1164 Adoption of Internet Technology by the Banking Industry in Oman Many studies (e.g., Davis, 1989; Segars & Grover, 1993; Taylor & Todd, 1995b) have exam- ined TAM across various technologies and have found TAM to be a reliable and valid model for predicting and explaining technology adoption or acceptance behavior. Various studies utilized TAM to assess users’ acceptance or rejection of various computer technologies such as microcom- puters (Igbaria, Guimaraes, & Davis, 1995), DOS and Windows (Speier, Morris, & Bridggs, 1995), word processing software (Adams, Nelson, & Todd, 1992; Davis et al., 1989; Davis & Venkatesh, 1996; Hendrickson & Collins, 1996; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996), spreadsheets (Mathieson, 1991), groupware (Taylor & Todd, 1995a), database man- agement systems (Szajna, 1994), e-mail (Adams et al., 1992; Davis, 1989; Szajna, 1996), and the World Wide Web (Lederer, Maupin, Sena, & Zhuang, 2000). Other studies extended TAM by including other variables such as perceived cred- ibility (Wang, Wang, Lin, & Tang, 2003), gender difference (Gefen & Straub, 1997), and enjoyment (Al-Gahtani & King, 1999). In summary, although several authors (Davis et al., 1989; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000) assert that TAM is a useful model for predicting user technology adoption behavior, the studies showed mixed results. Moreover, most of these studies concentrated on the fundamental prescriptions of TAM with the exception of the study by Wang et al. (2003) which included per- ceived credibility. Diffusion of Innovations The theory of diffusion of innovations as described b y Ro ge r s (19 95) i s w el l k n ow n . Rog e r s d e s c r i b e s diffusion of innovations as: … the process by which an innovation is commu- nicated through certain channels over time among the members of social systems. It is a special type of communication, in that the messages are concerned with new ideas. (Rogers, 1995) In the diffusion process, Rogers stresses the importance of communication in an attempt to educate the customer about the innovation FRQFHUQHG+HLGHQWL¿HVIRXUPDLQHOHPHQWVDQ innovation, communication channels, time, and the social system. Rogers suggests that consum- ers’ reactions to the innovation can be measured based on how an innovation is different, how well it is communicated, how long it takes to persuade customers to adopt it, and whether the social sys- tem is structured towards achieving a common goal. According to Rogers the four elements of the diffusion of innovation provide an indication of how an innovation is passed to the consumer IURP¿UVWNQRZOHGJHRIWKLVLQQRYDWLRQWRLWV¿QDO adoption or rejection. The adoption decision for an innovation such as Internet technology in the EDQNLQJLQGXVWU\LVGH¿QHGDV … the process through which an individual (or RWKHU GHFLVLRQPDNLQJ XQLW SDVVHV IURP ¿UVW knowledge of an innovation to forming an at- titude toward the innovation, to a decision to adopt or reject, to implementation and use of the QHZLGHDDQGWRFRQ¿UPDWLRQRIWKLVGHFLVLRQ (Rogers, 1995). A decision not to adopt an innovation relates to the rejection of the available new idea. How- ever, in order to explain the rate of adoption of innovations, Rogers suggests measurement of the following perceived characteristics of innova- tions: (1) relative advantage, (2) compatibility, (3) complexity, (4) trialability, and (5) observability. Rogers (1995) postulated that the adoption of LQQRYDWLRQVLV LQÀXHQFHGE\WKHVH ¿YHFKDUDF- teristics, and that they can explain the rate of technology adoption. Developing a Framework for this Study This study involved an exploratory investigation of Internet technology adoption in the Omani 1165 Adoption of Internet Technology by the Banking Industry in Oman banking industry, informed by the situation in the Australia. The various technology adoption models described suggest that a number of factors might affect adoption. Relative advantage and ease of use, suggested by Moore and Benbasat ZHUH ¿UVWO\ FRQVLGHUHG LQ WKH DQDO\VLV 5RJHUV RULJLQDOO\ LGHQWL¿HG WKHVH WZR perceptions of technology adoption as relative advantage and complexity. Moore and Benbasat (1991) and Taylor and Todd (1995b) explained that these two constructs are similar to those of TAM (Davis, 1986). They highlighted the fact that relative advantage is similar to the perceived usefulness construct and perceived complexity is similar to perceived ease of use, due to the simi- ODULW\LQWKHLUGH¿QLWLRQVDQGLQWKHRSHUDWLRQRI their measurements. Two additional perceptions, organizational performance and