Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 CHAPTER 16 Conservation and Management ■ INTRODUCTION Vertebrates, which have been a part of the Earth’s fauna for more than 500 million years, have evolved into many differ- ent groups that have successfully adapted to virtually every habitat. They can swim, crawl, walk, run, climb, glide, and fly. Insects (phylum Arthropoda: class Insecta) are the only other group in the Animal kingdom whose evolution sur- passes that of the vertebrates in terms of global distribution and adaptation to such a wide variety of habitats. Humans are vertebrates and represent one of the most recent products in the evolution of placental mammals. Although the first modern humans—Homo sapiens sapiens (as “Cro-Magnon” man)—appeared only about 165,000 years ago in Africa, the impact that our species has made has been greater than that of any other species in the history of the Earth. Not only have humans had a direct impact on many other species (extirpation, extinction, propagation, disper- sal), but indirectly actions by humans may ultimately threaten the continued existence of vertebrates and even life as we know it. Activities that threaten biodiversity, such as destruc- tion of the rain forests, damaging of the ozone layer, global warming, production of acid rain, and pollution of waterways, are major global concerns. Humanity ultimately may deter- mine whether Homo sapiens and all other organisms on Earth will continue to survive. The fate of 500 million years of ver- tebrate evolution seemingly rests in the hands of one species. ■ REGULATORY LEGISLATION AFFECTING VERTEBRATES IN THE UNITED STATES Conservation of plants and animals is a global concern. Although the conservation movement did not start in the United States, this country has been the leader in the realm of conservation both within North America and throughout the world. Efforts to regulate hunting in the United States can be traced back to the 17th century. Virginia, for example, was one of the earliest colonies to offer a bounty for wolf control. This law was adopted by the Grand Assembly at Jamestown on September 4, 1632 (Green, 1940). The first major fed- eral legislation in this area, however, came with the passage of the Lacey Act of 1900. This law, among other things, pro- hibited the interstate transportation of “any wild animals or birds” killed in violation of state laws. It also authorized the Secretary of Agriculture to adopt all measures necessary for the “preservation, distribution, introductions, and restoration of game birds and other wild birds” subject to the laws of the various states. In 1916, a Convention of Migratory Birds produced a treaty adopting a uniform system of protection for certain species of birds that migrate between the United States and Canada. The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 implemented the treaty of 1916, providing for regulations to control the taking, selling, transporting, and importing of migratory birds for their feathers. The Act played an impor- tant role in protecting many species such as the snowy egret (Egretta thula) (Fig. 16.1). The Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929 provided for the acquisition and development of land for migratory bird refuges and also authorized investigations and publica- tions on North American birds. The Act, however, provided no funds for these purposes. Funding was not provided until 1934, when the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act (commonly known as the Duck Stamp Act) was passed. This legislation requires all waterfowl hunters 16 years of age or older to possess a valid federal hunting stamp. Receipts from the sales of this stamp are set aside in a spe- cial account known as the Migratory Bird Conservation Fund, from which funds are appropriated for the acquisition and management of migratory bird refuges and waterfowl production areas. These two acts have played an important role in protecting such birds as the trumpeter swan (Olor buc- cinator) and the whooping crane (Grus americana). The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1934 was the first major federal statute to employ the strategy of requiring consideration of humanity’s impact on wildlife. This forward- looking legislation authorized federal water resource agencies Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 422 Chapter Sixteen Snowy egret (Egretta thula) in breeding plumage. The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 played an important role in protecting many species, including the snowy egret. FIGURE 16.1 The Aid in Fish Restoration Act (commonly known as the Dingell–Johnson Act) passed in 1950 and provides funds for management projects involving fishes—for example, fish ladders that provide access around a dam for fish migrating upstream. Fish ladders are often constructed with a 10-percent-graded flume interrupted with vertical, slotted partitions. The maximum 1-foot drop in water level at each partition produces a flow that fishes instinctively pursue. Setting the slots at an angle directs the flow exclusively into the pools behind the partitions, so that the dropping water never has more energy than the fish can resist. Changes in water level do not disrupt the ladder. Higher water increases the flow through the slots as well as the amount of energy-absorbing water in the pools. FIGURE 16.2 to acquire lands or interests in connection with water-use projects specifically for protection and enhancement of fish and wildlife. In 1936, a Convention between the United States and Mexico for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Game Mammals was held. This meeting was similar to the Con- vention with Canada in 1916, and it was similarly imple- mented under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. This Convention was amended in 1972, to add 32 additional fam- ilies of birds, including eagles, hawks, owls, and members of the family Corvidae (jays, magpies, and crows). The Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (com- monly