CHAPTER 12 TO 16 doc

GRAMMAR: CHAPTER 12 NOUNS AND QUANTITY EXPRESSIONS  COUNT NOUNS can be counted. They have both singular and plural forms. A, AN, THE, A NUMBER (one, two…) can come before count nouns. The plural of a count noun is usually formed by adding –S or –ES or have irregular plural forms.  NONCOUNT NOUNS cannot be counted. They do not have plural forms. THE or NO ARTICLES can come before noncount nouns, not A, AN, A NUMBER (one, two…). * Some common noncount nouns: + Whole groups made up of similar items: baggage, clothing, furniture, equipment, food, fruit, hardware, luggage, mail, makeup, money/cash/change, traffic… + FLUIDS: water, coffee, tea, milk, oil, soup, gasoline… + SOLIDS: ice, butter, cheese, gold, iron, glass, paper, wood, cotton… + GASES: air, oxygen, smoke, smog… + PARTICLES: rice, chalk, corn, dust, flour, grass, hair, pepper, salt, sand… + ABSTRACTIONS: beauty, courage, education, enjoyment, fun, happiness, health, help, honesty, importance, peace, truth… + LANGUAGES: Chinese, English, Vietnamese… + FIELDS OF STUDY: chemistry, engineering, history, literature, psychology… + RECREATION: baseball, soccer, tennis, chess… + GENERAL ACTIVITIES: driving, studying, swimming, travelling, walking… + NATURAL PHENOMENA: weather, fog, heat, lightning, rain, thunder… GENERAL QUANTITY EXPRESSIONS A - GENERAL QUANTITY EXPRESSIONS WITH COUNT NOUNS: many, several, a few, few B – GENERAL QUANTITY EXPRESSIONS WITH NONCOUNT NOUNS: a great deal of, much, a little, little C – GENERAL QUANTITY EXPRESSIONS WITH COUNT NOUNS AND NONCOUNT NOUNS: a lot of = lots of, plenty of, some, any, no  MANY vs. MUCH: Use MANY in affirmative, negative statements and questions. Use MUCH in negative statements and questions. MUCH is not usually used alone in affirmative statements. Use A LOT OF instead. For example: 1. I have many friends. / I don’t have many friends./ Do you have many friends? 2. We don’t get much rain here. / Do you get much rain here? / We get a lot of rain here.  A FEW/FEW vs A LITTLE/ LITTLE: + A FEW and A LITTLE give a positive idea; they indicate that something exists, is present. + FEW and LITTLE give a negative idea; they indicate that something is largely absent.  Expressing NONE: Use NO, NOT ANY to express NONE. NO is used in affirmative statements, but it has a negative meaning. NOT ANY is used to form a negative statement. For example: 1. There is no sugar in this dessert. ( There isn’t any sugar in this dessert.) 3. There are no eggs in this recipe. ( There aren’t any eggs in this recipe.)  Emphasizing Amounts: + Use TOO and SO before MANY/MUCH to emphasize a larger amount. TOO usually has a negative meaning. For example: 1. There are so many choices on this menu. Isn’t it wonderful? 2. There are too many choices on this menu. I can’t decide what to eat. 3. She’s made so much money this year. She’s happy about it. 4. She’s made too much money this year. She’ll have to pay a lot in taxes. + Use ONLY before A FEW or A LITTLE to emphasize an even smaller amount. Use QUITE with A FEW (not A LITTLE) to emphasize a larger amount. For example: 1. Only a few houses are available. (There are a small number of houses.) 2. Quite a few houses are available. (There are a large number of houses.) 3. Would you like some milk in your coffee? Only a little, please. SPECIFIC QUANTITY EXPRESSIONS  Expressing specific amounts: + Specific quantity expressions can be used with plural count nouns or noncount nouns. Plural Count nouns: a box of matches, a cup of raisins Nouncount nouns: a box of cereal, a cup of sugar. + Specific quantity expressions make noncount nouns countable. One bowl of milk six ounces of beef two cans of soup four gallons of gas + The expression a piece of can be used with a number of noncount nouns to express a specific amount. A piece of cake/bread/furniture/clothing/advice/news… + Some different types of specific quantity expressions. Containers: a carton of eggs/milk a jar of mayonnaise a bag of potato chips A can of soda a box of cereal Portions: A slice of bread a piece of candy/cake a bowl of soup A glass of milk a cup of coffee Groups: A bunch of bananas a dozen eggs a herd of cattle a flock of birds A school of fish Measurements: A quart/gallon of juice an inch/foot/yard of cloth a cup/teaspoon/tablespoon of salt an ounce/pound of butter Shapes: A grain of rice/sand a pile/stack of leaves a drop of water a stick of butter GRAMMAR: CHAPTER 13 INDEFINITE AND DEFINITE ARTICLES  INDEFINITE ARTICLES: A, AN, SOME  introducing a Noun  Use A/AN to introduce a singular count noun. THERE IS/THERE ARE often begins a sentence or clause that introduces a noun with an indefinite article. For example: Woman: Did you see a little boy walk by here five minutes ago. Police officer: I’m not sure. What does he look like? Woman: He has brown hair, and there’s a big soccer ball on his sweatshirt.  