customer/orga- QL]DWLRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSQRWSUHYLRXVO\LGHQWL¿HG in the ICT literature, were also considered. From an analysis of this literature, and from some preliminary discussions with bank managers, a theoretical framework was devised that suggests that bank managers’ perceptions of only four adoption factors: • Relative Advantage • Organizational Performance • Customer/Organizational Relationship • Ease of Use might affect any decision to adopt Internet tech- nology in the banking industry. The results of the VWXG\VSHFL¿FDOO\LQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHPDMRUHQDEOHUV and inhibitors of Internet technology adoption in the banking industry in Oman, suggest that these four adoption factors do indeed provide a useful explanation of this adoption. RESEARCH METHOD The Australian banking industry was considered in this investigation because of the advanced development of its Internet technology adoption. By examining Internet technology adoption in the banking industry of a developing country in relation to a developed country, the study hoped to provide a richer understanding of the industry and to enrich the analysis of how to improve Internet technology adoption in the banking industry in Oman. Twenty-seven interviews were conducted with strategic, tactical, and operational managers DWHDFKRIQLQHPDMRUEDQNV¿YHLQ2PDQ%DQN of Dhofar, Oman Arab Bank, Oman International Bank, and National Bank of Oman) and four in Australia (National Australia Bank, WestPac, Commonwealth Bank, and Australia New Zea- land Bank). Selection of interviewees was made from DYDLODEOHDQGZLOOLQJEDQNRI¿FHUVVRWKDWURXJKO\ equal number from each management group were FRQVLGHUHG$VLJQL¿FDQWGLI¿FXOW\ZDVHQFRXQ- tered in arranging interviews with Australian EDQNHUV EXW HYHQWXDOO\ VRPH EDQN RI¿FHUV RI appropriate standing did agree to participate and gave willing of their time, however, several hoped for interviews did not eventuate thus restricting the depth of the information gathered about some Australian banks. Given the exploratory nature of this investigation, data was gathered through semi-structured interviews with these managers, and available internal and public reports were used to facilitate understanding and to explore Internet technology adoption. Interview ques- WLRQVZHUHGHYLVHGWRFRYHUWKHLVVXHVLGHQWL¿HG from the literature and the research framework. Statements by participants are very important sources of evidence, and interviews were thus tape-recorded for later analysis. The average interview time was around 35 minutes. A schedule of semi-structured interviews with WKHVH PDQDJHUV ZDV VHWXS WR JDWKHU ¿HOG HYL- dence of perceptions of the four adoption factors: relative advantage, organizational performance, customer/organizational relationship, and ease of XVH,QWHUYLHZVZHUHEDVHGRQLVVXHVLGHQWL¿HG from the literature to explore in-depth the major 1166 Adoption of Internet Technology by the Banking Industry in Oman enablers and inhibitors of Internet technology adoption in the banking industries of Oman and Australia. The four interview factors are further described: Perceived Relative Advantage Discussion here concentrated on the extent to which a manager perceives that Internet tech- nology would enable their organization to gain relative advantage in the industry. From NVIVO analysis of the interviews, issues related to SHUFHLYHGUHODWLYHDGYDQWDJHZHUHLGHQWL¿HGDV convenience of services, innovation of ideas, and management of services. Perceived Organizational Performance This explored the extent to which a manager perceives that Internet technology could improve organizational performance in the industry. Clearly, if an organization expects to improve its performance with Internet technology then the likelihood of their adopting it will be greater. From NVIVO analysis of the interviews, perceived organizational performance related issues were: SUR¿WDELOLW\PDUNHWHQYLURQPHQWDQGHPSOR\HHV¶ productivity. Perceived Customer/ Organizational Relationship Here the discussion emphasized the extent to which a manager perceives that Internet tech- nology would improve their organization’s relationship with customers. If an organization perceives that Internet technology can improve its relationship with its customers then the like- lihood of their adopting it will be higher. From the literature it was possible to identify focused issues as: customer trust, customer commitment, and customer satisfaction. Perceived Ease of Use ,IDEDQNRI¿FHUSHUFHLYHVWKDW,QWHUQHWWHFKQRO- ogy is easy to use then they will