referred to as the Pittman–Robertson Act) was passed in 1937. This Act provides federal aid to states for wildlife restoration work with funds being raised by an excise tax on sporting arms and ammunition. Funds are apportioned to the states on a 75%–25% matching basis and can be used for approved land acquisition, wildlife research, and develop- ment and management projects. Amendments in 1970 and 1972 added excise taxes on pistols, revolvers, bows, arrows, parts, and accessories used in wildlife projects or hunter safety programs. The majority of all wildlife refuges have been purchased through funding provided by the Pittman–Robertson Act. The Bald Eagle Act of 1940 was designed to provide for the protection of bald and golden eagles. The Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere produced a 1940 treaty that stated that the gov- ernment of the United States and 11 other American republics wished to “protect and preserve in their natural habitat representatives of all species and genera of their native flora and fauna, including migratory birds.” This treaty cov- ers the wintering grounds of many birds that nest in the United States. The federal Aid in Fish Restoration Act (commonly referred to as the Dingell–Johnson Act) was passed in 1950. It provides federal aid to the states on a 75%–25% matching basis for approved land acquisition, research, and develop- ment and management projects involving fish (Fig. 16.2). Funds are obtained by means of an excise tax oncertain items of sport fishing tackle. Most fish hatcheries, including those now used to raise endangered species, were built using funds from the Dingell–Johnson Act. Hunters and fisherman that buy Duck Stamps, hunting licenses, and hunting and fishing Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 Conservation and Management 423 equipment have been indirectly responsible for most of the species management and protection efforts in this country. The Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956 established a com- prehensive national fish and wildlife policy. It directs a pro- gram of continuing research, extension, and information services on fish and wildlife matters of national and interna- tional importance. This Act was responsible for the estab- lishment of Cooperative Fisheries and Wildlife Units at many of the nation’s universities. It designated a Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) made up of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (BSFW) and the Bureau of Commercial Fish- eries. This Act was amended in 1970, to transfer the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. A 1974 amendment redesig- nated the BSFW as the USFWS under the Assistant Secre- tary of Interior for Fish and Wildlife and Parks. In an effort to accelerate the acquisition of migratory waterfowl habitat, Congress passed the Wetlands Loan Act in 1961, which authorized $100 million to be added to the Migratory Bird Conservation Fund. Advances are to be repaid to the Treasury using Duck Stamp receipts. The Wilderness Act of 1964 provided for the formal preservation of wilderness areas. Areas within the National Wildlife Refuge System and areas within the National Parks and National Forests were to be reviewed for wilderness des- ignation and recommendations submitted to Congress. Additional environmental protection under such laws as the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968), the National Environmental Policy Act (1969), the Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972), the Endangered Species Act (1973), the Fishery Conservation and Management Acts (1976, 1978, 1982), the Whale Conservation and Protection Study Act (1976), the Fish and Wildlife Improvement Act (1978), and the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act (Nongame Act) (1980) has helped preserve habitats of endangered species as well as other wildlife. This protection, however, has been insufficient for many species. ■ ENDANGERED SPECIES IN THE UNITED STATES In January 1964, the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife circulated a tentative list of rare and endangered fish and wildlife among some 300 knowledgeable persons and orga- nizations. Comments and suggestions were solicited. A revised list based on these suggestions was reviewed further and the additional comments incorporated into the first edi- tion of the “Red Book,” as the Federal List of Rare and Endangered Fish and Wildlife of the United States was pop- ularly known. This was issued in July 1966, and revised in 1968. Species were classified as endangered, rare, peripheral, or status undetermined. A second revision of the Red Book in March 1973, com- bined endangered and rarespecies into a single category termed threatened. This change was made primarily to indicate that the Red Book did not comprise the official list of endangered species. The official list is found in the U.S. Department of the Interior’s list of endangered native fish and wildlife, pub- lished annually in the Federal Register. In 1966, the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife began a special research program for endangered species. This program was centered at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Laurel, Maryland, and had two primary objec- tives: (1) to learn how to propagate certain species in captiv- ity; and (2) to seek, through field studies, key factors that threatened the existence of certain species. With enactment of the Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966, which authorized use of land and water conservation funds for the acquisition of endangered species habitat, refuge lands began to be purchased specifically for endangered species. In 1969, Congress passed the Endangered Species Con- servation Act (Public Law 91-135). This Act provided broad authority to the federal government to establish a compre- hensive program for the conservation, restoration, and prop- agation of selected fish and wildlife in the United States that are threatened with extinction. The Act also provided assis- tance on an international level for the preservation of wild animals in other nations. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Public Law 93- 205; 87 Stat. 884) became effective on December 28, 1973, and thereby supplanted the Endangered Species Conserva- tion Act of 1969. The new law sought “to provide a means whereby the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved, to provide a program for the conservation of such endangered species and threatened species, and to take such steps as may be appro- priate to achieve the purposes of the treaties and conven- tions” in which the United States has pledged its support for the conservation of wild flora and fauna worldwide. This law encompasses all species of the animal and plant kingdoms, with the term “species” including any species, any subspecies, and any smaller taxonomic unit of plant or animal, and also any viable population segment thereof. Furthermore, the law established two categories of endangerment: 1. Endangered Species—those species in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their range 2. Threatened Species—those species that are likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of their range This law also emphasized the need to preserve critical habi- tats on which endangered species depend for their continued existence. Individual states were encouraged to establish guidelines to complement the goals outlined in the 1973 Act. Also in 1973, the United States was one of 44 nations attending the Convention on International Trade in Endan- gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. The treaty and species lists negotiated at the Convention were implemented by the United States on February 22, 1977. The scientific Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 424 Chapter Sixteen authority for the United States is an autonomous committee of representatives of six federal agencies. Known as the Endangered Species Scientific Authority (ESSA), this com- mittee’s primary responsibility is to establish biological crite- ria on which to base findings for individual species protected by the Convention so that it may advise the management authority (Federal Wildlife Permit Office of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) on the issuance of appropriate U.S. export and import permits. In mid-1978, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down a decision upholding the applicability of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 in a case involving the Tennessee Val- ley Authority. Following this decision, Congress subsequently amended the Act (the Endangered Species Act Amendments of 1978) reauthorizing administration of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and, among other things, providing for a review board and a cabinet-level committee to act as the final decision-making authorities in those cases where a seemingly irresolvable impasse has been reached regarding approval of a project that might destroy the habitat and last remaining members of an endangered species. Whether this amendment permitting exemptions from the Act’s stringent requirements will seriously weaken the Endangered Species Act remains to be seen. The Endangered Species Act was reauthorized in 1988 and 1995. Currently, 1,186 native species and/or subspecies of plants and animals are listed as endangered and/or threatened in the United States and/or Trust Territories. These include 69 mammals, 90 birds, 35 reptiles, 17 amphibians, and 110 fishes (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1999). Nearly 4,000 other dwindling species, most of them little known plants and invertebrates, are awaiting classification. Appendix II con- tains a complete listing of the vertebrates currently classified as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Each listed species has a Recovery Plan—a species management plan developed by a Recovery Team that is designed to restore habitats or do whatever else is necessary to enhance the survival of the species. In 1998, the U.S. Department of the Interior announced that 29 species of fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals had recovered enough to be seriously considered for removal from the endangered list over a 2-year period. Some of the species will be downgraded to threatened and others removed from the law’s protection altogether, although states may still regulate them. In 1999, the American pere- grine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) and the American bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) were proposed for removal. Since the American alligator was the first to be removed from the endangered species list in the late 1970s, only 6 other species have recovered enough to be taken off the list entirely. Another 14 species were removed after they either disappeared or new information was uncovered indicating they never should have been included in the list in the first place. In addition, most states have held one or more endan- gered species symposia. Statewide symposia allow researchers to pool the most accurate and up-to-date information about the endangered and threatened species that reside within their borders. ■ SANCTUARIES AND REFUGES The establishment of wildlife refuges, parks, and sanctuaries has been a major component in the survival of many species. Protected areas allow species to breed, rest during migration, or winter with minimum disturbance. Some refuges have been established specifically to provide critical habitat for endangered species. The first U.S. federal wildlife refuge was established at Pelican Island in Florida in 1903. Its purpose was to protect a large heronry from plume hunters. Since 1903, the National Wildlife Refuge System has grown until it now consists of 508 units (Miller, 1999) (Fig. 16.3). Approximately 85 percent of the land area of these refuges is located in Alaska. Many refuges permit sport and commercial