1514 The Human Face of E-Business sessions (e.g., Witkowski, Neville, & Pitt, 2003). The second category entails trust questionnaires in an experiment environment, in this approach the majority of studies used an experiential sur- vey, that is, participants were asked to navigate WRDVSHFL¿HGRUVHOIVHOHFWHG,QWHUQHWFRPSDQ\ DQGKDGWRSHUIRUPVHYHUDOSUHGH¿QHGWDVNVDQG DIWHUZDUGVUHSRUWRQWKHLULPSUHVVLRQVE\¿OOLQJ out a questionnaire (e.g., Jarvenpaa et al., 2000). A second group of studies that used this approach, applied a basic survey approach, that is, subjects were administered a questionnaire or they were pointed to an online-questionnaire form without previously visiting any e-commerce Web site (e.g., Bhattacherjee, 2002). The third category involves social dilemma games, studies in this category measure players’ rate of cooperation and defection to infer media effects on trust and trustworthy behavior (e.g., Brosig et al., 2002). From a clear review of these approaches, there are distinct advantages and disadvantages. For this study it was decided to use the hypothesis- testing laboratory and experimental quantitative approach. This approach allows a high level of experimental control for independent variables while keeping resource requirements relatively low. All experimental tasks during this research experiment were performed in a computer labo- ratory. The research instrument to measure the constructs of interest was developed by adapting existing measures from the literature to the cur- rent research context. All items were scored on D¿YHSRLQW/LNHUWW\SHVFDOHUDQJLQJIURP strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree (see Ap- pendix 1). As the experiment was conducted in an Arabic speaking country, the questionnaire, originally written in English, was translated into Arabic by a bilingual person whose native language is Arabic. The Arabic questionnaire was then translated back into English by another bilingual person. This English version was then compared with the original version and no items ZHUHIRXQGWRGHYLDWH VLJQL¿FDQWO\LQWHUPVRI language. This process was conducted not only because it can prevent any distortions in meaning across cultures, but also because it can enhance the translation quality. The study question items FRQVLVWHGRI¿YHVHFWLRQV7KH¿UVWVHFWLRQLQFOXGHG the basic demographic characteristics such as age, gender, education level, and Internet experience. In the second section, respondents were asked to answer questions on their online purchasing experience. In the third section, respondents were tested for their trust propensity or disposition to trust DQ LQGLYLGXDO WUDLW GH¿QHG DV D ³JHQHUDO willingness based on extended socialization to depend on others” (McKnight & Chervany, 2001). The questionnaire items were selected based on their high reliability and validity to discriminate the construct and achieve a high Cronbach alpha value; this was adapted from Teo and Liu (2005) and Gefen (2000). In the fourth section, respon- dents were asked to answer a question adapted from McKnigh et al. (2002) regarding their belief towards the Internet as a new medium or as a new HQYLURQPHQWLHKRZFRQ¿GHQWWKH\IHHOLQWKH Internet system). This item was adapted based on high value of reliability and validity—its Cronbach DOSKDYDOXHZDV7KH¿IWKVHFWLRQWHVWHGUH- spondents on their trust and trust intentions toward the e-commerce vendor. The questionnaire items UHÀHFWHGWKHPRVWFRPPRQWUXVWEHOLHIGLPHQ- sions, which are ability, integrity, and benevolence. Also it measured trust intentions—intentions to engage in trust-related behaviors with the Web vendor. All items in this section were adapted from Kammerer (2000), since his questionnaire items effectively discriminate trustworthy from less trustworthy online vendors. Also, Kammerer reports excellent reliability scores with Cronbach alpha values of 0.97%. Experimental Procedure and Tasks Previous online trust research has been criticized for relying on measuring trust without inducing any form of risk (Riegelsberger et al., 2003), 1515 The Human Face of E-Business which represents an important key related to trust. To overcome these criticisms, this study LQGXFHG¿QDQFLDOULVNLQDODERUDWRU\VLWXDWLRQ While it does not fully represent a real-world risk, nevertheless, it allowed combining a laboratory setting with some element of real-world risk by informing participants