Electronic Business: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications (4-Volumes) P98 docx

904 Business Cases for Privacy-Enhancing Technologies rapid emergence of the open, public Internet in the years immediately following the publication of that paper enabled an explosion of such extra- organisational systems. Yet corporations have seldom considered their customers as stakeholders, and even government agencies frequently leave them aside from busi- ness case evaluations. Organisations that want to avoid the distrust impediment need to apply the business case techniques in the bottom-right- KDQGFRUQHURI([KLELWLQRUGHUWRUHÀHFWWKH perspectives of all of the important stakeholders, including human users and other individuals af- fected by the scheme. Impact and risk assessment activities need to encompass at least privacy, but the scope may need to extend to broader social and economic aspects such as accessibility, ac- cidental discrimination against minorities, and the need for workplace re-training. Application This chapter’s focus is the use of PETs as an adjunct to corporate privacy strategy. The application of PETs needs to be evaluated and a business case developed. Because of the multi-stakeholder con- WH[WDQGWKHGLI¿FXOWLHVRITXDQWLI\LQJPDQ\RI WKHEHQH¿WVDQGFRVWVWKHUHOHYDQWEXVLQHVVFDVH techniques are those in the bottom-right-hand quadrant of Figure 1. This sub-section applies to PETs the business FDVHFRQFHSWVGLVFXVVHGDERYH,W¿UVWO\LGHQWL¿HV various ways in which an organisation might seek to use PETs as a means of overcoming distrust by its staff or by relevant segments of the public, particularly its customers or prospects. It then FRQVLGHUVWKHNLQGVRIEHQH¿WVWKDWPD\EHDEOH WR EH DFKLHYHG WKH FRVWV DQG RWKHU GLVEHQH¿WV that may be incurred in the process, and the risks involved. Finally, approaches to reaching a conclu- sion about the proposal are examined. Ways to Work with PETs There are various ways in which organisations can utilise PETs in their privacy strategy. They include the following: • fund research into or the development of PETs: • by the organisation itself; • by others; • provide or support awareness, education and training in relation to the development, de- ployment, installation and/or use of PETs; • support open source licensing of PET soft - ware, in order to enhance its availability, DQGWRLQFUHDVHFRQ¿GHQFHLQLWVLQWHJULW\ • promote the use of PETs; • design and adapt the organisation’s e-busi - ness services in order to ensure that they work with PETs and do not work against them; • support the distribution of PETs; • actively distribute PETs to employees and/or customers. %HQH¿WV Incorporating PETs into an organisation’s pri- vacy strategy provides tangible evidence of its intentions. Such actions are likely to be rated more highly than the mere assurances set out in privacy policy statements, at least by some target segments, and by representatives of and advocates for consumers. $UHDVLQZKLFKEHQH¿WVFDQEHVRXJKWLQFOXGH the following: • if the target-market includes segments that are particularly sensitive to privacy concerns, they can be attracted by the organisation’s strong privacy orientation, as evidenced by its commitment to PETs; 905 Business Cases for Privacy-Enhancing Technologies • a similar impact may be achieved if the target-market involves client segments that value ethical behaviour and the provision of choice (whether or not those individuals are themselves privacy-sensitive); • a strong privacy image may be compatible with the organisation’s brand and reputation and hence enhance its effectiveness and value. This depends, of course, on some means whereby the measures relating to 3(7VLQÀXHQFHFRUSRUDWHLPDJH • marketing and/or brand-projection effects may enable enhanced market-share, and consequent increased transaction revenue or reduced customer acquisition costs; or it may encourage greater participation (e.g. in voluntary statistical surveys by a govern- ment service) or more honest information provision (to corporations and government agencies alike); • greater adoption arising from a PET-related initiative may result in enhanced service delivery to clients. Because PET-related projects signal the organisation’s willingness to address negative perceptions of its activities, and involve the HQJDJHPHQWRIVWDNHKROGHUVEHQH¿WVPD\DULVH from the mere act of conducting business case analysis, even if the eventual decision is to not