fishing, hunting, trap- ping, mining, oil and gas development, timber harvesting, farming, and livestock grazing. Regulations usually prohibit such activities on refuges during periods of the year when pro- tected species are present. Approximately 25 percent of the land within national wildlife refuges is protected as wilderness, a designation that prohibits all of the above activities. Yellowstone National Park, established in 1872, was the first public national park in the world. Currently, the National Park System consists of 55 major parks and 323 national recreation areas, monuments, battlefields, historic sites, parkways, trails, rivers, seashores, and lakeshores (Miller, 1999). Although open to the public for certain types of recreational activities, these areas, to some extent, preserve and protect wildlife and its habitat. Sport fishing is allowed in all units, but hunting is prohibited except in national recre- ation areas. Approximately 50 percent of the land is pro- tected as wilderness. The U.S. Forest Service oversees 156 national forests and 20 national grasslands (Miller, 1999). These areas are managed under the concepts of sustained yield and multiple use. Uses include timber harvesting, fishing, hunting, graz- ing, mining, and oil and gas development. Only about 15 per- cent of national forest lands are protected as wilderness. The National Wilderness Preservation System is the most protective and restrictive of all federal lands. Wilder- ness areas are located within national wildlife refuges, parks, and forests. They are managed by the agency that oversees the area in which they are located. At present, 630 wilder- ness areas have been designated (Miller, 1999). These areas are roadless and, generally, have little or no evidence of human intrusion or presence. The National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act was passed by Congress in 1968. It prohibits development along por- tions of rivers that have unique and outstanding wildlife, geological, scenic, historical, or cultural values. At present, approximately 150 rivers and portions of rivers are protected, Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 Conservation and Management 425 X X X X X X X XX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X National parks and monuments National forests National wildlife refuges X FIGURE 16.3 As of January 2000, the National Wildlife Refuge system consists of 508 units. The National Park Service consists of 55 major parks and 322 national recreation areas, monuments, battlefields, historic sites, parkways, trails, rivers, seashores, and lakeshores. The U.S. Forest Service oversees 156 national forests and 20 national grasslands (January 2000). encompassing only 0.2 percent of the nation’s 6 million km of rivers. In contrast, 17 percent of the length of wild rivers in the United States have been modified by dams (Miller, 1999). Although not managed primarily for wildlife, many fed- eral military installations provide habitat for numerous species. In addition to federal lands, there are numerous state wildlife management areas, parks, and forests that provide protection for many species. These are generally smaller than their federal counterparts and place more emphasis on man- aged human recreational activities such as hunting, fishing, timber management, and camping. The Nature Conservancy, a private nonprofit environ- mental organization, has done more than any other private organization to preserve unique and fragile habitats. The Con- servancy acquires land either through donation or purchase and sets it aside to protect endangered wildlife and plants and to provide future generations with opportunities to enjoy the out-of-doors. Since 1951, the Conservancy has acquired over 1 million hectares of land. Some tracts are maintained and managed by the Conservancy; others are donated to appro- priate government agencies or universities. Two private organizations, Ducks Unlimited and Trout Unlimited, have played extremely important roles in purchas- ing critical wetland habitats and protecting them from devel- opment. Both organizations also sponsor research on species management. The National Audubon Society also maintains a net- work of refuges. Many colleges and universities maintain research stations and protected areas for faculty and student research. The American Museum of Natural History maintains Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 426 Chapter Sixteen two research stations and sanctuaries in Florida and Ari- zona. The Smithsonian Institution has a primary research station in Panama and others in various locations around the world. On a global basis, many countries are seeing the value of setting aside areas as sanctuaries and refuges. A unique pro- gram that began in 1987 was designed to help less-developed countries preserve vital habitat. Known as the debt-for- nature swap, international nongovernmental organizations such as the Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, and Conservation International purchase part of the debt of a foreign country from the bank to whom the debt is owed. Many banks are willing to sell these debts for between 5 cents and 60 cents on each dollar owed. In exchange for not having to repay a portion of their debt, the country and the conservation organization enter into an agreement whereby the country agrees to protect a portion of its tropical forest and its inhabitants. Bolivia was the first country to participate in a debt-for- nature swap when the government agreed to protect 1.5 mil- lion hectares of tropical forest surrounding its Beni Biosphere Reserve. Conservation International purchased $650,000 of debt at an 85 percent discount. Implementation of the plan was delayed for several years, however, due to internal opposition and Bolivia’s tight financial resources. By 1992, ten other coun- tries had participated in debt-for-nature swaps, with Costa Rica, Ecuador, Madagascar, and the Philippines having accounted for 95 percent of the funds expended (Miller, 