1024 Open Source LMS for Management and E-Business Applications and education, the greatest challenge lies in the fact that a greater part of the adult population does not have adequate knowledge and skills in computer software applications or hardware in order to explore their use in everyday activities or at their workplaces. It is therefore expected t hat by en rol li ng i n t he pr ogr a ms at A IT I -K ACE, a participant1 can either be employable or have skills to venture out into self-employment. AITI -KACE targets adults—at least those who have completed high school. DESCRIPTION OF E-BUSINESS APPLICATIONS The main technology used by AITI-KACE to deliver instruction and learning materials, and promote e-business solutions is an open-source learning-management systems (LMS). Free and open-source software (F/OSS) is software with an unrestrictive license whose source code is PDGHDYDLODEOHIRUPRGL¿FDWLRQFXVWRPL]DWLRQ and distribution by others. Martin Dougiamas (n.d.) began the development of the Moodle LMS in the 1990s. However, it was not until August 20, 2002, that version 1.0 was released. Moodle assists in the planning, delivery, and manage- ment of e-learning, and is aimed at remedying the fragmented nature of e-learning by creating an integrative system. LMSs were developed to enable instructors not o n l y t o d e l i v e r m a t e r i a l s i n a n o n l i n e e n v i r o n m e n t , but also to track user activities and progress across various learning activities (Barron, 2002). LMSs are characterized by the following customizable elements: a course-development component that enables an instructor to develop a course, a roster component that enables the instructor to enroll users in a course, the assignment-management component that enables the instructor to assign lessons and activities for the users, the courseware- launching component that provides the interface for users to have access to course content and activities, and the data-collection component that enables the instructor to collect and manage information, as shown in Figure 1. The F/OSS that have been operational at AITI- KACE are Open USS, Eledge, and Moodle. Open USS is an open-source administration system aimed at institutes of higher learning. Eledge is a learning- and course-management system de- veloped by the University of Utah. AITI-KACE has since discontinued the use of Eledge, but has combined the examination section of Open USS with Moodle as the main system for delivering and managing its online program. The AITI-KACE e-learning-management system is a virtual cam- pus with instructional material on e-technology applications in business such as those required for diplomas in advanced computing (DACs), business computing, Web technologies, and Mi- FURVRIW 1HWWHFKQRORJLHVDQG FHUWL¿FDWHVLQ& programming, Web programming, and database technologies. The installation of Moodle requires three other open-source software: Easy PHP, Apache, and MySQL. Easy PHP is a software application writ- ten in the dynamic PHP language that combines an Apache Web server and a MySQL database to FUHDWHÀH[LEOH:HEGHYHORSPHQWWRROV$SDFKHLV an open-source Web server. Web servers use the h y p e r t e x t t r a n s f e r p r o t o c o l ( h t t p) t o e n a b l e a c o m - puter user to connect to the Internet. MySQL is an open-source database that organizes information through tables, and enables interactions between the user and the Web through the creation of dy- namic Web pages. The system was implemented by WKH$,7,.$&(PDQDJHPHQWWRHQVXUHHI¿FLHQF\ and the effective delivery of the services at the center. It was aimed at providing an alternative DQGÀH[LEOHDSSURDFKWRWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI,&7 skills of the participants enrolled at the center. It also serves as a practical demonstration of the use of ICT in the management and delivery of services in business. Moodle is a learner-centered application grounded in the social constructionist pedagogy 1025 Open Source LMS for Management and E-Business Applications (Dougiamas, n.d.). Social constructionists assume that knowledge is acquired through interaction with an environment. Learners acquire knowledge through active construction and discovery, and by explaining their understanding of concepts to others. Learner-oriented LMSs such as Moodle are suitable for the adult learner because it facilitates WKHGHVLJQDQGGHOLYHU\RIFXVWRP¿WPDWHULDOV Adult learners are considered to be motivated E\WKHLUSHUFHLYHGEHQH¿WRIDOHDUQLQJH[HUFLVH especially if it may have a positive impact on their profession (Holton & Swanson, 1998). In this regard, the use of Moodle offers AITI-KACE an opportunity for self-directed learning, consistent with Campbell’s (2000) notion of an education environment where learners take responsibility