List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 3G 3 rd Generation 3GPP 3 rd Generation Partnership Project 4G 4 th Generation AAA Authentication, Authorization and Accounting ABC Always Best Connected ABR Available Bit Rate AC Adaptive Coding ACK Acknowledgement ACM Adaptive Coding and Modulation ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line AF Assured Forwarding AICH Acquisition Indicator Channel AIMD Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease AP Access Point API Application Programming Interface APP Application layer APSK Amplitude and Phase Shift Keying AQM Active Queue Management AR Access Router ARP Address Resolution Protocol ARQ Automatic Repeat reQuest ASC Access Service Class ASD Aggregated System Demand ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode AVBDC Absolute Volume Based Dynamic Capacity AWG N Additive White Gaussian Noise BCH Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (in Chapter 1) BCH Broadcast Channel (in Chapter 5) BDP Bandwidth-Delay Product BE Best Effort BER Bit Error Rate BGAN Broadband Global Area Network BGAN-X BGAN Extension project B-ISDN Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network BLER Block Error Rate BM-SC Broadcast-Multicast Service Center BO Bandwidth Occupation BoD Bandwidth on Demand BPM BSM Protocol Manager BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying BS Base Station BSA Broadband Satellite Access BSM Broadband Satellite Multimedia BSM ID BSM Identifier BSS Broadcasting Satellite Service BTP Burst Time Plan CA Congestion Avoidance CAC Call Admission Control CBP Call Blocking Probability CBQ Class-Based Queuing CBR Constant Bit Rate CCM Constant Coding Modulation CDM Code Division Multiplexing CDMA Code Division Multiple Access CDMA/HDR CDMA/High Data Rate CDP Call Dropping Probability CDVT Cell Delay Variation Tolerance CEN European Committee for Standardization CENELEC European Committee for Electro-technical Standardization CEPT European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations CF/DAMA Combined Free/Demand Assignment Multiple Access C/I Carrier-to-Interference ratio CIF-Q Channel Condition - Independent Fair Queuing C/I PS C/I Proportional Scheduler CIST Common Internal Spanning Tree CLR Cell Loss Ratio CM Control Module xxiv Acronyms CMF Control and Monitoring Functions C/N Carrier power-to-Noise power ratio CN Core Network COPS Common Open Policy Service COST Co-operation in the field of Scientific and Technical Research CP Complete Partitioning CQI Channel Quality Indicator CR Capacity Request CRA Continuous Rate Assignment CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check CS Complete Sharing C-SAP Control-SAP CSI Channel State Information cwnd congestion window DAMA Demand Assignment Multiple Access DBA Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation DBAC Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation Capabilities DBRA Dynamic Bandwidth and Resource Allocation DBS Direct Broadcast Satellite DBS-RCS DBS with Return Channel System DCA Dynamic Channel (or Capacity) Allocation DCCH Dedicated Control Channel DCH Dedicated Channel DDP Delay Differentiation Parameter DDQ Delay Differentiation Queuing DiffServ Differentiated Service DLL Data Link Layer DMBS Double-Movable Boundary Strategy DOCSIS-S Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification for Satellite DP Differentiation Parameter DPSK Differential Phase Shift Keying DRA Dynamic Resource Allocation DRT Delayed Real-Time DS Direct Sequence DSCH Downlink Shared Channel DSCP DiffServ Code Point DSNG Digital Satellite News Gathering DTCH Dedicated Traffic Channel D-TDMA Dynamic TDMA DTH Direct-To-Home DULM Data Unit Labeling Method dupACKs duplicate ACKs DVB Digital Video Broadcasting DVB-C DVB-Cable DVB-CAS DVB-Conditional Access System DVB-GBS DVB-Global Broadcast Service DVB-H DVB-Handheld DVB-RCC DVB-Return Channel via Cable DVB-RCL DVB-Return Channel for LMDS DVB-RCS DVB-Return Channel via Satellite DVB-RCT DVB-Return Channel via Terrestrial DVB-S Digital Video Broadcasting via Satellite DVB-S2 DVB-Satellite version 2 DVB-T DVB-Terrestrial DVB-TM DVB-Technical Module EBU European Broadcasting Union ECC Electronic Communications Committee ECN Explicit Congestion Notification ECSS European Co-operation on Space Standardization EDF Earliest Deadline First EF Expedited Forwarding EHF Extremely High Frequency EIRP Effective Isotropic Radiated Power EMC ElectroMagnetic Compatibility EqB Equivalent Bandwidth ERA European Research Area ERM EMC and Radio spectrum Matters ESA European Space Agency ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute EU European Union FA Fixed Assignment FAC H Forward Access Channel FC FIFO Maximum Capacity FCA Free Capacity Assignment (in Chapters 1, 7, 8 and 9) FCA Fixed Channel Allocation (in Chapter 2) FCFS First Come First Served FCT Frame Composition Table FDD Frequency Division Duplexing FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access FEC Forward Error Correction FER Frame Erasure Rates (in Chapter 3) FER Frame Error Rate (in Chapter 5) FH Frequency Hopping FHO Fast HandOver FI Fairness Index F id frame ID FIFO First In First Out FL1-HARQ Fast L1 hybrid ARQ FMT Fade Mitigation Techniques F nb frame number FP Framework Programme FSK Frequency Shift Keying FSS Fixed Satellite Service FTP File Transfer Protocol FZC Forward Erasure Correction GB Guaranteed Bandwidth GEO Geosynchronous (Geostationary) Earth Orbit GM Guaranteed Minimum GOPs GroupofPictures GoS Grade of Service GPRS General Packet Radio Service Acronyms xxv GPS Generalized Processor Sharing GSM Global System for Mobile Communications GW Gateway or Traffic Gateway HCA Hybrid Channel Allocation HDTV High Definition Television HLS Hierarchical Link Sharing HNS Hughes Network Systems HP High-Priority HPA High Power Amplifier HPD Hybrid Proportional Delay HSDPA High Speed Downlink Packet Access HS-DPCCH High Speed Dedicated Physical Control Channel HS-DSCH High Speed-DSCH HS-PDSCH High Speed Physical Downlink Shared Channel HTML HyperText Mark-Up Language IAB Internet Architecture Board IBR Information Bit Rate ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IETF Internet Engineering Task Force IFR Increasing Failure Rate IM Inter-Modulation IMT International Mobile Telecommunications IntServ Integrated Service IP Internet Protocol IPA Infinitesimal Perturbation Analysis IP-CAS IP-based Conditional Access System IPoS Internet Protocol over Satellite ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network ISI Integral Satcom Initiative ISLs Inter-Satellite Links ISN Interactive Satellite Network ISO/OSI International Standard Organization/Open System Interconnection ISP Internet Service Provider IST Information Society Technologies ITU International Telecommunication Union ITU-D ITU - Telecommunication Development sector ITU-R ITU - Radiocommunication sector ITU-T ITU - Telecommunication sector IWFQ Idealized Wireless Fair Queuing IWU Inter-Working Unit KKT Karush-Kuhn-Tucker L1 Layer 1 (physical layer) L2 Layer 2 (link/MAC layer) L3 Layer 3 (network layer) LAN Local Area Network LC LUI Maximum Capacity LDP Label Distribution Protocol LDPC Low Density Parity Check LEO Low Earth Orbit LLC Logical Link Control LLC/SNAP LLC/Sub-Network Access Protocol LMDS Local Multipoint Distribution System LoS Line of Sight LP Low-Priority LRD Long Range Dependent LSP Label Switched Path LSR Label Switching Router LTF S Long-Term Fairness Server LUI Last Useful Instant MAC Medium Access Control MAC-hs MAC/HS-DSCH MAN Metropolitan Area Network MBMS Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Services MBU Minimum Bandwidth Unit MCS Master Control Station MEO Medium Earth Orbit MF Multi-Frequency MF-TDMA Multi Frequency - Time Division Multiple Access MLI Maximum Legal Increment MLPQ Multi-Level Priority Queuing MMPP Markov-Modulated Poisson Processes MMS Multimedia Messaging Service MN Mobile Node MODCOD Modulation and Coding MOS Mean Opinion Score MPE Multi Protocol Encapsulation MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group MPEG2-TS Moving Picture Experts Group 2 - Transport Stream MPLS Multiprotocol Label Switching M-SAP Management-SAP MSL Minimum Scheduling Latency MSS Maximum Segment Size MSTP Multiple STP MTs Multicast Terminals MTCH MBMS point-to-multipoint Traffic Channel MTU Maximum Transfer Unit NBS Nash Bargaining Solution NCC Network Control Center NCR Network Clock Reference ND Neighbor Discovery NGN Next-Generation Network NoE Network of Excellence nrt-VBR non-real-time-VBR OBP On-Board Processor OC Optimized Centralized OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex OP Optimized Proportional PAB Proportional Allocation of Bandwidth PCPCH Physical Common Packet Channel pdf probability density function PDS Proportional Differentiated Service PDU Protocol Data Unit P-EDF Prioritized-EDF PEP Performance Enhancing Proxy xxvi Acronyms PER Packet Error Rate PF Proportional Fair PG Processing Gain PHB Per-Hop Behavior PHY Physical layer PLFRAME Physical Layer Frame PLP Packet Loss Probability PLR Packet Loss Rate PMPP Pareto-Modulated Poisson Processes PN Pseudo Noise POTS Plain Old Telephone Service PRACH Physical Random Access Channel PRC Power Ramping Control