1994). Some of the countries have been much more successful than others. Costa Rica, for example, has made great strides in pro- tecting its remaining tropical forests and restoring ecologically damaged areas. Guanacaste National Park in Costa Rica is designated an international biosphere reserve. Debt-for-nature swaps represent just one way of protecting biodiversity. Although problems remain, such as human encroach- ment, overpopulation, and poaching, many countries are recognizing economic benefits by attracting wildlife tours and expeditions. This is ecotourism, defined by conser- vationists as travel that promotes conservation of natural resources. With the promotion and regulation of eco- tourism, people gain from the creation of jobs, countries see increases in their economies, and wildlife benefits because of the preservation of habitat and the improve- ment of human awareness. Bolivia is among the countries with the most biological diversity in the world, with over 40 percent of the bird species of South America being found within its boundaries. In late 1994, the Bolivian gov- ernment teamed with private investors to build a program of “ecological tourism” it hopes will bring in $1 billion a year. An important part of the plan involves Noel Kempff National Park, a huge wilderness park the size of West Virginia, carved out of a remote area on the border with Brazil. The park contains more than 500 species of birds, as many as all of North America. The project is financed by the Nature Conservancy of Arlington, Virginia, and the Parks in Peril program of the U.S. Agency for International Development. The government of Bolivia will provide the basic infrastructure needed for tourism, while the private sec- tor will supply the basic services. Tourism has become the salvation for mountain gorillas in Rwanda and Congo (former Zaire), and ecotourism has funded the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve in Costa Rica. (However, recent internal strife in Rwanda, including a civil war, has created a potentially disastrous problem for contin- ued survival of the gorillas.) Some countries, however, have been lax about monitoring the impact of tourism, and in some cases, unregulated ecotourism has led to habitat destruction. Ecuador, for instance, has tripled the number of tourists permitted to visit the Galápagos Islands, and in Nepal, forests have been devastated to provide firewood and lodging for trekkers. ■ VALUE OF MUSEUM COLLECTIONS Vertebrate collections range in size from those maintained by such institutions as the American Museum of Natural His- tory and the Smithsonian Institution to collections of only a few specimens maintained by single individuals. The cura- torial care provided ranges from excellent to nonexistent. Professional societies, such as the American Society of Mam- malogists and the American Society for Systematics Collec- tions have attempted to develop standards for curatorial care. Properly maintained collections are inspected at intervals and are certified by the appropriate society. In cases where a col- lection cannot be maintained, the institution is encouraged to donate the collection to an organization that can provide the necessary curatorial care to prevent the possibly irre- placeable loss of data. Vertebrate collections are used in many ways. They serve as a permanent repository for voucher specimens—that is, type specimens, locality records, and so forth (Fig. 16.4). They pro- vide a reference collection for researchers needing to examine a large series of specimens from a given area or areas. In the case of extinct species, such as passenger pigeons (Ectopistes migratorius), museums often retain the only evidence of their existence. Natural history collections are absolutely essential to biodiversity research. Creating a complete inventory of life on Earth is impossible without reference to museum specimens, and the associated taxonomy and systematics is needed to make rational decisions about conservation. During the 1960s, populations of several species of fish- eating birds (bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus; brown peli- can, Pelecanus occidentalis; osprey, Pandion haliaetus), and others became seriously threatened because of the birds’ inability to fledge young. Although the birds were breeding and females were laying eggs, a high percentage of egg shells broke, resulting in the loss of young prior to hatching. By measuring the thickness of eggshells collected prior to 1940 in museum collections and comparing them with recent shells Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 Conservation and Management 427 Museum collections serve as permanent repositories for voucher speci- mens and provide reference collections for researchers who need to examine a large series of specimens from a given area. The collection shown here is part of the mammal collection in the Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. These speci- mens are available for a variety of studies. FIGURE 16.4 from broken eggs in nests, researchers showed that egg shells had become much thinner and, thus, more susceptible to breakage. Further investigation linked the manufacture and use of the chlorinated hydrocarbon DDT (dichlorodiphenyl- trichloroethane) to the egg shell thinning. In 1939, ento- mologist Paul Mueller had discovered that DDT was a potent insecticide, and it soon became the world’s most- used pesticide. Birds at the top of the food chain were sub- ject to the cumulative effects of all the chlorinated hydrocarbons previously ingested by their prey. This dis- covery was critical in the successful effort to ban DDT and either restrict or ban other chlorinated hydrocarbons such as aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, mirex, and kepone in the United States. These broad-spectrum insecticides kill insects by causing convulsions, paralysis, and death, and they persist in the environment for up to 15 years. The dis- covery of the cause of egg-shell thinning undoubtedly