IRUWKHLURZQOHDUQLQJLQDÀH[LEOHLQVWUXFWLRQDO environment that allows for the designing and use of nonlinear instructional material suitable for adults. Such an environment provides the op- portunity for adult learners to apply previously gained knowledge and experience, and to also relate their future goals to the learning process. IMPACT OF E-TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS AITI-KACE is a novelty and is in principle an initiative long over due. It has created more awareness about the value of e-technologies in the development of the economy of a nation like Ghana. The center is involved in the develop- PHQW RI H[SHUWLVH LQ WKH ¿HOG RI ,&7 7KH XVH of Moodle in the facilitation and promotion of ICT applications in business at AITI-KACE is a pioneering effort in the teaching of ICT in Ghana that combines traditional teaching and learning methods with the online delivery of teaching and learning materials. The Moodle LMS is used to provide an online version of all instructional and learning material us e d a t A I T I - K AC E . I t p r o v i d es a n o n l i n e t e a c h i n g and learning environment alternative to the daily on-site teaching activities at the center. It provides students access to learning and instructional materials on demand and at their convenience. According to the Moodle administrator at AITI- Figure 1. The basic setup of the Moodle LMS 1026 Open Source LMS for Management and E-Business Applications .$&(LWLVDPRUHÀH[LEOHDSSURDFKWRWKHGHOLYHU\ of services compared to on-site delivery. From the perspective of the system administrator, the on-site delivery of services has spatial limitation in terms of where, when, and how students can access, use, and submit materials. The center’s e-applications administrator has FRQ¿JXUHG0RRGOHVXFKWKDWDOORI$,7,.$&(¶V 12 lecturers have automatic accounts based on the courses they teach. Each course has a maximum class size of 25 participants. At the moment, the center, which started in 2003, has 145 students (F. Ankamah, personal communication, February 4, 2005) and has turned out 635 graduates (Ghana News Agency, 2005). Administratively, the use of Moodle is con- sidered a success because it is cost effective (the Moodle LMS software is free, and all the setup and content management are done at the center) and works well for the center. The greatest challenge in running the Moodle application at the center lies with its use by the lecturers and participants of the center. Currently, 21% of participants and 8% of lecturers use the Moodle LMS. According to the system administrator, the percentage of usage is attributable to the Ghanaian learning culture, to which the Internet-based delivery of educational instructions and the performance of learning ac- tivities are new. The participants, especially, are not familiar with online virtual campuses, and would rather prefer traditional on-site teaching and learning activities, and hard-copy delivery and submission of learning materials. To ensure that the Moodle LMS e-application does not fail, the AITI-KACE administration ad- opted and implemented an e-documentation policy by declaring the center’s learning environment paperless. However, there are drawbacks in the implementation of the paperless e-documentation policy for the following reasons. First, it has been observed that even though participants appreciate the online delivery and submission of instruction and learning material, most of them do not have access to the Internet at home. Second, not all of the lecturers have used the Moodle LMS as an alternative to the delivery of instructional and learning materials to the center’s participants, and that is a major concern. Finally, building up a team to manage the Moodle LMS has been a challenge. The center had a system administration team of three, which has now been reduced to one be- cause the other two who trained on the job quit their positions. The current team of one is fully stretched with regard to the maintenance and further development of the system; this is quite a challenge. The Moodle LMS is a stand-alone Web application at the center, and the administrator is working toward integrating it with its post-nuke- based Web site. The other challenges are how to improve participant access and lecturers’ usage of Moodle as an alternative medium for delivering their work (E. Ofori, personal communication, February 4, 2005). The center estimates that about 80% of its graduates are able to apply their acquired skills at their jobs or start-up businesses. The majority of the center’s participants enroll with sponsorships from their employers. The center does not know what the remaining 20% do with the skills they acquired after their respective programs. Tracking DQGNQRZLQJZKDWWKLVVLJQL¿FDQWPLQRULW\GRHV with its skills is