that the experiment Web site trustworthiness had been assessed and rated by independent business reviewer sites and one of their tasks was to identify the trustworthiness of each shopping site; those whose rating matched the real trustworthiness rate would be entered into a lucky draw with prizes such as a laptop to be offered in a random draw conducted at the end of the study. In this way we induced a slightly higher level of risk thus, increasing the realism of the experiment and encouraging participation. At the beginning of the experiment a brief introduction and the total estimated time that it would take were given. Then participants started WKH¿UVWSDUWRIWKHH[SHULPHQWE\RSHQLQJWKH¿UVW experiment page, which includes the experiment objectives and instructions, then they started ¿OOLQJ RXW VHWV RI WKH ¿UVW IRXU TXHVWLRQQDLUHV sections, which extracted some demographic characteristics, online purchasing experience, disposition to trust, and their belief towards the Internet as a new medium or as a new environ- ment. In the second part each subject was asked to look at four Web sites and browse them. This involved looking at the site and then evaluating the e-commerce vendor using the online vendor trust questionnaire. This process was repeated for all four Web sites in the set. However, in order to avoid predictability and the effect of learning by subjects within the scenarios (the possibility that participants exposed to a particular interface or t a s k w o u l d d o b e t t e r t h e n e x t t i m e t h e y w e r e a s k e d WRXVHLWZHGH¿QHGHDFKPHGLDFXHWRDSDUWLFXODU vendor Web site since they had almost the same usability criteria. Also, within the experiment software we included a software module with the capability to control the order display scenario of the four Web sites so that different subjects would receive each of the four experimental Web sites in a different order. :KHQVXEMHFWV¿QLVKHGWKH\ZHUHDVNHGWR move on to the third part which comprised one WDVN,QWKH¿UVWWDVNHDFKVXEMHFWZDVDVNHGWR VHDUFKWKH¿UVW:HEVLWHVHHQDQGLPDJLQHWKDW they had enough money to buy a laptop that would serve their needs for the next two years. The sub- jects were required to indicate the model, price, DQGFHUWDLQSURGXFWVSHFL¿FDWLRQVRIWKHLU¿QDO laptop choice. Once the participants had found their products and completed their responses on WKHLQVWUXFWLRQIRUPWKH\ZHUHDVNHGWR¿OORXW the vendor trust questionnaire again. DATA ANALYSIS All data analysis was conducted using the SPSS Windows software package. A total of 72 subjects participated in this study, all male and between the ages of 18-25 and 26-35 respectively; most (79.2%) held bachelor degrees. As expected, this group was Internet-savvy with over 39% of the respondents spending between 6 and 10 hours online per week. On average, the majority made at least one online purchase per week and 28% of the respondents spent 2000SR (1$=3.75SR) or more per online purchase. Testing the Research Hypotheses The experiment analysis is based on the well- known statistical test of Friedman. This test is an alternative to the repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), when the assumption of normality or equality of variance is not met. This, like many non-parametric tests, uses the ranks of the data rather than their raw values to calculate the statistic. This test was chosen because it is suitable for comparing variant vendor Web sites embedded with different media cues when the relative data sample has some characteristics also presented in 1516 The Human Face of E-Business this context, including the following ones (Peter & Smeeton, 2001; Sheskin, 2004): • The experimental data is not parametric, that is, the dependent variables are not normally distributed. • The number of compared Web sites is two and more. In our context, we typically com- pared several vendors Web sites embedded with different media cues. • The same subjects were used to observe dif - ferent manipulation in vendors’ Web sites. 