proceed with the initiative. &RVWVDQG2WKHU'LVEHQH¿WV There are costs involved in such measures. It is XQOLNHO\WKDWWKH¿QDQFLDOFRVWV ZRXOGEH KLJK relative to the scale of any reasonably large organisation’s budget. On the other hand, an initia- tive of this kind inevitably involves considerable executive and managerial effort, and adaptation of business processes, and, perhaps more challeng- ingly, adaptation of organisational culture. To have the desired effect, the initiative needs to be integrated into the organisation’s marketing communications mechanisms, in order to convey the message to the targeted market-segments. Moreover, the preparation of a business case using a method with necessarily broad scope is itself potentially expensive. Risks 0DQ\EHQH¿WVDQGGLVEHQH¿WVDUHLQHYLWDEOHRU at least highly likely. But some further impacts may or may not arise, depending on various en- vironmental factors. One potential is that a project of this nature, and deep analysis of it, may be divisive among the participants, because their perspectives may be distinctly different. Another possibility is that the intentions may be seen as inappropriate, perhaps by the media, or by a regulator, or by a competitor or industry association. A further concern is the possibility of failure or non-adoption, which could result in disappointment and loss of morale. )DFWRUVWKDWHPERG\VLJQL¿FDQWULVNQHHGWR be the subject of a management strategy. The Net Effect Each organisation, in its own context, needs to HYDOXDWHWKHQHWHIIHFWRIWKHEHQH¿WVDQGGLVEHQ- H¿WVPRGHUDWHGE\WKHULVNV7KHUHDUHPDQ\FLU- cumstances in which project sponsors can extract VXI¿FLHQW EHQH¿W IURP D 3(7UHODWHG LQLWLDWLYH to make it well worth the effort, investment and management of the risks. And even where the net effect of an initiative is not attractive, the effort invested in preparing a business case can pay dividends, by pointing the project team towards a variant in the approach that will overcome the SULPDU\GLVEHQH¿WRUULVN Even if the costs appear high, investment in 3(7VPD\ZHOOE HMXVWL ¿HGD VD VW UDWHJ LF PHDVXUH  906 Business Cases for Privacy-Enhancing Technologies rather than one that needs to be formally justi- ¿HGE\PHDQVRIGLVFRXQWHGFDVKÀRZV7KLVLV because it is of the nature of infrastructure, or an enabler. One strategic opportunity is differentia- tion leading to competitive advantage, particularly ¿UVWPRYHU DGYDQWDJH²VXFK DV PDUNHWVKDUH JDLQVWKURXJKWKHDWWUDFWLRQRIXVHUVGLVVDWLV¿HG with other suppliers. Another is where a PET initiative has the capacity to unblock adoption processes, such that e-business initiatives that ZRXOGRWKHUZLVHVWDOOFDQLQVWHDGÀRXULVK CONCLUSION Organisations need to appreciate that the achieve- ment of their objectives may be seriously hindered by distrust of e-business and of the organisations that provide e-business services. Organisations need to adopt a positive approach to the privacy of the parties that they deal with, and to conceive, articulate and implement a privacy strategy. For some corporations and government agen- cies, simple approaches based on privacy impact assessment and privacy-sensitive business prac- WLFHVPD\VXI¿FH)RURWKHUVKRZHYHUDYRLGLQJ distrust and instead inculcating trust demands more substantial initiatives. Initiatives in relation to PETs can make important contributions towards their overall privacy strategies. As with any other project, a business case is needed. Care is necessary in selecting the appro- priate approach to adopt, because the perspectives RIRWKHUNH\VWDNHKROGHUVKDYHWREHUHÀHFWHG particularly the parties whose participation is cru- ci al. T his ch apte r has prov ided an ove r view of the rationale and the process involved, together with LQGLFDWRUVRIEHQH¿WVGLVEHQH¿WVDQGULVNV Using the guidance in this chapter, an organi- sation can evaluate the potentials that PETs offer to staff, or to key customer segments, and build the business case. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This chapter was stimulated by an invitation from Mike Gurski, Director of the Privacy Cen- tre of Excellence of Bell Information & Com- munications Technology Solutions in Toronto, and Caspar Bowden, Chief Privacy Advisor EMEA, Microsoft, of London and Toulouse. A preliminary version was presented at the Execu- tive Session of PETS 2005—5th Workshop on Privacy-Enhancing Technologies, June 2, 2005, Cavtat, Croatia. 