PRMA Packet Reservation Multiple Access PRMA-HS PRMA with Hindering States PSK Phase Shift Keying PSNR Peak Signal to Noise Ratio PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QID Queuing Identifier QoS Quality of Service QoSMO QoS Mapping Optimization QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying RA Random Access RAB Radio Access Bearer RACH Random Access Channel RAN Radio Access Network RAT Robust Audio Tool RB Reserved Bandwidth RBDC Rate Based Dynamic Capacity RCBC Reference Chaser Bandwidth Controller RC-PSTN Return Channel - PSTN RCQI Relative Channel Quality Index RCS Return Channel via Satellite RCST Return Channel Satellite Terminal RED Random Early Detection RF Radio Frequency RHC Receding Horizon Control ler RLC Radio Link Control RNC Radio Network Controller RRM Radio Resource Management RSP Recovery Service Provider RSTP Rapid STP RSVP Resource Reservation Protocol RT Real Time RTD Round Trip propagation Delay RTO Retransmission TimeOut RTP Real-time Transport Protocol RTT RoundTripTime rt-VBR real-time-VBR SAC Satellite Access Control S-ALOHA Slotted-ALOHA SBFA Server-Based Fairness Approach S-CCPCH Secondary Common Control Physical Channel SCED Service Curve-based Earliest Deadline first SCPC Single Carrier Per Channel SCPS-TP Space Communications Protocol Specification-Transport Protocol SCr Service Credit SD Satellite-Dependent SDMA Spatial Division Multiple Access S-DMB Satellite Digital Multimedia Broadcasting SDR Satellite Digital Radio SDTV Standard Definition Television SF Spreading Factor SFM Stochastic Fluid Models S-HSDPA HSDPA via Satellite SI Satellite-Independent SIR Signal-to-Interference Ratio SI-SAP Satellite-Independent - Service Access Point SL Super-frame Length SLA Service Level Agreement S-MBMS Satellite MBMS SMEs Small and Medium Enterprises SMG Special Mobile Group SMS Short Message Service SNIR Signal to Noise and Interference Ratio SOHO Small Office - Home Office SP Simple Proportional SPC Smith Predictor Controller SR Slot Request SRD Short Range Dependent SS Slow Start ssthresh slow start threshold ST Satellite (interactive) Terminal STB Set-Top-Box STFQ Stochastic Fairness Queuing STP Spanning Tree Protocol S-UMTS Satellite-UMTS SWTP Satellite Waiting Time Priority TB Transport Block TBTP Terminal Burst Time Plan TC Transported Capacity TCA Traffic Conditioning Agreement TCP Transmission Control Protocol TC-SES Technical Committee for Satellite Earth Stations and Systems TCT Time Composition Table TDM Time Division Multiplexing TDMA Time Division Multiple Access TE Terminal Equipment Telnet TELetype NETwork TF Transport Format TFC Transport Format Combination TFCI Transport Format Combination Indication TFCS Transport Format Combination Set TFRC Transport Format and Resource Combination TIST Telecommunications, Information Science and Technology TM Transmission & Multiplexing TOS Type Of Service TR Trunk Reservation TS Time Slot TS nb timeslot number Acronyms xxvii TTI Transmission Time Interval T-UMTS Terrestrial UMTS TWTA Traveling-Wave-Tube Amplifier UBR Unspecified Bit Rate UDP User Datagram Protocol UE User Equipment UL Upper Limit UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications System UPC Usage Parameter Control URAN UMTS Radio Access Network U-SAP User-SAP UT User Terminal VBDC Volume Based Dynamic Capacity VBR Variable Bit Rate VC Virtual Channel VCM Variable Coding and Modulation VLAN Virtual Local Area Networks VLL Virtual Leased Line VoI P Voice over IP VP Virtual Partitioning VPI/VCI Virtual Path Identifier/ Virtual Channel Identifier VPN Virtual Private Network VQM P Peak Video Quality Measurement VR-JT Variable Rate - Jitter Tolerant VR-RT Variable Rate - Real Time VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal VSF Variable Spreading Factor WAN Wide Area Network W-CDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access WCI Wireless Channel Information WFBoD Weighted Fair Bandwidth-on- Demand WFQ Weighted Fair Queuing WiFi Wireless Fidelity WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access WLAN Wireless LAN WP Work Package WRR Weighted Round Robin XTP eXpress Transfer Protocol Part I Resource Management Framework for Satellite Communications 1 INTRODUCTION TO SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Editor: Giovanni Giambene 1 Contributors: Paolo Chini 1 , Giovanni Giambene 1 1 CNIT - University of Siena, Italy 1.1 Satellite communications Multimedia communications have been widely supported by terrestrial infras- tructures that employ optical fibers in backbone links to achieve huge capacity. A technological alternative is represented by