7RWHVWWKH¿UVWK\SRWKHVLVH-1), the Fried- man test was used. This test was computed for trust belief and trust intention of all Web sites to VHHLIWKHUHZHUHDQ\VLJQL¿FDQWVWDWLVWLFDOGLIIHU- ences between the subjects’ answers with regard to the trustworthiness of the four Web sites. Two W\SHVRIGDWDZHUHXVHGLQWKHDQDO\VLVWKH¿UVW was the mean value of each subject answer, and the second was the actual subject answer regard- ing each questionnaire item. Results showed the VXEMHFWVGLIIHUHGVLJQL¿FDQWO\RQWKHLUUDWLQJRI their initial trust and trust intention regarding the four vendors’ Web sites owing to the overall VWDWLVWLFDOVLJQL¿FDQFH3 DWOHYHOVXV- LQJWKHWZRNLQGVRIGDWDVRWKH¿UVWK\SRWKHVLV was supported (see Table 1). In order to test the second hypothesis (H-2-a, b, c) it was necessary to conduct comparisons FRQWUDVWLQJVSHFL¿FFRQGLWLRQVZLWKRQHDQRWKHU Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test was recommended by Sheskin (2004) and Peter and Smeeton (2001) for conducting the three pairwise comparisons (video clip, photo, no photo) with regard to trust belief and trust intention. Table 2 contains the results. Trust Belief Trust Intention Ability Integrity Benevolence N72727272 Friedman test Sig at 5% Yes Yes Yes Yes Table 1. Friedman test for trust belief and trust intention between the four Web sites Web site Trust type Rank Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Asymp.Sig With photo Trust Belief 1 Yes Trust Intention 1 Yes With video clip Trust Belief 2 Yes Trust Intention 2 No With no photo Trust Belief 3 Yes Table 2. Results of Wilcoxon signed rank test 1517 The Human Face of E-Business After reviewing the three analyses, it was IRXQGWKDWDOOSDLUZLVHFRPSDULVRQVZHUHVLJQL¿- cant, with the exception of the video-photo Web site comparison in trust intention. Subjects rated the trust belief and trust intention for the photo Web site the highest, the video clip Web site next highest, and the no photo Web site as the lowest. Thus, the second hypothesis was only partially supported, since the vendor Web site utilizing the video clip came second rather than the expected ¿UVW SRVLWLRQ $ SRVVLEOH H[SODQDWLRQ IRU WKLV unexpected result is that the video clip was not recorded to professional standards. The same procedure followed when testing the ¿UVWDQGWKHVHFRQGK\SRWKHVLVZDVDOVRXVHGWR test the H-3 and the H-4 hypotheses, but in this case between two vendor Web sites only, (the Web site with the Saudi photo and the Web site with the Western photo). The Friedman matched samples results are shown in Table 3. The analysis showed WKDWVXEMHFWVGLIIHUHGVLJQL¿FDQWO\RQWKHLUUDWLQJ of their trust belief (ability and integrity, although not for benevolence dimension), and also for trust intention in respect of the two vendor Web sites RYHUDOOVWDWLVWLFDOVLJQL¿FDQFHRIS DW levels using the two kinds of data); so the third hypothesis was fully supported (see Table 3). With respect to the fourth hypothesis (H-4), the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test was conducted for comparison, contrasting spe- FL¿FFRQGLWLRQVZLWKRQHDQRWKHUZLWKUHJDUGWR trust belief and trust intention. Table 4 contains the results. From Wilcoxon test analyses, it can be said W K DW SD L U Z L V H F RP SD U L V R Q Z D V V LJ Q L ¿F D QW 6 X EM H F W V rated the trust belief and trust intention for the Web site using a Saudi photo as the highest; the Web site with a Western photo next. So the fourth hypothesis was supported. Trust Belief Trust Intention Ability Integrity Benevolence N72727272 Friedman test Sig at 5% Yes Yes No Yes Table 3. Friedman test for trust belief and trust intention between the two Web sites Web site Trust type Rank Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Asymp.Sig With Saudi photo Trust Belief 1 Yes Trust Intention 1 Yes With Western photo Trust Belief 2 Yes Trust Intention 2 Yes Table 4. Results of Wilcoxon signed rank test 1518 The Human Face of E-Business Analysis of the Exploration Depth In terms of investigating the factor depth of a us- ers’ exploration of a site (exploration depth) which LQÀXHQFHVWKHHIIHFWRIPHGLDVXEMHFWRQXVHUWUXVW 5HVHDUFK *RDO D VXSHU¿FLDO H[SORUDWLRQ RI the home page and additional pages with no task browsing was compared to a subsequent in-depth Table 8. Results of Wilcoxon signed rank test Trust Belief Trust Intention Ability Integrity Benevolence N72727272 Friedman test Sig at 5% Yes Yes Yes Yes Table 5. Friedman test for trust belief and trust intention between the four Web sites Trust Belief Trust Intention Ability Integrity Benevolence N72727272 Friedman test Sig at 5% Yes Yes No Yes Table 6. Friedman test for trust belief and trust intention between the two Web sites Web site Trust type Rank Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Asymp.Sig