another challenge. CONCLUSION The establishment of the Moodle LMS at AITI- KACE offers alternative, electronic means for delivering learning and instructional material at an information and communications technology innovation center. The use of the Moodle LMS is considered successful because it allowed the administrators of the center to adopt and imple- ment a paperless learning environment while promoting e-business application in Ghana. The center’s activities for which the Moodle LMS was used to implement support the principles of social 1027 Open Source LMS for Management and E-Business Applications constructionist pedagogy, which is favorable to adult learning. The use of the Moodle LMS at AITI-KACE LQGLFDWHV¿UVWWKDW)266KDYHWKHSRWHQWLDOWR support the integration of e-technologies in insti- tutions and in regions like Africa as suggested by Castells and Ince (2003). Particularly, the use of business models based on open-source software has been very successful in developing countries (Weerawarana & Weenatunga, 2004), and AITI- KACE is on the right track. Second, the use of the Moodle LMS by the lecturers and participants illustrates that the deployment of e-applications for the delivery of services in an institution requires WDNLQJLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQWKHFXOWXUDOLQÀXHQFHV on the users. Third, the delivery of e-business services requires that end-user access to the In- ternet in their homes or off campus is essential, especially when the service is Web based. Twenty percent of the graduates of AITI-KACE are not known to have either taken up employment or set up new businesses. This calls for a tracking system and an evaluation of the mechanism used in accessing the needs of participants when they enroll at the center. The center should seek ways to improve its mechanism for identifying and tracking the needs of participants after they have completed. This will enable it to cater to those needs that are not easily discernable, and assess the full impact of the activities of the center. Perhaps an approach to supplement existing procedures is to expose participants to developed prototypes of information and communications technology DSSOLFDWLRQVDVD¿UVWVWHSWRZDUGGHYHORSLQJWKHLU own models for implementation. 7KHFHQWHUVKRXOGFRQVLGHUKDYLQJDQRI¿FHRU setup for innovations in teaching and learning that will explore other electronic means of packaging their electronic materials. For instance, the center FRXOGSDFNDJHWKHLUPDWHULDOVLQWRSRUWDEOH¿OHV on compact discs or other downloadable forms to be used by participants who do not have personal Internet access in their homes. Finally, the center should consider making its business incubation component more prominent. REFERENCES Azad, A., Erdem, A., & Saleem, N. (1999). A framework for realizing the potential of informa- tion technology in developing countries. Interna- tional Journal of Commerce and Management, 8(2), 121-133. Barron, T. (2002). Evolving business models in e-learning. Menlo Park, CA: SRI Consulting Business Intelligence. Campbell, J. A. (2000). Using Internet technology WRVXSSRUWÀH[LEOHOHDUQLQJLQEXVLQHVVHGXFD- tion. Information Technology and Management, 1, 351-362. Castells, M., & Ince, M. (2003). Conversations with Manuel Castells. Oxford, UK: Polity Press. Dougiamas, M. (n.d.). Moodle documentation. Retrieved January 10, 2005, from http://www. moodle.org *KDQD1HZV$JHQF\.R¿$QQDQ&HQWUH train over 600 in ICT. Retrieved February 7, 2005, from http://www.aiti-kace.com.gh/ Morrison, D. (2003). E-learning strategies: How W RJ HW L PSO HP HQ W DW LR QD Q GG HO LYH U \ U LJ KW ¿ U V W W L P H John Wiley & Sons. NHDP. (2003). Information and communication technologies (ICTs) for development. National Human Development Reports. 3HUHQV % 7KH RSHQ VRXUFH GH¿QLWLRQ Retrieved February 6, 2005, from http://www. opensource.org/ Robey, D., Boudreau, M., & Rose, G. M. (2000). Information technology and organizational learning: A review and assessment of research. 1028 Open Source LMS for Management and E-Business Applications Accounting, Management & Information Tech- nology, 10, 125-155. Weerawarana, S., & Weeratunga, J. (2004). Open s o u r c e i n d e v el o pi n g c o u n t r i e s . D e p a r t m e n t o f I n - frastructure and Economic Cooperation: Sida. KEY TERMS Apache: An open-source Web server. Web servers use http to enable a computer user to connect to the Internet. Easy PHP: Software application written in the dynamic PHP language that combines an Apache Web server and a MySQL database to FUHDWHÀH[LEOH:HEGHYHORSPHQWWRROV E-Business Models: Strategies that en- able businesses to take advantage of the latest WHFKQRORJLHVWRJHQHUDWHSUR¿WVDQGFXVWRPHU satisfaction. E-Innovations: Innovations encouraging users of new communications technologies to develop dependable