saved a number of species from extirpation, if not extinction. Unfortunately, chlorinated hydrocarbons are still widely used in many other parts of the world, especially in less- developed countries. By means of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), molecular biologists are now able to extract DNA from many parts of museum specimens, including dried skin, bone, hair, feathers, and egg shells. DNA can be extracted, amplified, and sequenced from archaeological and museum specimens in order to study the relationships of extinct and extant forms. In addition, researchers now can compare modern and his- torical specimens of the same extant species in terms of indi- vidual and geographical variation in mitochondrial DNA (Thomas et al., 1990). Thus, historical trends of genotype frequencies can be directly measured. Concerning the value of museum collections, Diamond (1990a) stated: Old specimens constitute a vast, irreplaceable source of material for directly determining historical changes in gene frequencies, which are among the most important data in evolutionary biology. Until PCR became avail- able, those data were lost forever as soon as the gene- bearing individual died. Now, however, museums with large, well-run collections of specimen series large enough for statistical analysis will be at the forefront of research in molecular evolution. ■ WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN A MODERN WORLD Earth’s capacity to support humans is determined both by nat- ural constraints and by human choices concerning economics, environment, and culture. Human choice is not governed by ecological factors such as those that affect the carrying capac- ity of nonhuman populations; therefore, human carrying capacity is more dynamic and uncertain. The expanding human population requires increasing amounts of space, food, and resources—all to the detriment of other vertebrate species. Thus, emphasis must be placed on controlling human population growth. According to the United Nations, the world’s population in 1999 just exceeded 6 billion, with 4.7 billion in developing (Third World) countries and 1.3 billion in industrialized nations (Fig. 16.5). The population of Year World total Population (billions) 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1950 2000 2050 2100 Developing countries Developed countries FIGURE 16.5 The United Nations broadly classifies the world’s countries as “develop- ing” or “developed.” Developed countries are highly industrialized and usually have a high gross national product (GNP) per capita, whereas developing countries have low to moderate industrialization and GNPs per capita. Past and projected population sizes for developed coun- tries, developing countries, and the world for the period 1950–2120 are shown. Source: United Nations. Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 Risk America’s Most Endangered Ecosystems Extreme High Moderate FIGURE 16.6 The Defenders of Wildlife, a national conservation organization, assessed the health of ecosystems state by state in 1995. They fac- tored in the number of endangered ecosystems, numbers of endan- gered species, and the rates at which both are losing ground. Florida was the hands-down leader. Despite conservation efforts, advances are being overwhelmed by rapid population growth and development. The Southeast, from its longleaf pine forests to its coastal wetlands, is in particular jeopardy. 428 Chapter Sixteen TABLE 16.1 Definition of Conservation Status Ranks Acronym Explanation GX Presumed extinct (not located despite intensive searches) GH Possibly extinct (of historical occurrence; still some hope of rediscovery) G1 Critically imperiled (typically 5 or fewer occurrences or 1,000 or fewer individuals) G2 Imperiled (typically 6 to 20 occurrences or 1,000 to 3,000 individuals) G3 Vulnerable (rare; typically 21 to 100 occurrences or 3,000 to 10,000 individuals) G4 Apparently secure (uncommon, but not rare; some cause for long-term concern; usually more than 100 occurrences and 10,000 individuals) G5 Secure (common; widespread and abundant) From Stein and Flack, (1997b). Note: “G” refers to the global or rangewide status of a species. Both national (N) and state (S) status ranks are also assessed. less-developed regions is currently growing at 1.9 percent per year, whereas that of more-developed regions is growing at 0.3 to 0.4 percent per year (United Nations, 1994). The pres- ent growth is nearly 90 million people a year, 7.5 million a month, 1.7 million a week, 245,000 a day, 10,000 an hour, or 170 a minute—with 164 of the 170 being born in poor countries. If human population growth can be brought under control, many of the problems facing other species of verte- brates would resolve themselves. Unilateral efforts by only a few countries, no matter how well intentioned, will not be sufficient to preserve Earth’s vital habitats and species. The coordinated efforts of most, if not all, countries will be required to sustain life as we know it. Worldwatch Institute’s annual State of the World (Flavin, 1997) reported that 5 years after the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, millions of acres of tropical and decidu- ous forest still disappear every year, carbon dioxide emissions are at record highs, and population growth is outpacing food production. The report noted that governments lag badly in meeting goals set at the Rio summit: “Unfortunately, few governments have even begun the policy changes that will be needed to put the world on an environmentally sustainable path,” the report declared. On the positive side, the report found hope in increasing numbers of grassroots groups, par- ticularly in Bangladesh and India, and in the fact that more than 1,500 cities in 51 countries have adopted local plans and rules, often more stringent than their national governments proposed at Rio de Janeiro. The National Heritage Network of the Nature Conser- vancy has developed a consistent method for evaluating the health and condition of species