most likely be motivated to adopt this technology. The issues LGHQWL¿HGKHUHE\19,92DQDO\VLVRIWKHLQWHU- views include: easy to navigate, easy to learn, and easy to manage. Analysis of Data The elaborated responses from the 27 managers ZHUHDQDO\]HGDQGWKH¿QGLQJVUHSRUWHGDFFRUG- ing to suggestions for data reduction and display offered by various authors (Miles & Huberman, Country Number of banks Interviews: Strategic Interviews: Tactical Interviews: Operational Total Participants Australia 44 44 12 Oman 55 55 15 Total 9 9 9 9 27 7DEOH&ODVVL¿FDWLRQRISDUWLFLSDQWVDFFRUGLQJWRFRXQWU\DQGOHYHORIPDQDJHPHQW 1167 Adoption of Internet Technology by the Banking Industry in Oman 1994; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). NVIVO (version 2) qualitative research software was utilized in DQDO\]LQJWKHGDWD6SHFL¿FDOO\19,92DVVLVWHG the analysis in both reducing (organizing and sorting) and displaying the evidence (creation of thematic conceptual tables) in a way that made it easier to see. A case-by-case matrix display was prepared using NVIVO to compare partici- pants’ perceptions on various issues. A thematic conceptual matrix display was then produced to compare and identify similar or different patterns of concerns within both banking industries to facilitate understanding of Internet technology adoption. Another thematic conceptual matrix dis- play was produced to compare and identify similar or different concerns within different levels of management (strategic, tactical, and operational). From the analysis it was possible to: • Identify major patterns to facilitate in-depth understanding of Internet technology adop- tion • Reduce the data through the process of generating categories and establishing links (e.g., open and axial coding) as suggested by Strauss and Corbin (1990), using a grounded theory approach where a code is attached to a segment of text and then links between the coded data are explored. • Display thematic conceptual tables to com - pare issues within a case and across cases. • Identify patterns that facilitate understand - ing and lead to useful conclusions. MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The study found that Omani bank managers’ perceptions of four issues, namely: • Perceived relative advantage • Perceived ease of use • Perceived organizational performance • Perceived customer/organizational relation- ship jointly provided a broader understanding of Inter- net technology adoption in the banking industry than that proposed by previous theories and models including the theory of reasoned action, the theory of planned behavior, the technology acceptance model, and the theory of innovation diffusion. The Omani and Australian banking industries were both found to perceive that Internet technol- ogy was important and that it could enable the industry to gain relative advantage. In relation to perceived relative advantage, the enablers of Internet technology adoption found in both the Omani and Australian banking industry include items found in Table 2. A number of authors (e.g., Dedrick, Gurbaxani, & Kraemer, 2003; King & Teo, 1996) have argued from a theoretical perspective, that it is possible to increase the rate of Internet technology adoption if a manager perceives that organizational per- formance could be improved. The study showed that in the Omani banking industry, the majority of managers’ responses indicated that this was LQGHHGWKHFDVH6SHFL¿FDOO\LWZDVIRXQGWKDW perceived improvement in productivity of em- SO R\HH VHJ L PS U RYH PH QWL Q EX VL QH V V HI ¿F LHQ F\ could increase the rate of adoption. On the other KDQG SHUFHLYHGSUREOHPVLQ SUR¿WDELOLW\ VXFK as technology investment cost and the need for economies of scale for Internet technology use, could inhibit the banking industry from adopting Internet technology. The majority of the respon- dents in the Australian banking industry also suggested that perceived organizational perfor- mance was associated with Internet technology adoption. However, Australian managers expect to face a problem in the market environment in WKHGLI¿FXOW\RIH[SDQGLQJWKHLUFXVWRPHUEDVH One reason for this is that the Australian bank- ing industry is now facing intensive competition 1168 Adoption of Internet Technology by the Banking Industry in Oman (Ramsey & Smith, 1999; Sathye, 1999). Moreover, major Australian banks have already adopted Internet technology as a strategic tool to expand their markets and offer the same services online, making it harder for others to differentiate their offerings. So the real challenge here is how banks will be able to