Use SOME or no article to introduce plural count nouns or noncount nouns. For example: I need some batteries for my camera.( I need batteries for my camera.) I called for some information. (I called for information.)  When a speaker uses an indefinite article, the noun is not a specific thing in the mind of the listener. In the speaker’s mind, however, sometimes the noun is specific and sometimes it is not. For example: Bob: I bought a new car. (Bob has a specific car in mind, but the listener doesn’t.) Bob: I need a new car. (Neither Bob nor the listener have a specific car in mind.)  DEFINITE ARTICLE: THE  identifying a Noun (Use THE to refer to a noun that both you and a listener can identify. This is possible when you and the listener share information about the noun.)  Use the definite article THE after a noun has already been introduced or mentioned. For example: 1. I bought Koji a sweater and a watch for his birthday. However, the sweater doesn’t fit and the watch doesn’t work!  Use the definite article THE for objects that you can see or hear. For example: 1. Could you pass the butter, please? 2. That must be a big fire. I can hear the sirens from here!  Use the definite article THE when you and a listener share general knowledge about something in your environment. For example: A: Oh, no! The copy machine is broken again! B: I can’t believe it!  Use the definite article when other information in the sentence identifies the noun. For example: 1. Turn off the light near the door. 2. Please hand me the book about England.  Use the definite article with certain nouns (store, doctor, hospital, movies, bank, park, TV, telephone) that are familiar to you and a listener in everyday life. For example: 1. A: I’m going to the doctor this morning. Can I borrow your car? B: Sure. 2. A: Hello. I’m here to see Ms. Stephens. B: I’m sorry, she’s on the telephone. Would you like to sit down and wait?  Use the definite article for a noun that is unique. (the only one) For example: 1. The earth revolves around the sun. 2. Tokyo is the capital of Japan. NOUNS IN GENERAL STATEMENTS * Making General Statements:  Sometimes a noun is used to make a general statement about a whole class or group. These nouns do not identify a specific person, place, or thing. They represent all members of that class or group. For example: 1. Ants are insects. / 2. Chocolate is made from cacao seeds.  When making general statements about a whole class or group, we use A/AN with singular count nouns, and no articles with plural count nouns and noncount nouns. For example: 1. A cheetah can run very fast. (singular count noun) 2. Cheetahs can run very fast. (Plural count noun) 3. Oxygen is necessary for our survival. (Noncount noun)  THE is sometimes used before singular count nouns in more formal discussions about plants, animals, and machines. Musical instruments usually occur with THE in general statements. For example: 1. The giant panda is an endangered animal. 2. It’s difficult to play the violin.  General statements are often used to classify and define nouns. For example: 1. A diary is daily record of a person’s life. 2. A carnivorous plant is a plant that eats meat.  General statements are also often used to express opinions. For example: Sharks are beautiful creatures. GRAMMAR: CHAPTER 14 ADJECTIVES  ORDER OF ADJECTIVES:  Adjectives can describe many different features of a noun. Quality/Opinion: comfortable, colorful Color: blue, gray Size: large, small Origin: Chinese, Russian Age: old, antique, young Material: wooden, cotton Shape: round, square Kind/Purpose: riding, rocking  If two or more adjectives come before a noun, they usually follow this order: quality/opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, and kind/purpose. Quality/ Size Age Shape Color Origin Material Kind/ Opinion Purpose Beautiful tall old round blue Greek cotton racing Expensive small new square green Italian wooden rocking For example: 1. That’s an Italian racing bike. 2. They have a beautiful new rocking chair.  We do not usually use more than three adjectives before a noun. It is more common to use two or three adjectives and then add other descriptive phrases to the end of the sentence. For example: I bought expensive black leather boots from Italy.  ADJECTIVES ENDING IN –ing / - ed Adjectives ending in –ING / -ED refer to emotions or feelings. The –ING adjective describes a noun that causes an emotion or feeling. The –ED adjective describes a noun (usually a person) that feels or experiences an emotion or feeling. For example: Adjective ending in –ING Adjective ending in –ED 1. It’s an exciting match. The excited fans cheered wildly. 