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Platform for privacy preferences. World Wide Web Consortium, Retrieved from http://www.w3.org/P3P/ Wikipedia (2002-). Penet remailer. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penet_remailer This work was previously published in Computer Security, Privacy, and Politics: Current Issues, Challenges, and Solutions, edited by R. Subramanian, pp. 135-155, copyright 2008 by IRM Press (an imprint of IGI Global). 910 Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. Chapter 3.16 Games-Based E-Learning: Implications and Challenges for Higher Education and Training Thomas Connolly University of Paisley, UK 0DUN6WDQV¿HOG University of Paisley, UK ABSTRACT This chapter introduces games-based e-learning as a means of providing enriching and stimulating learning experiences within higher education and training. It highlights how e-learning has evolved and the developments that have opened the way for games-based e-learning, giving examples of spe- FL¿FDSSOLFDWLRQV7KHDXWKRUVKRSHWKDWWKURXJK gaining a better understanding of the implications, challenges and barriers to games-based e-learn- ing, educators, practitioners and developers will be able to make better use of and gain substantial EHQH¿WIURPWKHVHH[FLWLQJOHDUQLQJWHFKQRORJLHV Finally, the chapter will identify what the authors b e l i e ve t o b e f u t u r e t r e n d s i n r e l a t i o n t o e - l e a r n i n g and games-based e-learning. INTRODUCTION Over the last decade, e-learning has developed to a point where it now provides a credible alterna- tive to more traditional forms of education and training, as well as providing new opportunities to both educators and learners. In recent years a new form of learning has been developing, namely games-based e-learning, which in many ways builds on the successes of e-learning, whilst providing a more stimulating and relevant learning environment for younger people who have been brought up in an environment of powerful home computers, graphic-rich multiplayer Internet gaming and mobile phones with ever increas- ing functionality. This is in contrast to many of today’s educators and instructors whose learning experiences were largely underpinned by the use 911 Games-Based E-Learning of more passive technologies (Prensky, 2001). This chapter explores the concepts of e-learning and games-based e-learning and examines their contribution to higher education and training. Games-based e-learning is an exciting phenom- enon that draws upon many different areas that include learning theory, interactive technologies, FRPSXWHUJDPHVWKHRU\DQGGHVLJQDQGVSHFL¿F subject matter expertise. BACKGROUND The term e-learningKDV EHHQ GH¿QHGDV ³the use of digital technologies and media to deliver, support and enhance teaching, learning, assess- ment and evaluation” (LTSN, 2003, p. 6). In this FKDSWHUZHGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQ³RQOLQHOHDUQLQJ´ DQG³HOHDUQLQJ´:HXVHWKHWHUPonline learning to represent any class that offers its entire cur- riculum via the Internet, thereby allowing learners to participate regardless of geographic location (place-independent) and theoretically 24 hours a day (time-independent). This is in contrast to the traditional classroom instruction, which is time and place bound, face-to-face (FtF), typically conducted in an educational setting and consist- ing primarily of a lecture/note-taking model, and blended learning, which is a combination of online learning and traditional classroom instruction. We use e-learning as a generic term to encompass both (fully) online learning and blended learning. The instructional media elements employed within WKHFRQWH[WRIWKLVGH¿QLWLRQRIHOHDUQLQJFRXOG consist of text, video, audio, graphics, animation or any combination thereof. A central compo- nent of most e-learning courses is some form of two-way interaction between learners and their instructor and between the learners themselves. Synchronous communication tools, such as real- time chat, and asynchronous tools, such as e-mail and discussion boards, are common. Over the past decade, e-learning has evolved and developed at a rapid pace so much so that it is a commonly accepted and increasingly popular alternative to traditional FtF education (Gunawar- dena & McIsaac, 2004; Connolly, MacArthur, 6WDQV¿HOG0F/HOODQLQSUHVV6RPHIDFXOW\ members are strong proponents of e-learning and believe online courses can provide educational opportunities to learners who would otherwise have