and ecological communities. Using this method, it is possible to rank their conservation sta- tus. Conservation status ranks are based on a scale from one to five, ranging from critically imperiled (G1) to demonstrably secure (G5) (see Table 16.1 for more details). Species known to be extinct, or missing and possibly extinct, are also recorded. In general, species classified as vulnerable (G3 or rarer) may be considered to be at risk. Emphasis must be placed on biodiversity and on pre- serving and/or restoring entire ecosystems (Fig. 16.6). Biodiversity is the total of all plants, animals, and microor- ganisms in the biosphere or in a specified area. The planet’s biological storehouse is so unexplored that researchers can- not even say for sure how many species exist; the total could be 10 million or as many as 100 million. Yet global biodi- versity continues to decrease, primarily because of the loss of habitat. Of the 2,536 vertebrates tracked by the National Heritage Network, 563 (22%) are deemed rare to critically imperiled (Stein and Flack, 1997a, b) (Fig. 16.7). Forty- two percent of turtles worldwide are threatened with extinc- tion, and 6,000 of the approximately 9,000 living species of birds are declining in numbers (Hanks, 1996). In recent decades, populations of migratory songbirds in the mid- Atlantic states decreased by 50 percent. Frogs and other amphibians are declining throughout the world (Blaustein and Wake, 1995). Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 Conservation and Management 429 Percent of species 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Critically imperiled Presumed/possibly extinct Group Imperiled Vulnerable Amphibians Freshwater fish Flowering plants Conifers Ferns Reptiles Mammals Birds Total 2.5% 13.6% 40.4% 10.3% 14.0% 2.6% 11.3% 38.7% 10.7% 14.1% 0.9% 6.3% 33.3% 9.5% 16.6% 0.7% 21.5% 4.9% 4.0% 11.9% 2.9% 18.0% 3.2% 11.9% 7.0% 26.2% 7.0% 12.2% 5.0% 3.3% 0.2% 16.5% 2.2% 2.3% 3.5% 14.5% 5.4%9.1% Proportion of species at risk according to plant and animal groups. Species groups are arranged in order of relative risk, with those in the greatest danger at the left. The intensity of the shading denotes the severity of risk. Source: Data from B. A. Stein and S. R. Flack. 1997 Species Report Card: The State of U.S. Plants and Animals, The Nature Conservancy, 1997, Arlington, VA. FIGURE 16.7 culture, but no consistent correlations existed in the distrib- utions of endangered species from different taxa. However, the presence of endangered birds, amphibians, and reptiles provided a more sensitive indication of overall endangered biodiversity within any region. Conserving plant species max- imizes the incidental protection of all other species groups. The greatest number of endangered species occur in Hawaii, southern California, the southeastern coastal states, and southern Appalachia (Fig. 16.9). Two counties were hot spots for three groups: San Diego, California (fish, mammals, and plants) and Santa Cruz, California (arthropods, amphibians, reptiles, and plants). Nine counties were found to be hot spots for two groups: Hawaii, Honolulu, Kauai, and Maui, Hawaii; Los Angeles, California; San Francisco, California; Highlands, Florida; Monroe, Florida; and Whitfield, Geor- gia. Except for these locations, the key areas for most groups overlap only weakly, which suggests that the endangered species hot spots of one group do not necessarily correspond with those for other groups. Czech and Krausman (1997) compiled a database of the 877 American threatened and endangered species listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service up to 1995 and the causes of their endangerment that have been operational since passage of the Endangered Species Act. Eighteen causes of endangerment were identified and ranked (Table 16.2, p. 432). Most of these result from habitat destruction caused by human activities. For a species to survive, its habitat must provide all of its needs. When a habitat is divided or decreased in size, a World Wildlife Fund scientists have identified approx- imately 200 key “ecoregions” that are all important for their rich diversity of species and other unique biological features (Fig. 16.8a, b). The Global 200 is a centerpiece in the World Wildlife Fund’s campaign to stimulate public action aimed at protecting the Earth’s most valuable harbors of biological diversity. A critical feature is the emphasis on conserving a full representation of the world’s diverse ecosystems, including not only tropical rain forests and coral reefs, but also tundra, trop- ical lakes, and temperate broadleaf forests. Ecoregions define geographically distinct assemblages of natural communities that share a large majority of their species, ecological processes, and environmental conditions. Ecoregions function efficiently as conservation units at regional scales, because they encom- pass similar biological communities and roughly coincide with the regions over which key ecological processes most strongly interact. They can be defined for marine, freshwater, and ter- restrial ecosystems. The Global 200 will hopefully serve as a powerful tool for conservation planning and priority setting. Studies of the geographic distribution of endangered species in the United States were undertaken by Dobson et al. (1997) to determine whether significant correlations exist in the geographic distributions of different groups of endan- gered species and whether such correlations, if present, could be used as indicators for identifying potential protected areas for other poorly known taxa. These studies revealed “hot spots” of threatened diversity, where the ranges of many endemic species overlap with intensive urbanization and agri- Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 430 Chapter Sixteen Everglades Galapagos Islands Congo/Zaire Basin Forests Madagascar Himalayas Legend (a) Terrestrial ecoregions (approximate original extent) Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Tropical and subtropical dry and monsoon