and viable business plans or systems that can be used for an economic (business) or social (health care, education, etc.) enterprise. E-Learning: Effective and continuous learn- ing process that occurs through the delivery of interactive multimedia educational materials that have no spatial limitation. E-Models: The designing of prototypes of electronic businesses or systems that illustrate how digital technology can be used in any en- terprise. F/OSS: Software with an unrestrictive license ZKRVHVRXUFHFRGHLVPDGHDYDLODEOHIRUPRGL¿FD- tion, customization, and distribution by others. MySQL: Open-source database that organizes information through tables and enables interac- tions between the user and the Web through the creation of dynamic Web pages. Virtual Campus or Learning-Management System: Web-based, customizable e-learning environment that integrates a variety of educa- tional tools with interfaces to accommodate the technology competencies of the user and his or her learning needs. ENDNOTE 1 The center refers to those enrolled in its programs as participants and not students. This work was previously published in Encyclopedia of E-Commerce, E-Government, and Mobile Commerce, edited by M. Khosrow-Pour, pp. 890-894, copyright 2006 by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global). 1029 Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. Chapter 4.4 Measurements in E-Business Damon Aiken Eastern Washington University, USA ABSTRACT This chapter is designed to answer two funda- mental questions related to research on electronic surveys and measures. First, what are some of the PDMRUPHDVXUHVVSHFL¿FDOO\UHODWHGWR e-business? Second, what makes Internet research methods different from off-line research methods? The chapter partly delineates what makes Internet research methods distinctive through its discus- sion and separation of the most common measures. This separation not only provides the framework for the chapter, but it distinguishes research for understanding the evolving e-consumer from measures related to the new paradigm for e-busi- ness strategy. In total, 17 different measures are discussed. The chapter concludes with a discus- sion of emerging issues in e-business metrics, and possibilities for future research. INTRODUCTION The Internet has emerged as the very foundation for business communications worldwide. Indeed, in the instant that it takes to read these words, millions of people are shopping on the Internet, checking the status of orders and shipments, investigating stock prices and mortgage rates, and browsing and bidding in a new realm of on- line auctions. The Internet has transformed the physical marketplace into a virtual marketspace (Varadarajan & Yadav, 2002); it has created a shift from reasonably well-informed buyers to worldly Web-enabled e-consumers (Bakos, 1997); and, it has accelerated business into an information age wherein issues of technological expertise, privacy, security, and control are now essential aspects of business (Glazer, 1991; Hoffman, Novak, & Peralta, 1999). Marketing practitioners, strategists, and re- searchers cannot deny the critical changes that have occurred in the realm of global business communications. Most have come to realize that online retailing is distinctive and that it requires a great deal of new research. Interactive com- munications and transactions now occur together in a single virtual medium that has increased risks for online consumers, and has placed a heavy communications burden on sellers whose Web site effectiveness is affected by a multitude of design characteristics (Geissler, Zinkhan, & 1030 Measurements in E-Business Watson, 2001). Internet consumers are placed in a unique inference-making position in which information asymmetry abounds. The task at hand now, for researchers and practitioners alike, is to accurately measure, analyze, and interpret online behaviors. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the topic of e-business measurement, and delineate some of what makes Internet research methods different from off-line research methods. The chapter separates measures for understanding the evolving e-consumer from measures related to the new paradigm for e-business strategy (a separation derived from the work of Biswas and Krishnan, 2004). The measures discussed in this chapter are graphically displayed in Table 1. The chapter concludes with a discussion of emerging issues in e-business metrics, and possibilities for future research. Internet technologies are like an arms race in which both sides develop increasingly powerful weapons. (Bakos, 1998, p. 41) MEASUREMENTS FOR UNDERSTANDING E-CONSUMERS 8QGHUVWDQGLQJKRZWKH,QWHUQHWKDVLQÀXHQFHG consumer psychology is a critical task for business people. Speaking of the transformative nature of the