With photo Trust Belief 1 Yes Trust Intention 1 Yes With video clip Trust Belief 2 Yes Trust Intention 2 Yes With no photo Trust Belief 3 Yes Trust Intention 3 Yes Table 7. Results of Wilcoxon signed rank test Web site Trust type Rank Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Asymp.Sig With Saudi photo Trust Belief 1 Yes Trust Intention 1 Yes With Western photo Trust Belief 2 Yes Trust Intention 2 Yes 1519 The Human Face of E-Business exploration of a vendor’s site, beyond the home SDJHZLWKSUHGH¿QHGWDVNEURZVLQJ+HQFHHDFK SDUWLFLSDQWLQWKLVVFHQDULRVDZWKH¿UVWYHQGRU¶V VLWHWZLFH¿UVWRQO\WKHKRPHSDJHDQGWKHDG- ditional pages that were linked from it, but with DJHQHUDOEURZVLQJWDVNVXSHU¿FLDOH[SORUDWLRQ then the home page and additional pages, but with WKH VSHFL¿F WDVN RILPDJLQDU\ SXUFKDVLQJ²DQ in-depth exploration. The introduction of the exploration depth was used for several reasons. Most trust models indicated that browsing time is an essential factor affecting trust. Initial trust in WKH¿UVWHQFRXQWHUGHSHQGVRQIDFWRUVRWKHUWKDQ behavioral trust that emerges from a long-standing relationship. Applying this consideration to the initial trust that can be measured in a laboratory experiment, it can be proposed that the level of trust will be based upon factors other than initial trust after a detailed exploration of the site. A media cue might have a strong effect based on a TXLFNORRNEXWPLJKWORVHLWVVLJQL¿FDQFHRQFH more information (e.g., from a site’s security and privacy policies) is obtainable. On the other KDQGLWFDQEHH[SHFWHGWKDWWKH¿UVWLPSUHVVLRQ HJL QÀXHQFHGE\DPHGLDFXHFDQFRORUI XU W KHU information processing and thus have a long-term effect (Baron & Byrne, 2004). The same analysis techniques were used in LQYHVWLJDWLQJ WKH GDWD 7KH DQDO\VLVFRQ¿UPHG WKHVDPH¿QGLQJWKDWWKHUHZDVDVWDWLVWLFDOVLJ- QL¿FDQFHEHWZHHQWUXVWRIWKHIRXUYHQGRUV¶:HE sites, where the Web sites with a facial photo were UDQNHG¿UVWDQGW KHQWKRVHZLWKDYLGHRFO LS$ OVR the vendor Web site with a Saudi photo was trusted PRUH VWDWLVWLFDOO\ VLJQL¿FDQW WKDQ WKDW ZLWK D Western photo (see Tables 5, 6, 7, and 8). Finally, many nonparametric correlation tests were conducted to see whether there were any VLJQL¿FDQWUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQWKHWUXVWEHOLHI trust intention and participants’ trust disposition; system assurance; age; education level; or Internet XVDJH5HVXOWVVKRZHGQRVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW differences between any of these variables. DISCUSSION This experiment investigated initial trust in e- c o m m e r c e v e n d o r s . I t e x p l o r e d t h e e f f e c t o f a d d i n g a media cue (video clip or facial photo) to the home page of an e-commerce vendor and the effect of interpersonal cues that are implicit in media cues, on users’ trust in that vendor. It further studied the effect of the culture represented by a facial photo of a Western or Saudi man on users’ trust in that vendor. The factor depth of a users’ exploration RIDVLWHH[SORUDWLRQGHSWKZDVIRXQGWRLQÀX- ence the effect of media cue on user trust. On a methodological level, the study aimed to overcome part of the limitations of conventionally used trust questionnaires conducted under conditions of no ¿QDQFLDOULVNE\LQWURGXFLQJWUXVWTXHVWLRQQDLUHV WKDWZHUHHOLFLWHGXQGHU¿QDQFLDOULVN 7KHDQDO\VHVIRXQGWKDWWKHUHZHUHVLJQL¿FDQW differences in vendors’ trustworthiness. This supports earlier research by Fogg et al. (2001) and Steinbrueck and Schaumburg (2002), and SURYLGHVVXSSRUWIRUWKH¿UVWK\SRWKHVLV,WZDV found that media cues can manipulate and bias us- ers’ judgments towards vendors’ trustworthiness based upon inspection of surface cues. Thus, this experiment demonstrated that users can perceive the trustworthiness of a vendor from the surface cues that are present in a media cue displayed as part of the user interface. Results from the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test for responses given by subjects on the vendors trust belief and trust intention showed favor for WKH 6DXGL SKRWR ¿UVW ZLWK WKH :HVWHUQ YLGHR clip as second and the Western photo as third LQ WKH VXSHU¿FLDO H[SORUDWLRQ WDVN ZKLOH DIWHU in-depth exploration participants showed more trusting responses to the media cue vendors’ in terms of trust, and in their declared measures of preference. An interesting and important result is that the effect of trust was