expand their market on the Internet. Table 3 shows the major enablers and inhibitors of Internet technology adoption in relation to perceived organizational performance. The role of perceived customer/organizational relationship in IT adoption has attracted consid- erable attention in the literature (Anderson & Srinivasan, 2003; Athanassopoulos, 2000; Sathye, 1999). In this study, participants were asked whether or not they perceived that Internet tech- nology adoption could improve the relationship with their customers in relation to three focused LVVXHVLGHQWL¿HGLQWKHOLWHUDWXUHFXVWRPHUWUXVW customer commitment, and customer satisfaction. Results of the study suggests that the decision to adopt Internet technology is indeed based on what managers perceive about the customer/organiza- tional relationship in the banking industry. Omani managers expect to satisfy their cus- tomers, but this creates several challenges includ- ing: customer trust (e.g., Internet security) and customer commitment (e.g., customer loyalty). Most respondents did not think that Internet tech- nology adoption could improve their customers’ trust, as they thought that their customers feared that their privacy might be invaded on the Internet. They also did not think that Internet technology could improve their customers’ commitment as this related to a close personal relationship with EDQNEUDQFKHV7KLV¿QGLQJKDVLPSOLFDWLRQVIRU Major enablers in both Oman and Australia Convenience of services (convenience of available service and convenience of location) Innovation of ideas (rapid development of innovative ideas) Management of services (easy to follow up requests/complains) Table 2. Enablers relating to the factor of perceived relative advantage Major enablers Major inhibitors Omani banks Productivity of employees (business HI¿FLHQF\ 3UR¿WDELOLW\WHFKQRORJ\LQYHVWPHQWFRVW and the need for economies of scale for Internet technology use) Australian banks 3UR¿WDELOLW\UHGXFWLRQRIFRPPXQLFD- tion cost Market environment (customer base ex- pansion) Productivity of employees (business HI¿FLHQF\ Table 3. Enablers and inhibitors relating to the factor of perceived organizational performance 1169 Adoption of Internet Technology by the Banking Industry in Oman the way banks conduct their business as they have the option of conducting banking business either on the basis of pure Internet banking or using branches and the Internet. In the semi-structured interviews, participants were asked whether or not they believed that Inter- net technology was easy to use in the context of the EDQNLQJLQGXVWU\7KHOLWHUDWXUHLGHQWL¿HGWKUHH major issues: easy to navigate, easy to learn, and HDV\WRPDQDJH7KH¿QGLQJVRIWKLVVWXG\VXJJHVW that the decision to adopt Internet technology is consistent with the literature and that managers’ perceptions about ease of use are very important. $XVWUDOLDQPDQDJHUVSHUFHLYHGQRGLI¿FXOWLHVLQ using Internet technology whereas their Omani FRXQWHUSDUWVVDZVRPHGLI¿FXOW\LQQDYLJDWLQJRQ WKH,QWHUQHW7KH\KLJKOLJKWHGSDUWRIWKLVGLI¿FXOW\ as lack of awareness and knowledge about Internet technology and the accessibility of services. These ¿ QG L QJ V VX JJ HV WW KD WW KH 2P DQ L ED Q NL Q J L QG X V WU \ faces a major challenge in using the Internet. Al- Wohaibi, Masoud, and Edwards (2002) claim that KXPDQUHVRXUFHGH¿FLHQF\LVDPDMRUSUREOHPLQ Oman, however, Abdul-Ghadir and Kozar (1995) argued that computer knowledge, experience, and educational level would contribute to the process of increasing the rate of Internet adoption in the Gulf countries. Other authors (Davis & Venkatesh, 1996; Venkatesh, 1999) have suggested that it ZRXOG EH PRUH EHQH¿FLDO WR IRFXV RQ WUDLQLQJ rather than on system design. DISCUSSION: IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR OMANI BANKS The banks that stay behind will not be able to HPEUDFH,QWHUQHWWHFKQRORJ\DQGWKHEHQH¿WVLW is claimed to bring and hence will not be able to compete in the industry or in international markets (Porter, 2001). This will also have consequences on the economy. For example, the Omani economy will not improve if banks stay behind, meaning that Internet technology is an important tool in the new economy and should not be ignored. The ¿QGLQJVRIWKLVVWXG\KDYHSUDFWLFDOLPSOLFDWLRQV for Internet technology adoption in the Omani banking industry and we offer some guidelines. Perceived Organizational Performance 7KHPDMRULQKLELWLQJFRQFHUQKHUHLVSUR¿WDELOLW\ This concern relates to high technology invest- ment cost and the need for economies of scale for Internet technology use. Implications Internet technology adoption has