Internet, it appears that businesses and con- VXPHUVDOLNHDUHQRZ³DUPHG´ZLWKSUHYLRXVO\ unthinkable advances in information acquisition, FODVVL¿FDWLRQHYDOXDWLRQDQGVWRUDJH,QWKH unusual context of the Internet, key traditional elements of business exchange are noticeably absent, such as personal, nonverbal cues, and physical contact with products (Keen, Wetzels, de Ruyter, & Feinberg, 2004). In an effort to under- stand the Internet consumer, business research- ers have begun to study notions of online trust, privacy, issues of control of personal information, F R J Q LW LYHHI IRU WD QGL Q IRU PD WLR QVH DU FK DQ GÀRZ Many of these issues are interrelated and, given that we are still in the early stages of Internet research, the topics need further exploration and insightful analysis. Online trust. Internet marketing researchers have reported that, regardless of the number of SULYDF\SROLFLHVRU³KLJKWHFK´HQFU\SWLRQV\V- WHPVZKDW:HEFRQVXPHUVUHDOO\ZDQWLV³« another type of exchange—characterized by an explicit social contract executed in the context of a cooperative relationship built on trust” (Hoff- PDQ HWDOS7KLV¿QGLQJ LV ERWK D recognition of the uniqueness of the Internet as a computer-mediated business environment, and an allusion towards the critical importance of trust in any Internet relationship. A consumer wishing to shop or purchase over the Internet needs to trust the e-tailer, but also needs to trust the Internet itself as a mode of shopping. A small but growing subset of the business DQGPDUNHWLQJOLWHUDWXUHKDVDWWHPSWHGWRGH¿QH and measure the concept of trust in a computer- mediated environment (CME) (Handy, 1995; Hine & Eve, 1998; Jarvenpaa & Tractinsky, 1999; 0F.QLJKW&KHUYDQ\1HZGH¿QLWLRQVRI Table 1. Summary of measures in e-business Measurements for understanding e-consumers Measurements for e-business strategy Online trust Exposures Privacy Impressions Control of information Hits Cognitive effort Visits Information search Clicks Flow Path analysis Conversion Frequency Recency Average time per visit Stickiness 1031 Measurements in E-Business WUXVWLQWKH&0(UHÀHFWSDUWLFXODUFRQFHUQVDERXW risk, reliability, privacy, and control of informa- tion. Milne and Boza (1999) operationalize trust LQWHUPVRIDQDIIHFWLYHSULYDF\HOHPHQWDV³WKH expectancy of a customer to rely upon database marketers to treat the consumer’s personal infor- mation fairly” (p. 8). Through unique processes of interactive communication, consumers must achieve a level of trust that surpasses perceptions of personal vulnerability (Aiken, Liu, Mackoy, & Osland, 2004). Inasmuch as trust requires a cognitive and affective leap of faith (a movement beyond calculative prediction—see Williamson, 1993), trust in the Internet implies, to some extent, behaviorally overcoming a concern for privacy. To take action in the face of risk is to engage in trusting behavior. Thus, much of the research on trust seems to derive three primary dimen- sions: (1) the affective/emotional element, (2) the cognitive/rational element, and (3) the behavioral element. Privacy. Recent research reveals that concern for privacy is the most important consumer issue facing the Internet, ahead of ease-of-use, spam, security, and cost (Benassi, 1999). In the off-line world, consumers think nothing of giving their phone numbers or home addresses to seemingly disinterested servers, cashiers, and sales clerks. However, Internet consumers worry about every- thing from excessive spam e-mails and intrusive FRRNLH¿OHVWRFRVWO\FUHGLWFDUGIUDXGDQGSHULO- ous identity theft. Measuring perceptions of privacy, as well as the e-consumer’s felt need for privacy, is a critical issue in e-business. Researchers have observed that privacy is a multidimensional concept, and plays a critical role in fear of purchasing online (Hine & Eve, 1998; Sheehan & Hoy, 2000). Much of the concern for privacy may stem from fear of the unknown (Hoffman et al., 1999). Online consumers often cite feelings of helplessness while shopping on the Internet (Hine & Eve, 1998). Control of personal information. Issues of control further substantiate the unique nature of Internet business relationships. Degrees of interac- tivity between consumer and e-business become a FRPPXQLFDWLYH³WXJRIZDU´DVFRQVXPHUVVWULYH for varied levels of control just as businesses strive to gather more and more strategic informa- tion (Yadav & Varadarajan, 2005). User control over personal information, over the actions of a Web vendor, and over the Internet site itself all relate to issues of trust. Additionally, control over the actions of a Web vendor affects consumers’ perceptions of privacy and security of the online environment (Bhatnagar & Ghose, 2004; Hoffman et al., 1999). Consumers often guard their personal information carefully. Hoffman and Novak (1998) QRWHWKDW³9LUWXDOO\DOO:HEXVHUVKDYHGHFOLQHG