broadleaf forests Tropical and subtropical conifer forests Temperate conifer and broadleaf forests Boreal forests and taiga Artic tundra Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands Flooded grasslands and savannas Tropical montane grasslands Desert and xeric shrublands Mediterranean shrublands and woodlands ` FIGURE 16.8 (a) Terrestrial ecoregions identified by World Wildlife Fund scientists. Ecoregions were selected on the basis of their rich diversity of species and other unique biological features. Source: Focus World Wildlife Fund, March–April 1997, Vol. 19(2): 4–5. process known as fragmentation, it may no longer be large enough to meet the needs of all the species that formerly occupied it. Even moderate habitat destruction can cause time-delayed, but predictable, extirpation of the dominant species in the remaining patches (Tilman et al., 1994). As habitat continues to be destroyed, additional species may be extirpated. Because some extirpations may occur generations after fragmentation, they represent a debt—a future ecolog- ical cost of current habitat destruction. Hanks (1996) noted that biodiversity is related to the size of an area. For example, an area of 10 square hectares generally contains twice as many species as an area of 1 square [...]... using similar techniques Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 440 16 Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 Chapter Sixteen Captive breeding programs involving whooping cranes (Grus americana) (see Chapter 11), California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) (see Chapter 15), black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) (see Chapter 15), gray wolves (Canis lupus) (see Chapter 15), red wolves... Chiroptera—925 species Family Pteropodidae—Old World fruit bats Family Rhinopomatidae—mouse-tailed bats and long-tailed bats Family Craseonycteridae—bumble-bee bats Family Emballonuridae—sac-winged bats, sheath-tailed bats, and ghost bats Family Nycteridae—slit-faced bats and hollow-faced bats 451 Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 452 Back Matter Appendix Appendix I Family Megadermatidae—false vampire bats Family... time frames equate the destruction to 37 city blocks per minute or to the area of two football fields each second (Miller, 1994) Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 432 16 Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 Chapter Sixteen FIGURE 16. 9 Three-way ties Two-way ties Arthropods Mammals Birds Fish Fish Mollusks Herptiles Mammals Mollusks Plants “Hot spots” of threatened diversity, as... 305 (1) 275 (2) 224 (3) 186 (4) 182 (5) 161 (6) 144 (7) 144 (8) 140 (9) 131 (10) 120 (11) 109 (12) 94 (13) 92 77 77 19 12 (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) Not Including Hawaiian and Puerto Rican Species 115 (8) 247 (1) 205 (2) 148 (4) 136 (6) 160 (3) 83 (10) 143 (5) 134 (7) 81 (12) 101 (9) 79 (13) 83 (11) 33 (16) 73 (15) 74 (14) 7 (18) 11 (17) Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16 Conservation and Management Text ©... Phyllostomidae—American leaf-nosed bats Family Natalidae—funnel-eared bats Family Furipteridae—smoky, thumbless bats Family Thyropteridae—disc-winged bats and New World sucker-footed bats Family Myzopodidae—Old World sucker-footed bats Family Vespertilionidae—vespertilionid bats and mouse-eared bats Family Mystacinidae—New Zealand short-tailed bats Family Molossidae—free-tailed bats and mastiff bats... plantain-eaters Order Strigiformes—owls, owlets, frogmouths, oilbirds, potoos, nightjars, nighthawks, and whip-poor-wills— 291 species Family Tytonidae—barn owls and grass owls Family Strigidae—typical owls Family Aegothelidae—owlet-nightjars Family Podargidae—Australian frogmouths Family Batrachostomidae—Asian frogmouths Family Steatornithidae—oilbird Family Nyctibiidae—potoos Linzey: Vertebrate Biology. .. Irenidae—fairy-bluebirds and leafbirds Family Orthonychidae—logrunner and chowchilla Family Pomatostomidae—Australo-Papuan babblers Family Laniidae—true shrikes Family Vireonidae—vireos, greenlets, peppershrikes, and shrike-vireos Family Corvidae—quail-thrushes, whipbirds, wedgebills, white-winged chough, apostlebird, sittellas, whiteheads, yellowheads, pipipi, shrike-tits, whistlers, shrike-thrushes,... ravens, magpies, jays, nutcrackers, choughs, birds-of-paradise, currawongs, wood-swallows, orioles, cuckoo-shrikes, fan tails, drongos, monarchs, magpie-larks, ioras, bushshrikes, boubous, tchagras, gonoleks, helmetshrikes, and vangas Family Callaeatidae—New Zealand wattlebirds Family Picathartidae—Picathartes and Chaetops Family Bombycillidae—palmchat, silky-flycatchers, and waxwings Family Cinclidae—dippers... sparrows, wood warblers including Zeledonia, tanagers, swallow-tanagers, neotropical honeycreepers, plushcaps, tanager-finches, cardinals, grosbeaks, troupials, meadowlarks, New World blackbirds, cowbirds, oropendolas, caciques, and bobolinks Linzey: Vertebrate Biology Back Matter Appendix © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 Classification of Living Vertebrates ■ MAMMALS The following mammalian taxonomy is... oviducts in male carp during sexual differentiation (Gimeno et al., 1996) Hormone-disrupting chemicals may have synergistic effects, and seemingly insignificant quantities of individual chemicals can have a major cumulative effect At present, 100,000 synthetic chemicals are on the market, with approx- Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16 Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 Conservation . Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 CHAPTER 16 Conservation and Management ■ INTRODUCTION Vertebrates, which. history. It has since been sur- passed by 1997 and 1998. FIGURE 16. 15 Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 438 Chapter Sixteen recorded. maintains Linzey: Vertebrate Biology 16. Conservation and Management Text © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2003 426 Chapter Sixteen two research stations and sanctuaries in Florida and Ari- zona.