems effectively (Szewczak & Snodgrass, 2002). Different users may have different ideas (user model) on how to reach the goal of their tasks within a business context, and ideally, the WBIS analyst should consider different alternatives of communicational requirements in dialogue act modeling. Then, the analyst should let the user compare the alternatives and choose the ones most appropriate for him or her. However, the problem with system modeling is that user modeling tech- niques have been developed in order to instantiate user models as part of computer systems, but as yet, there are no usable conceptual user modeling techniques (Preece et al., 1994). Most user model- ing relies on checklists of user characteristics but QRWRQLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIXVHUUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVDQG commitments in use of the system. The dialogue act modeling aims to support user modeling by visualizing different scenarios of interaction explicitly using dialogue act diagrams. The user and the developer then can discuss the model together in front of the diagrams. Dialogue act modeling also intends to provide a basis for designing user interface elements such as dialogue boxes displayed on the computer screen. Johnson (2000) has explored the problem with the current graphic user interface design in his book: ³$ SDUWLFXODU DQQR\LQJ GHVLJQ HUURU RQHRIWHQ sees in this is dialog boxes that provide no way out other than a direction that users do not really want to go in. Often dialog boxes only seem to trap users and none of the choices is what the user wants” (p. 316). Such dialog boxes force users to stop thinking about their task and, instead, force 7DEOH1RWDWLRQDQGGH¿QLWLRQRIGLDORJXHDFWGLDJUDP 2399 Dialogue Act Modeling XVHUVWR¿QGRXWKRZWRXVHWKHV\VWHP$ZD\ of solving this problem is to display the dialogue act diagram on the Web site to assist the user in building up an appropriate scenario of interaction and dialogue box, as shown in Figure 4, when the user does not know what they exactly want and expect. It has been recognized that developers need to be aware of a user’s cognitive needs and cultural conditioning (Preece et al., 1994). If the user in- terface of WBIS is built based on the developer model but not based on the user model, then the XVHUZLOOKDYHJUHDWGLI¿FXOWLHVLQOHDUQLQJDQG using the system, which can result in a lot of frustration, time-wasting, and error-making. The dialogue act modeling is to build a Web site model acceptable to both users and developers. Part Three: Object Modeling/ Behavior Modeling for Building Object Model/Behavior Model for the IS Part of WBIS In general, WBIS is currently designed and implemented using object-oriented technology in WBIS development with the descriptive view (Conallen, 2003). Therefore, in WBIS analysis, once the dialogue act model is created as the VSHFL¿FDWLRQRIWKHSUDJPDWLFDVSHFWVRID:%,6 it can be used as input to the object model and WKHEHKDYLRUPRGHOWKDWDUHWKHVSHFL¿FDWLRQRI the semantic aspects of the same system, as il- lustrated in Figure 5. Object modeling focuses on business entities (business objects) involved in business contexts and components (system objects) for design and implementation of the system. It is to build an object model for the IS part of WBIS that shows the static structure of the system. A class diagram in UML (Booch et al., 2005) is used to represent this model through this mdoeling (see the example in Figure 9). Behavior modeling focuses on behavior of business entities and components in the object model. It is to build a behavior model for the IS part of WBIS that shows interactions between objects as well as object states in the system. Sequence diagrams and statecharts in UML (Booch et al., 2005; Harel, 1987) are used as the notation to represent this model; the sequence diagram shows the interactions between objects with messages; the statechart describes the states of individual objects in the system (see examples in Figures 10 and 11). Figure 4. Dialogue act modeling for the Web site part of WBIS Dialogue act modelling Developer model H ow can WBIS communicate with users interactively in dialogue within a business context? W hat dose the user need to do in effective dialogue within a business context? User model H ow can the user communicate with WBIS interactively in dialogue within a business