to provide personal information to Web sites at some point, and close to half who have provided data have gone to the trouble of falsifying it” (p. 1). Consequently, perceptions and levels of control become key measures in e-business. Cognitive effort and information search. Many researchers have noted that decision mak- ing is both task dependent (Bettman, Johnson, & Payne, 1990; Maule & Edland, 1997) and con- text dependent (Bettman, Luce, & Payne, 1998; Wright, 1974). Given that both the decision task and the decision context are different in a CME; new research has just begun to measure cognitive effort, search characteristics, and decision-making processes. Weiner et al. (Weiner, Deighton, Gupta, Johnson, Mellers, Morwitz, & O’Guinn,1997) QRWH³7KHDELOLW\RI>,QWHUQHW@FRQVXPHUVWR sort on attributes and make reasoned decisions at home about which brands to choose … has the potential to change decision processes and ultimately brand choice” (p. 291). These authors also reason that customization, searching, and sorting will drastically change decision mak- ing on the Internet. Within a decision context, cognitive effort relates to the mental resources required, as well as to the individual resources available. Cognitive effort can be thought of as information load that deals with how cognitive processes handle incoming stimuli (information), 1032 Measurements in E-Business matching the cognitive resources required with the cognitive resources available. The experience, skill, and amount of resources a decision maker has are negatively correlated with the cognitive effort required in the decision task (Bakos 1997; Garbarino & Edell, 1997). Cognitive effort, within the context of Internet decision making, can be seen from two perspec- tives. First, it seems logical that cognitive effort could be reduced within the CME. Certainly, consumer search costs have been drastically low- ered with the assistance of the Internet (Bakos, 1997). This premise allows price and product information to be readily gathered, analyzed, and compared. Furthermore, one could argue that there is less noise when shopping on the Web c o mp a r e d t o sh o pp i n g i n a c r owd e d , i n fo r m a t i o n - packed retail outlet. Additionally, people can gain experience and skill in utilizing the Internet as a shopping tool. As experience and skill grow, less cognitive effort may be required to gather, sort, and analyze attributes of a choice set. However, a second perspective yields precisely the oppo- site conclusions: that, as a rule, cognitive effort is persistently increased for Internet decision makers. It seems reasonable that users are re- quired, by necessity of the medium, to hold more information in working memory. More cognitive UHVRXUFHVDUHQHHGHGWR³VXUI´IURP:HESDJH to Web page, recording, analyzing, and main- taining information in memory. Further, given the wealth of information available on the Web and the relative ease of searching for additional facts and advice, one could summarily argue that increases in cognitive effort are the norm. The sheer volume of Web advertising is a critical noise factor that would seem to rival the distractions of any retail environment. Internet consumers’ may routinely have their decision processes clouded by information overload. Future research should strive to resolve this issue. Flow. Flow is not only useful in describing general human-computer interactions (Csikszent- mihalyi, 1990), it is also an important construct in the study of Internet navigations. Hoffman and 1RYDNKDYHDVFULEHGWKHÀRZH[SHULHQFH to Web behavior, measuring the loss of self-con- sciousness in an essentially blissful encounter. In this situation, ÀRZFDQEHGH¿QHGDVWKHVWDWH occurring during Web navigations character- ized by (1) a seamless sequence of responses facilitated by interactivity, (2) an intrinsically enjoyable experience, (3) accompanied by a loss of self-consciousness that is (4) self-reinforcing (Novak,Hoffman, & Yung, 2000). Of course, ÀRZLVQRWRQO\DGLI¿FXOWFRQFHSWWRLGHQWLI\LW LVDOVRDGLI¿FXOWFRQFHSWWRPHDVXUH(EXVLQHVV researchers have just begun to study the effects of consumers entering (and Web sites facilitating) the ÀRZH[SHULHQFH5LFKDUG&KDQGUD Just as human experiences are evolving because of WKH,QWHUQHW¶VLQÀXHQFHVRWRRDUHWKHSRVVLELOLWLHV and methods of commerce evolving .