to do without. They also believe that the quality of these courses can be comparable to traditional place-bound courses (Dutton, Dutton, & Perry, 2002). $FFRUGLQJWR&RQQROO\DQG6WDQV¿HOG there have been six generations of distance learn- L QJ W KHO D VWW K U H HRI ZKLFKU H S UHVH QWW K H¿ U VW W K U H H  JHQHUDWLRQVRIHOHDUQLQJ7KLV¿UVWJHQHUDWLRQRI e-learning is based on mainly passive use of the Internet (circa 1994-99), primarily consisting of conversion of course material to an online format, EDVLF PHQWRULQJ XVLQJ HPDLO DQG ORZ¿GHOLW\ streamed audio/video. However, the educational philosophy still belongs to the pre-Internet era. The use of more advanced technologies consisting of high-bandwidth access, rich streaming media and virtual learning environments that provide access to course material, communication facilities and student services represents the second generation of e-learning (circa 2000-03). Asynchronous communications support a constructivist form of learning and allow learners to communicate in ZULWLQJ7KLVDSSURDFKHQFRXUDJHVPRUHUHÀHFWLRQ and disciplined and rigorous thinking, which helps learners to make connections among ideas and to construct internal, coherent knowledge structures (Garrison, 1997). The most recent developments in e-learning (since 2003) are more collaborative learning environments based much more on the FRQVWUXFWLYLVWHSLVWHPRORJ\SURPRWLQJUHÀHFWLYH practice through tools like e-portfolios, blogs, wikis, using games-based e-learning and highly interactive online simulations. We are also now starting to see the development of mobile learn- ing (m-learning) through devices like personal digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones and smartphones. M-learning is still at an early stage, 912 Games-Based E-Learning but as these devices become more functional, we ZRXOGH[SHFWWRVHHVLJQL¿FDQWGHYHORSPHQWVLQ this area. I n t e r m s o f i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n and training, the research literature cites many advantages of an e-learning environment, particu- larly the convenience and ÀH[LELOLW\RIIHUHGE\ WKHDV\QFKURQRXV³DQ\WLPHDQ\ZKHUHDQ\SDFH´ education (McDonald, 2002). The asynchronous nature of the medium also allows learners time for UHVHDUFKLQWHUQDOUHÀHFWLRQDQG³FROOHFWLYHWKLQN- ing” (Garrison, 1997). Moreover, the text-based nature of e-learning normally requires written communication from the learner, which along ZLWKUHÀHFWLRQHQFRXUDJHKLJKHUOHYHOOHDUQLQJ such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, and encourage clearer and more precise thinking (Jonassen, 1996). McComb (1993) considers WKDWHOHDUQLQJDOVRSURYLGHVHI¿FLHQWDFFHVVWR information, which means that new resources and updates/corrections to course material can be posted relatively quickly, and at the same time learners have access to the wealth of related information available on the Internet. In addition, e-learning courses also have the capability to pres- ent multiple representations of a concept, which allows learners to store and retrieve information more effectively (Kozma, 1987). Most e-learning systems also provide an automatic paper trail of all discussions that instructors and learners can VXEVHTXHQWO\HODERUDWHRUUHÀHFWRQ Increased social distance provides a number of distinct advantages to online conferences (synchronous or asynchronous). In written com- munications, anonymity of characteristics such as gender, race, age, or social status can be preserved, which can reduce the feeling of discrimination, and provide equality of social interaction among participants. In turn, this can permit the expres- sion of emotion and promote discussion that normally would be inhibited. However, there is some evidence that the social equality factor may not extend to participants who are poor writers but who must communicate primarily in a text- based format (Gunawardena, 1993). DEVELOPMENTS TOWARD GAMES-BASED E-LEARNING 'XULQJWKHSDVW¿YH\HDUVWKHUHKDVEHHQD VLJQL¿FDQWDPRXQWRIZRUNFDUULHGRXWLQWRWKH use of computer games-based technologies and concepts to enhance teaching and learning, both for higher education and training purposes. Con- QROO\DQG6WDQV¿HOGGH¿QHJDPHVEDVHG H  OHDU Q L Q J D V  ³ W K H X V H RI D F R PSX W H U J D P H V  E D V H G approach to deliver, support, and enhance teach- ing, learning, assessment, and evaluation” and can be differentiated from the more common term games-based learning, which tends to cover both computer