context?” W hat are WBIS expected to do and what users themselves intend to do in effective dialogue within a business context? Website model of WBIS (dialogue act model) W hat should WBIS do as expected by the user?” H ow does WBIS interact with the user in the way preferred by the user?” Developer model • How canWBIScommunicate with users interactivelyin dialogue within a business context? • What does the user need to do in effective dialogue within a business context? User model • Howcan theusercommunicatewithWBISinteractivelyin dialogue within a business context? • What areWBIS expectedtodo andwhatusers themselvesintend to do in effective dialogue within a business context? Web site model of WBIS (dialogue act model) • What should WBIS do as expected by the user? • How does WBIS interact with the user in the way preferred by the user? 2400 Dialogue Act Modeling Part Four: The Analysis Process The dialogue act modeling approach provides an analysis process for modeling WBIS in WBIS development. The process will be demonstrated using examples. THE ANALYSIS PROCESS WITH THE APPROACH The analysis process with the dialogue act model- ing approach consists of four stages. Stage One: Build a Dialogue Act Model for the Web Site of WBIS With the Pragmatic View This stage includes the following two steps: • Step 1: (OLFLWEXVLQHVVFRQWH[WVVXFKDV³FDUV´ DQG ³FDU VHDUFK´ DQGVWDNHKROGHUV XVHUV VXFKDV³FXVWRPHU´DQG³FDUFRPSDQ\´ZKR may use the system in future. Consider the following for identifying users and capturing business contexts: { For whom is this system being devel- oped? { Who are the intended users? { What roles do these users play? (Dif- ferent roles imply different criteria and needs within the business context.) { What are the business goals in the user perspective? { What do these users expect to do with or get within the business context? Business contexts and users (called actors of the business context) and their connec- tion are explicitly described in a business context map provided by the approach (see the example shown in Figure 6). Analysis in this step focuses on the business contexts and the user need for the Web site of the system. It should show the business contexts that really interest the user. • Step 2: For each of the business contexts, describe what dialogues with the Web site are expected by actors when they work in Figure 5. Object modeling and behavior modeling in WBIS analysis WBIS analysis with dialogue act modelling approach WBIS developer creates Object modelling and behaviour modelling WBIS in p ut Object model for IS part creates Dialogue act modelling Dialogue act model for website part Dialogue Dialo g ue act S p eaker/hearer State of business context Business context Behaviour mo del for IS part Class/object Operation Attribute Messa g e Object state Resource State transition 2401 Dialogue Act Modeling this business context online. A user-centered language should be used to name dialogues and dialogue acts in this step, as it is critical to making an easy-to-use Web site for WBIS. It must be the language (words and images) that the user can understand simply and quickly (Cato, 2001). In this case, a business language containing business terminolo- gies may be an appropriate user-centered language, because business concepts (e.g., buy and sell) and properties (e.g., customer) described in such language should be accept- able and understandable to users worldwide who speak different languages but share a common business language in global busi- ness. a. Identify dialogues between the Web site and actors by asking actors: ¾ What things/terms/phrases do they want to see on the Web site? ¾ What conversations do they want to take with the system? ¾ What feedbacks do they expect to see on the Web site? ¾ What do they like or dislike in the current way of working? What are their preferable ways of working? +RZVKRXOGWKH:HEVLWHEH¿WWHG into those ways in their view? ¾ What skills and knowledge do they have? Are they motivated to learn and use the Web site, and how much do they like to learn? ¾ Communication requirements must be captured from all the ac- tors in this step, because they can have different points of view on dialogues. It is important for the company to determine the dialogues they hope to take with the user in the business context and vice versa. Dialogues DUHFRQQHFWHGE\GLDORJXHÀRZVLQ a dialogue act