(Parasuraman & Zinkhan, 2002, p. 294) MEASUREMENTS FOR E-BUSINESS STRATEGY The evolution of business and communications has transpired at lightning speed. The Internet has made the collection of data faster, easier, and less costly than ever before in the history of business. Consequently, a new paradigm is emerging in terms of e-business research strategy (see Hoffman & Novak, 1997) wherein the challenge is no longer in the painstaking meticulousness of data collection, but rather it HPHUJHV DV UHVHDUFKHUV VWULYH WR ³PLQH´ WUXO\ meaningful information, insights, and predictions IURP¿JXUDWLYH³PRXQWDLQV´RIGDWD2YHUWKH last decade, e-business researchers have made valiant attempts to measure consumer actions in an effort to more strategically communicate with DQGLQÀXHQFH,QWHUQHWFRQVXPHUV6WXGLHVKDYH measured primary actions (i.e., initial exposures, impressions, hits, and visits), secondary actions 1033 Measurements in E-Business (i.e., what happens next in terms of clicks and path analyses), transforming actions (i.e., consumer FRQYHUVLRQVDQG³LQYROYLQJ´DFWLRQVLH:HE s i t e s t i c k i n e s s). Me a s u r e s o f a l l t y p e s o f c o n s u m e r actions directly relate to strategic changes in site design as well as alterations to multiple elements of the marketing mix. Exposures, impressions, hits, and visits. A wealth of strategic measures evaluate e-con- sumers’ primary actions including exposures, impressions, hits, and visits. The simple essence of measuring exposures entails measuring fre- TXHQF\FRXQWVRI:HEWUDI¿FE\SDJH7KLVLVDQ important matter for advertisers as they convert fees into cost per thousand (CPM), and partially evaluate advertising according to the number of people exposed. Page impressions deal with counting the number of Web pages requested by users’ browsers (Bhat, Bevans, & Sengupta, 2002). Hits are essentially similar measures of user actions. Finally, put plainly, visits count the number of user-sessions at a Web site. This is an important measure because businesses can track trends, charge advertisers accordingly, modify their sites and servers, and so forth. Clicks and path analysis. A second set of measures attempts to interpret the paths of Web consumers. Researchers note that the sheer num- ber of clicks may be important as to time spent on a Web site, the length of time a user is exposed to an ad, and the overall level of interest expressed in average time per visit. Researchers have mea- sured click-throughs and click-through rates for some time. Essentially, this is when a potential e-consumer clicks on an advertisement and is taken, via hyperlink, to another online location (i.e., another Web site, another e-tailer, etc.). Path analysis provides strategic insight into the popu- ODULW\RIYDULRXVSDJHVWKHHDVHRUGLI¿FXOW\RI navigating a site, and general navigational trends. Often, this type of data is labeled click-stream data as it measures the series of links that a user goes through when steering through the Web (Rayport & Jaworski, 2002) Conversion. A third topic of strategic measures relates to tracking conversion rates. Conversion basically implies the completion of some action by an e-consumer (Rayport & Jaworski, 2002). For example, conversion events include complet- ing a membership form, requesting a newsletter, opting in to receive future e-mails and updates, ¿OOLQJRXWRQOLQHIRUPVDQGVRIRUWK$FRQYHUVLRQ rate measures the number of visitors who come to a Web site and take action relative to the total number of visitors to the site (Bhat et al., 2002). Conversion rates are of strategic importance because of their abilities to bring the customer closer to the business, converting and escalating a new and heightened level of involvement and perhaps loyalty. Stickiness.$¿QDOWRSLFRIVWUDWHJLF,QWHUQHW business measures is that of Web site stickiness. Web site stickiness relates the notion of user in- volvement to an evaluation of how attractive and memorable a site is (Gladwell, 2000). Stickiness can also be evaluated according to the frequency of site visits, the recency between visits, and the average time per visit (Bhat et al., 2002). The at- tractiveness of this metric is that it makes a good deal of intuitive sense, and that it encompasses multidimensional aspects of a site experience. However, there may be a misconception in simply evaluating length of time on the site as a mea- sure of stickiness. In this case, researchers may be mislabeling time as stickiness, as opposed to patience spent searching through a complex and perhaps frustrating Web site. Thus, operationaliztions, or measures, are the means by which we attempt to capture a moon- beam and hold it in our hands. (Straub, Hoffman, :HEHU6WHLQ¿HOGS . for Management and E-Business Applications and education, the greatest challenge lies in the fact that a greater part of the adult population does not have adequate knowledge and skills in computer. h i n g and learning environment alternative to the daily on-site teaching activities at the center. It provides students access to learning and instructional materials on demand and at their. G. M. (2000). Information technology and organizational learning: A review and assessment of research. 1028 Open Source LMS for Management and E-Business Applications Accounting, Management