major impli- cations on banks’ performance and hence the economy, and could affect the marketing mix in industry (Al-Hajri, 2005; Kettinger, Grover, Guha, & Segars, 1994). The privatization of the Oman Telecommunication Company (Omantel) is a good forward step, allowing Omantel to play a role in the economy. This means that the banking industry can also expect changes such as improvement in telecommunication services, the expansion of telecommunication services, quality of delivery in telecommunication services, and lower cost of delivering the service (Oman Telecommunication Company, 2002). Of course the change in telecommunication services will have positive implications on the growth of the Internet population as well as on the geographical distribution of Internet services. In addition, it is expected that the number of Internet cafés will grow, in addition to home and business Internet use. Moreover, the development of an Internet village is expected to offer awareness of Internet technology in the region and e-government is also expected to play a major role in e-payment as it expands. Improvement in telecommunication infrastructure and services, Internet village, and e-government will have positive implication on the economic scale of Internet use and the cost of 1170 Adoption of Internet Technology by the Banking Industry in Oman offering Internet banking services. This suggests that banks should be motivated to invest more in Internet technology (Molla & Licker, 2005). Recommendations To reduce this inhibiting factor, King and Teo (1996) suggested a focus on economies of scale for Internet technology use. However, others (Lav- ender, 2004; Reichheld & Schefter, 2000) argued that most ICT decision-makers ignore intangible FRVWEHQH¿WV7KXVWKH2PDQLEDQNLQJLQGXVWU\ RXJKWWRFRQVLGHULQWDQJLEOHFRVWEHQH¿WVLQWKHLU ICT decisions. Perceived Customer/ Organizational Relationship For this factor, the major inhibiting concerns are customers trust (e.g., Internet security) and cus- tomer commitment (e.g., customer loyalty). Implications Internet technology adoption has the potential to affect the relationship between customers and banks: it could improve or destroy this relation- ship. Major enablers Major inhibitors Omani banks Customer satisfaction (reduce FRQÀLFW Customer trust (Internet security) Customer commitment (customer loyalty) Australian banks Customer commitment (cus- tomer loyalty) Customer trust (Internet security) Customer satisfaction (reduce FRQÀLFW Table 4. Enablers and inhibitors relating to perceived customer/organizational relationship Major enablers Major inhibitors Omani banks Easy to learn (increased automation of process) Easy to navigate (awareness/knowledge about Internet technology and accessibility of services) Australian banks Easy to navigate (user friendly and accessibility of service) Easy to learn (awareness/knowl- edge about Internet technology) Easy to manage (customization of banking services and online track- LQJRIEDQNLQJ¿QDQFLDOVHUYLFHV Table 5. Enablers and inhibitors relating to the factor of perceived ease of use 1171 Adoption of Internet Technology by the Banking Industry in Oman Recommendations To improve customer/bank relationships, the banks ought to consider reducing factors inhibit- ing improvement in the relationship. For example, Whitman (2004) argued that people lack under- standing of threats to information security and others (Gefen, 2002; Khalfan, 2004; Mukherjee & Neth, 2003) reported that Internet security was a major concern in trusting the Internet. Therefore, the Omani banking industry needs to continually address Internet security concerns through learn- ing, making backups, and implementing secure systems, databases, and networks (Held & Bowers, 2001). On the other hand, some authors (Julian & Ramaseshan, 1994; Reichheld & Schefter, 2000; Vatanasombut, Stylianou, & Igbaria, 2004) men- tioned that it is hard to win customer loyalty on the Internet so the Oman banking industry will need to focus on continually creating values as well as having a long-term plan. Perceived Ease of Use The major inhibiting concern here is ease of navigation on the Internet (e.g., lack of aware- ness/knowledge about Internet technology and accessibility of service). Implications Successful adoption of ICT depends on how easy it is for people to use it (Davis et al., 1989; Moore & Benbasat, 1991; Taylor & Todd, 1995b). Recommendations To reduce these inhibiting concerns, Venkatesh and Davis (1996), Davis and Venkatesh (2004), and Abdul-Gader and Kozar (1995) suggest that training could improve