and noncomputer games, such as card and board games. This is a research area that may be conceptualized as the intersection of learning theory, computer games theory and design, user interfaces, and subject matter expertise. In this conceptualization, learning theory serves as the foundation to ensure that technology does not become the dominant factor. In this section, we discuss some of the pedagogic underpinnings for games-based e-learning. The interested reader is UHIHUUHGWR&RQQROO\DQG6WDQV¿HOGIRUD fuller discussion of the concepts of games-based e-learning. Motivation, Engagement, and Challenge Motivation is a key concept in many theories of learning. Katzeff (2000) stresses that motivation is a critical factor for instructional design and that for learning to occur the learner must be motivated to learn. Malone and Lepper (1987) present a theo- retical framework of intrinsic motivation (doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable) in the design of educational computer 913 Games-Based E-Learning games. They suggest that intrinsic motivation is created by four individual factors—challenge, fantasy, curiosity and control—and three inter- personal factors—cooperation, competition and recognition. Computer games induce conditions within players that encourage them to continue involvement with the game. Such conditions include satisfaction, desire, anger, absorption, interest, excitement, enjoyment, pride in achieve- ment and the (dis)approbation of peers and others. It is in provoking and harnessing some of these emotions and their consequences that computer JDPHVPLJKWEHQH¿WHGXFDWLRQ%ULWLVK (GXFD- tional Communications and Technology Agency (Becta), 2001). This is borne out by a study cited in Garris, Ahlers, and Driskell (2002), which found that incorporating game features into instruction increased motivation and consequently produced greater attention and retention. An empirical study by Chen, Shen, Ou, and Liu (1998) demonstrated the positive effects of computer games on motiva- tion and learning. Prensky (2001) argues that learning today is unengaging compared to all the alternatives like television, computer games and even work. The current younger generation going through higher education, which Prensky terms digital natives, has grown up in a technologically sophisticated environment; an environment populated by home computers, the Internet, graphic-rich mov- ies, multi-player Internet gaming, PlayStations, Xboxes, Game Boys, DVD players, mobile phones, interactive television, PDAs and iPods, which has led to a change in their experiences, attitudes. and expectations. Contrast this with the predigital gen- eration (today’s instructors) who grew up largely with the passive technologies of books, television DQGUDGLRDQGZKRZHUH³HGXFDWHGLQWKHVW\OHV of the past” (Prensky, 2001). Table 1 highlights features that contribute to motivation. Gee (2003) believes that challenge is crucial to sustain engagement but that this can be achieved by building into interactivity the same learning principles used in effective classrooms, namely: What indicates motivation? Independent work Self-directed problem posing Persistence Pleasure in learning What generates motivation? Active participation Intrinsic and prompt feedback Challenging but achievable goals Mix of uncertainty and open-endedness What can motivation usefully support? Collaborative interaction Peer scaffolding of learning Creative competition or cooperation Equal opportunities What does sustained motivation rely on? A version of reality Relevance to the user Recognizable and desirable roles for players What are problems with motivation? Motivation may lead to obsession Motivation may cause transfer of fantasy into reality Motivation may induce egotism Table 1. Features that contribute to motivation (Source: Becta, 2001) . between learners and their instructor and between the learners themselves. Synchronous communication tools, such as real- time chat, and asynchronous tools, such as e-mail and discussion boards,. organisation’s budget. On the other hand, an initia- tive of this kind inevitably involves considerable executive and managerial effort, and adaptation of business processes, and, perhaps more challeng- ingly,. a better understanding of the implications, challenges and barriers to games-based e-learn- ing, educators, practitioners and developers will be able to make better use of and gain substantial