diagram, as shown in Figure 7, which was produced IRUWKHEXVLQHVVFRQWH[W³FDUV´LQ Figure 6. Actors are described as the speakers/hearers of the dia- logues. b. Identify dialogue acts by asking ac - tors: ¾ What problems do they want the system to solve? ¾ What do they want to do along the dialogues? ¾ W h a t f e e d b a c k d o t h e y e x p e c t t o r e - ceive when having a dialogue with the system? What action will they take when seeing the feedback? Dialogue acts are recorded in the same dialogue act diagram in connection with the dialogues, as shown in Figure 7. Hearers of Figure 6. Business context map Cars Car search Car for sale Car for hire Company services Business context, the start dialogue in the dialogue act diagram Actor Connection De p artments Contact Customer Car Hirer Car Bu y er Car Com p an y Car Company Car Com p an y Customer 2402 Dialogue Act Modeling dialogues are the performers of these dia- logue acts. Each dialogue may be connected with many dialogue acts if it has different hearers in the business context. c. Show states of the business context (effects of performance of the dialogue acts) The dialogue acts have an effect on the business context, and they can change WKHVWDWHVRILW)RUH[DPSOHWKH³VHOO car” dialogue act made the state of the EXVLQHVVFRQWH[W³FDUV´FKDQJHGIURP ³RIIHUHG´WR³RUGHULQJ´DVLOOXVWUDWHG in Figure 7. Table 2 summarizes what Figure 7 means to the Web site of the system in WKH³FDUV´EXVLQHVVFRQWH[W)LJXUH is a user interface tree that shows how this dialogue act model can be the in- put to the design and help design user interfaces and navigation structures in the user’s perspective. Figure 7. Dialogue act diagram for the business context “cars” Car Buyer WBIS Cars Offer car Car list Buy car Order car Sell car Demand car Car Buyer Car Buyer WBIS Order details Order form WBIS WBIS Payment details Payment form Car Buyer e-Bank Pay order Demand payment Process payment Transfer cash Delivery Clear payment Payment confirmation WBIS Car Demand deliver y Car Buyer WBIS Delivery confirmation Offered Ordering Paying Delivering Delivered Or dered Paid Complete sale Car Supplier Car Supplier Deliver car 2403 Dialogue Act Modeling {precondition} Dialogue (meaning) Speaker-Hearer Dialogue act performed by hearer Resource State of business context {} CarsZDQWWR¿QGDFDU Car Buyer-WBIS Offer car Offered {Offer car} Car list (promise to offer cars) WBIS-Buyer Demand car {Demand car}Buy car (want to own a car) Car Buyer-WBIS Sell car Ordering {Sell car}Order form (demand order details) WBIS- Car Buyer Order car {Order car} Order details (promise to buy car) Car Buyer-WBIS Demand payment Ordered {Demand payment} Payment form (want to get pay) WBIS- Car Buyer Pay order Paying {Pay order} Payment details (promise to pay) Car Buyer-WBIS Process payment {Process payment} Clear payment (want to get cash) WBIS-e-Bank Transfer money {Transfer cash} Payment FRQ¿UPDWLRQVWDWHSD\PHQW accepted) e-Bank-WBIS Demand delivery Paid {Demand delivery} Delivery (want to deliver car) WBIS-Car Supplier Deliver car {Deliver car} Delivery FRQ¿UPDWLRQVWDWHGHOLYHU\GRQH WBIS Complete car sale Car Delivered Table 2. The business context “cars” Figure 8. User interface tree—hierarchy of business contexts and dialogues x Car buyer wants to find a car x Car buyer wants to buy a car x Car buyer orders a car x Car buyer pays order, e-bank transfers cash, car supplier delivers car … User responsibility / commitment User action on computer screen Hierarchy of business contexts with dialogues in WBIS Cars Car for sale Car search Order form Payment form Buy car (part of the Car for sale business context) Car search (nested business context) clicks on selects fills com p lete s etc. The start dialogue in Figure 6 Dialogues in the Cars business con- text in Figure 7 . com- munication and other things such as demanding and promising something. However, current modeling approaches ob- serve interaction between users and IS in the developer’s perspective and regard. with referring and predi- cating. 3. Illocutionary acts with stating, questioning, commanding, and promising. 4. Perlocutionary acts with causing an effect on hearers. The expanded theory considers. role of the user and the system as well as user commitments and system obliga- tions. In WBIS design and implementation, a system obligation may mean a function of WBIS, and a user commitment