awareness/knowledge about Internet technology and hence increase favorable perceptions about ease of use. On the other hand, Karahanna and Limayem (2000) sug- gested that users should have both physical and informational access to the ICT. To ensure this, customers of Omani banks need to address the issue of Internet navigation with telecommunica- tion companies. Al-Wohaibi et al. (2002) suggested that Omani government organizations need to focus on the development of ICT awareness in schools and universities if they want to increase the rate of successful ICT implementation. They also sug- g e s t e d t h a t b a n k i n g s h o u l d c o n s i d e r I T t r a i n i n g i n LWVVWUDWHJLFSODQDVZHOODVVXSSRUWLQJLW¿QDQFLDOO\ to make it work. Consistent with Al-Wohaibi et al. (2002), these suggestions have two important EHQH¿WV2QHLVWKDWWKH2PDQLEDQNVZRXOGEH able to develop Internet technology/bank services awareness smoothly when they introduce it to their customers in the industry through a series of seminars, training, online manuals, and online support without having to invest a lot of money to train and educate their customers. The second EHQH¿WZRXOGEHWKDW2PDQLEDQ NVZRXOGDOVREH able to educate their employees through a series of technical seminars and short-term courses to advance their employees’ skills so that they could support their Internet technology infra- structure. CONCLUSION This study has shown that analysis of four per- ceptions of managers in the banking industry: relative advantage, ease of use, organizational performance, and customer/organizational relationship, can shed light on the reasons for adoption (or non-adoption) of Internet technol- RJ\$VH[SHFWHGWKH¿QGLQJVFRQ¿UPWKDW Australian managers perceived less inhibitors to the introduction and implementation of Internet technology than Omani managers, meaning that the Australian banking industry has less chal- lenges to confront than that of Oman. 1172 Adoption of Internet Technology by the Banking Industry in Oman It has revealed that despite cultural differ- ences, there are many similarities in the attitude to technology adoption in the banking systems of the two countries. Bankers in both countries see the use of Internet technologies as offering advantages including: convenience of available service and location, being able to rapidly de- velop innovative ideas, and the ease with which requests and complaints could be followed up. Both saw ease of learning to use this technology, improvements in productivity of bank employees, and customer satisfaction as important enabling factors. Omani and Australian banks each saw issues of customer trust relating to privacy and Internet security as inhibitors to use of Internet technologies. There were also, however, some important dif- IHUHQFHV:KLOHSUR¿WDELOLW\ZDVUHJDUGHGDVDQ enabler by Australian banks, which had already installed this technology, it was regarded as an inhibitor by the Omani banks due to the high cost of setting this up. Customer commitment (loyalty) was seen as an enabler to use of the Internet by Australian banks but as an inhibitor in Oman, where bank customers still appreciate the per- sonal attention available in local bank branches. Finally, with their greater experience in using computers and the Internet, Australian banks found the services easy to use, easy to navigate, and quite accessible. In Oman, however, where such experience was lacking, issues of Internet navigation were seen as an inhibiting factor to use of the technology. This study should provide useful information to the banking industry in Oman to assist it with decisions regarding the adoption of Internet tech- nology. A report provided to Omani bank manag- ers will make them more aware of the problems of technology adoption and of recommendations to take action to improve their competitive position in the global market. REFERENCES Abdul-Gader, K., & Kozar, K. A. (1995). 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Fort Worth, Texas: Dryden Press. . concerns, Venkatesh and Davis (1996), Davis and Venkatesh (2004), and Abdul-Gader and Kozar (1995) suggest that training could improve awareness/knowledge about Internet technology and hence increase. through semi-structured interviews with these managers, and available internal and public reports were used to facilitate understanding and to explore Internet technology adoption. Interview. understanding of Internet technology adop- tion • Reduce the data through the process of generating categories and establishing links (e.g., open and axial coding) as suggested by Strauss and