the use of satellites for providing multimedia broadband services to fixed and mobile users in several scenarios where terrestrial networks cannot be used or are congested. Today, still a large number of persons living in remote areas or in underdeveloped regions do not have a realistic perspective of achieving access to high-speed Internet for many years. This problem constitutes a serious obstacle to making the benefits of the Information Society available to all. Such digital divide problem can be solved by satellite communications that can easily reach the different regions on the Earth by providing everywhere the same service types. Satellites are an important delivery platform of information society services, such as interactive TV and mobile, high-speed Internet access. The most important reasons for the diffusion of satellite communications can be summarized as follows [1]: • Ubiquitous coverage: a single satellite can reach every potential user across an entire continent. This is a very significant feature, especially in low population density areas or over the see, where the realization of terrestrial infrastructures would be not viable. 4 Giovanni Giambene • Support to mobile users: a mobile user, which is situated in the satellite coverage area, can easily communicate with other fixed or mobile users. • Reduced cost : with satellite communications, cost is independent of the distance. Moreover, satellite networks can easily cover a great part of the Earth, thus reaching a very big potential market of customers. This is an important opportunity in order to provide services at affordable costs. • Varietyofconnectivity: it is possible to provide, in a simple and economic way, point-to-multipoint and broadcast communications, without complex multicast routing protocols (used in meshed terrestrial networks). • Rapid deployment and easy management of the network: once a satellite is launched it can immediately reach a high number of users. With satellites, multimedia services can be provided to a wide multitude of users on broad areas in a quicker way than using a terrestrial infrastructure. • Bandwidth flexibility: it is possible to provide simplex, duplex, narrow- band, symmetric and asymmetric bandwidth. Moreover, satellites can allow a broadband access to end-users, thus representing a possible solution to the “last mile” problem. Very good books in the field of satellite communications, providing excel- lent basis on this field are detailed in references [2]-[7]. Satellites are situated on suitable orbits around the Earth; on the basis of their altitude, they can be classified into three main categories [1] (see Figure 1.1): • Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites at a height between 500 and 2,000 km of altitude, i.e., below the Van Allen radiation belts. The Earth rotation period is about 100 minutes and the satellite visibility time is around 15 minutes. These orbits can be polar or inclined. • Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) may be circular or elliptical in shape at a height between 8,000 and 12,000 km of altitude (between the two Van Allen radiation belts). The rotation period is 5-12 hours and the satellite visibility time is 2-4 hours. • Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) is on the Earth’s equatorial plane at a height of about 35,780 km with a rotation period of 24 hours and a satellite visibility time of 24 hours. Many GEO satellites are allocated on distinct slots on the equatorial plane orbit. The GEO satellite altitude and the equatorial orbit have been determined to allow that GEO satellites rotate at the same speed of the Earth. Hence, a GEO satellite remains in a stationary position in the sky with respect to a fixed point on the Earth; this is a desired feature for telecommunication purposes. The balance between the gravity force versus the Earth and the centrifugal one determines the satellite orbital speed. The three Kepler’s laws regulate the satellite orbital motion. A satellite communication system is formed by a number of satellites, typically with the same orbit type (i.e., GEO, MEO or LEO) that cover a Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS 5 Fig. 1.1: Description of satellite orbit types. region or the whole Earth, thus forming a constellation. Three GEO satellites are sufficient to cover all the Earth, excluding Polar Regions. GEO satellites are well suited for global-coverage broad- cast/multicast services and also for regional mobile and fixed communication services. MEO and LEO satellites are non-stationary with respect to a user on the Earth; hence, different