improved once users explored vendors’ sites in greater depth, once they had 1520 The Human Face of E-Business ORRNHGI X U WKHUIRUDVSHFL¿FWDVNLQSDJHVEH\RQG the home page. It can be interpreted that the cues that carried reliable information about a vendors’ trustworthiness were perceived, and media cues FRXOGHDVLO\LQÀXHQFHWKLVGHFLVLRQ+HQFHDPH- dia cue has a long-term effect on user trust and it biases the perception of other site elements (Baron & Byrne, 2004). Rather, the additional informa- tion perceived on additional pages improved the relative impact of the media cue. In contrast to earlier studies on the effect of photos on e-commerce sites, this experiment investigated the effect of two different cultural photos (Western man and Saudi man) across two different e-commerce sites. This experiment found a bias for the presence of the Saudi photo over the Western photo in terms of trust measures LQWKHVXSHU¿FLDOH[SORUDWLRQWDVNLQWKHGHSWK exploration task, and in terms of preference. CONCLUSION This experiment addressed the main research goals of the study. First, it investigated a media FXH¶VIDFLDOSKRWRRUYLGHRFOLSDELOLW\WRLQÀX- ence user trust in respect of e-commerce vendors, based on surface cues that were implemented in the me d ia cue. T h is go al is of h ig h r ele va nc e, be cau se this strategy is now being used by e-commerce vendors (especially facial photographs, but not yet video) in an attempt to increase trust and attract customers. Secondly, this research tested the ef- fect on user trust of adding a facial photo from two different cultures (Western and Saudi) to an e-commerce vendor’s home page. It thus focused on the symbolic use of interpersonal cues. This goal, despite its importance for the development of trust in e-commerce, has not been addressed in previous research. Thirdly, the experiment was concerned with investigating how time, as an independent variable, represented by the depth of a users’ exploration of a site (exploration depth), LQÀXHQFHVWKHHIIHFWRIDPHGLDFXHRQXVHUWUXVW E\FRPSDULQJDVXSHU¿FLDOH[SORUDWLRQRIWKH home page and additional pages with no task browsing to a subsequent in-depth exploration of a vendor’s site beyond the home page with SUHGH¿QHGWDVNEURZVLQJ)RXUWKO\PRVWRIWKH previous studies tested the effects of adding one photo to a mock-up of one e-commerce site. This experiment aimed to overcome this limitation by testing several photos on several semi-functional copies of existing vendors’ sites. In addition, this experiment introduced a method for measuring trust that required participants to make decisions XQGHUFRQGLWLRQVRI¿QDQFLDOULVN This experiment found that media cues in the interface are indeed able to affect a vendor’s trustworthiness based on the surface cues it contains. A clear picture emerged regarding the effect of photos from different cultures. The experimental results found a positive effect of the media cues LQWKHWZRVWDJHVRIH[SORUDWLRQ²DVXSHU¿FLDO exploration and an in-depth exploration of a vendors’ Web site. These visceral reactions, however, appear to color the subsequent process- ing of signals, as their effect improved with the perception of additional signals from an in-depth exploration. From a methodology point of view, this experi- PHQWYHUL¿HGWKDW¿QDQFLDOULVNFDQEHXVHGLQD laboratory experiment to enhance the validity of trust research. Analyzing users’ behavior leads to a relevant outcome to e-commerce vendors since they are concerned with users’ purchase decisions. :LWKUHVSHFWWRLQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHLQÀXHQFH of the auxiliary variables on trust, such as trust disposition, system assurance, age, education level, and Internet usage, the experiment did not ¿QGDQ\VLJQL¿FDQWHYLGHQFHWKDWFRXOGVXSSRUW DQ\NLQGRILQÀXHQFH )L Q D O O\ E D V H G R Q W K H ¿ Q G L Q J V RI W K HH [ S H U L P H Q W it is suggested that Web designers and e-com- merce vendors should keep in mind the following recommendations when introducing e-commerce 1521 The Human Face of E-Business applications in Middle Eastern countries in gen- eral, and in Saudi Arabia in particular: 7KHUHLVDVLJQL¿FDQWHIIHFWRIDPHGLDFXHLQ B2C e-commerce Web sites. Users arriving at a VLWHKRPHSDJHZLOOGHFLGHEDVHGXSRQWKHLU¿UVW impressions, whether to explore the site in more depth or leave it and go instead to a competitor’s site. 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