APPLICATIONS – STATIONARY pot

APPLICATIONS – STATIONARY Contents Energy Storage Systems: Batteries Remote Area Power Supply: Batteries and Fuel Cells Fuel Cells Residential Energy Supply: Fuel Cells Fuel Cell/Gas Turbine Hybrid Uninterruptible and Back-up Power: Fuel Cells Cogeneration of Energy and Chemicals: Fuel Cells Energy Storage Systems: Batteries CD Parker, International Lead Zinc Research Organization, Durham, NC, USA & 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Introduction Vast quantities of energy are the engine that powers the well-being and comfort of humanity on this planet, and it is difficult to imagine what our existence would be like in lieu of that abundance. Maintenance of the existing, rea- sonable balance between the need for energy and the available resources endures because of the continuing discovery of new energy resources and our ability to continually improve the efficiency of that energy’s use. To a large extent, our quality of life in future decades will depend upon the maintenance of these same factors, i.e., finding new resources and enhancing the efficiency of the use of both new and existing energy resources. The ability to store energy from available resources and subsequently exploit that energy during periods of urgent need can, indeed, be very advantageous in achieving these objectives, especially if the round-trip of energy storage for sub- sequent use can be efficiently accomplished. Under most circumstances, energy storage for sub- sequent use is a viable technology. Its viability has been demonstrated via organizations, especially electric util- ities, which have elected to invest in energy storage fa- cilities to circumvent chronic system malfunctions. These systems have utilized a host of energy storage technol- ogies and served multiple applications. Some of these storage technologies are relatively mature, some are less mature, and others are still evolving. They were built for a host of applications and have encompassed numerous storage technologies. Other storage facilities were buil t and operated primarily for demonstration purposes. Figures 1 and 2 provide an overview of both storage technologies and applications on a common scale. Col- lectively, these two figures provide insight into the discharge duration and the power requirements of the several applications and, concurrently, the discharge dur- ation and the power capabilities of the several energy storage technologies. Taken together, discharge duration and po w er requirements also provide an estimate of en- ergy requirements. These estimates are more qualitative than quantitative; nevertheless, they are instructive. The pumped hydro and compressed air energy storage (CAES) technologies appear to be the higher-power and -energy technologies and, thus, the most suitable for high-power and long-duration applications, e.g., transmission services and load leveling. Neither appear to be suitable for ap- plications that require a rapid, milliseconds response, and both are restricted to limited locations by siting con- siderations. Figures 1 and 2 also indicate that batteries rank third in power, discharge duration, and, thus, stored energy capacity. Batteries are shown to be suitable for the power-quality applications that require rapid, millisecond responses; they venture into the load-leveling region that power-quality applications require, and they are well suited for renewable energy storage applications. Flywheels, superconducting magnets (SMES), and supercapacitors are high-power, low-energy storage options. They are most suitable for power-quality applications. Energy Storage Attributes Energy storage systems (ESSs) that are interactive with electricity supply systems can mediate or perhaps cir- cumvent a host of supply system concerns. The following is a brief discussion of several electric power system issues that can be resolved or moderated by an interactive ESS. For the purposes of this discussion, a battery energy 53 . APPLICATIONS – STATIONARY Contents Energy Storage Systems: Batteries Remote Area Power Supply: Batteries. and served multiple applications. Some of these storage technologies are relatively mature, some are less mature, and others are still evolving. They were built for a host of applications and have. storage technologies and applications on a common scale. Col- lectively, these two figures provide insight into the discharge duration and the power requirements of the several applications and, concurrently,