satellites alternatively provide telecommunication service coverage to a given area on the Earth. A global MEO system needs a constellation of 10-12 satellites to assure a minimum elevation angle greater than 30 ◦ . LEO systems are characterized by constellations of more than 40 satellites with minimum elevation angle from 10 ◦ to 40 ◦ . A minimum elevation angle of about 40 ◦ (30 ◦ ) is recommended in the MEO (LEO) case in order to have high link availability and acceptable delay variations. Moreover, LEO and MEO satellite systems allow lower propagation delays and hence, lower end-to-end latency in transferring data than GEO satellites. GEO satellites are very big and can host a huge payload; high power and large antennas are needed to assure a reliable link with Earth stations. MEO satellites are smaller than GEO ones, so that launching operations are less expensive. Finally, LEO satellites are smaller and less expensive to build and to launch than GEO and MEO. Launchers allowing the transport of multiple satellites permit to reduce the cost to have an operational LEO satellite constellation. The coverage area (footprint) of a satellite is divided into many cells (each irradiated by an antenna spot-beam) in order to concentrate the energy on a small area. Thus, it is also possible to shape the area served by a satellite on the Earth. Moreover, multi-spot-beam coverage permits remarkable advantages, like an efficient distribution of resources (e.g., reusing the same frequency) or a lower cost of the Earth terminal equipment (e.g., antennas with small 6 Giovanni Giambene size, since narrower surfaces are irradiated on the Earth, thus having a higher power per surface unit). Frequency bands (of interest for satellite communications) and related designations are listed below [1],[3],[5]: • L band from 1 to 2 GHz • Sbandfrom2to4GHz • Cbandfrom4to8GHz • X band from 8 to 12 GHz • Ku band from 12 to 18 GHz • Kbandfrom18to26GHz • Ka band from 26 to 40 GHz • Vbandfrom40to75GHz. These bands, composing the microwave spectrum, are actively used in commercial and military satellite communications. The typical frequency band allocations for satellite communications, adopted for different services, are detailed below considering uplink/downlink cases: • Fixed Satellite Service (FSS): 6/4 GHz (C band), 8/7 GHz (X band), 14/12-11 GHz (Ku band), 30/20 GHz (Ka band), 50/40 GHz (V band). These services concern communications with fixed terrestrial terminals; moreover, they are often broadband (typically in the range of 1-200 Mbit/s) due to both the available Radio Frequency (RF) bandwidth and suitable link performance by using terrestrial fixed directional antennas. Even if these services have been originally allocated to GEO satellites, also non-GEO system allocations are possible. • Broadcasting Satellite Service (BSS): 2/2.2 GHz (S band), 12 GHz (Ku band), 2.6/2.5 GHz (S band). These services deal with direct broadband broadcast transmissions through public operators. In particular, the Ku band segment of BSS has been reserved for orbit positioning and dedicated channels for individual nation’s employment. This service has been mainly allocated to GEO satellites, but, like in the FSS case, also non-GEO satellites are possible. • Mobile Satellite Service: 1.6/1.5 GHz (L band), 30/20 GHz (Ka band). These services are related to communications with mobile Earth stations (e.g., ships, vehicles, aircrafts, and also persons). An example of mobile satellite service is the Inmarsat system, operating in the L band with GEO satellites for land-mobile services. These bands have been assigned later also to non-GEO satellite networks. Note that L, S and C bands are already congested; X band is typically reserved for government use (military fixed communications); Ku band is used by the majority of satellite digital broadcast systems as well as for current Internet access systems. Finally, Ka band allows higher bandwidths with smaller antennas (with respect to Ku band), but presents the problem . Board IBR Information Bit Rate ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IETF Internet Engineering Task Force IFR Increasing Failure Rate IM Inter-Modulation IMT. Internet Protocol over Satellite ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network ISI Integral Satcom Initiative ISLs Inter -Satellite Links ISN Interactive Satellite Network ISO/OSI International Standard Organization/Open. HSDPA via Satellite SI Satellite- Independent SIR Signal-to-Interference Ratio SI-SAP Satellite- Independent - Service Access Point SL Super-frame Length SLA Service Level Agreement S-MBMS Satellite