2. We heard a frightening scream. The frightened child cried all night. NOTE: + Adjectives can occur alone following stative verbs such as BE, BECOME, FEEL, SEEM, LOOK, APPEAR + Some adjectives can’t come before a noun. (GLAD, PLEASED and certain adjectives beginning with the letter A – awake, alone, asleep, afraid and alike.) + Some adjectives can ONLY come before a noun. (MAIN, CHIEF, PRINCIPAL, SAME, ONLY, FUTURE, FORMER, PREVIOUS) GRAMMAR: CHAPTER 14 ADVERBS Adverbs modify or change the meaning of verbs. Many adverbs are formed by adding – ly (quickly, difinitely, unfortunately, unluckily…). Adverbs can occur in different positions in a sentence, but they never occur between a verb and its object.  ADVERBS OF MANNER: + Adverbs of manner usually come after the verb. In sentences with any auxilliary except do (be, have, or a modal verb), -ly adverbs of manner can also be placed between the auxilliary and the verb. Adverbs of manner answer the question HOW? They describe the way someone does something or the way something happens. For example: 1. He works carefully. 2. It snows heavily in Alaska. 3. She has unexpectedly quit her job. 4. You should carefully consider your options. 5. They are quietly waiting for news.  ADVERBS OF POSSIBILITY: + Adverbs of possibility show how sure or unsure we are about something. More sure  definitely, certainly We are definitely going to win this game.  probably If I can find a ride, I’ll probably go. Less sure  maybe, perhaps Perhaps you should stay home.  ADVERBS OF TIME: + Adverbs of time can come at the beginning or end of a sentence. They include yesterday, now, today, recently, soon, answer the question WHEN? They can refer to a specific time or a more indefinite time. For example: 1. She saw him yesterday. 2. I saw him recently. + Recently can also occur before the verb or between the auxilliary and the verb. For example: I recently found a new job. / I have recently found a new job.  ADVERBS OF OPINION: + Most adverbs of opinion can occur at the beginning or end of a sentence or before the verb. They include fortunately, happily, luckily, incredibly, obviously, strangely, surprisingly, give an opinion about an entire sentence or idea. For example: 1. It obviously rained last night. The ground is still wet. 2. The plane had to make an emergency landing. Surprisingly, no one was hurt.  ADVERBS WITH TWO FORMS: Some adverbs, such as hard, high, and late, have two forms with two meanings. For example: 1. I want to pass this course. I’m studying hard. (hard = a lot of effort) 2. I don’t care about passing this course. I hardly study. (hardly = almost not at all) 3. After the storm the snow was piled high. (high = to a great height) 4. He is highly respected writer. (highly = to a great degree) 5. He arrived at the party late. (late = not on time) 6. He hasn’t gone to any parties lately. (lately = recently)  ADVERBS OF DEGREE: + Use adverbs of degree before adjectives and other adverbs to make them stronger or weaker. EXTREMELY, QUITE, REALLY, VERY make adjectives and adverbs STRONGER. FAIRLY, PRETTY, SOMEWHAT make adjectives and adverbs weaker. For example: 1. I did very well on the test. I got an A. 2. He was extremely upset about the situation. I’ve never heard him yell before. 3. She was somewhat upset at first. Later she calmed down. + SO/SUCH……… + THAT clause: to strengthen adjectives, adverbs, and nouns that are modified by adjectives. SO / SUCH can express the reason why something happens. The THAT clause expresses the result. For example: 1. The necklace was so beautiful that I had to buy it. 2. It was such a beautiful necklace that I had to buy it.  CONTRASTING “TOO”, “ENOUGH”: “Too” (to an undesirable degree) comes before an adjective or adverb to express a negative meaning. “ENOUGH” (to an acceptable or sufficient degree) follows an adjective or adverb to express a positive meaning. For example: 1. It’s too hot to eat outside. 2. He works too slowly to finish on time. 3. You aren’t strong enough to pick this up. 4. I jog often enough to stay fit. 5. She didn’t play well enough to make the team. She was disappointed. CHAPTER 15 COMPARATIVES FORMULA: Equal comparation: S1 + Verb + AS + (short or long) Adj/adv + AS + S2 + (the auxiliary) S1 + Verb + AS MANY + plural count nouns + AS + S2 + (the auxiliary) S1 + Verb + AS MUCH + noncount nouns + AS + S2 + (the auxiliary) Unequal comparation: S1 + Verb + not + AS + (short or long) Adj/adv + AS + S2 + (the auxiliary) S1 + Verb + not + AS MANY + plural count nouns + AS + S2 + (the auxiliary) S1 + Verb + not + AS MUCH + noncount nouns + AS + S2 + (the auxiliary) Comparatives:  Short adj/adv: S1 + V + Adj / Adv – ER + THAN + S2 + (the auxiliary)  Long adj/adv: S1 + V + MORE + Adj / Adv + THAN + S2 + (the auxiliary)  Use LESS / MORE / FEWER + NOUN in comparatives: S1 + VERB + MORE + count or noncount nouns + THAN + S2 + (the auxiliary) S1 + VERB + FEWER + count nouns + THAN + S2 + (the auxiliary) S1 + VERB + LESS + noncount nouns + THAN + S2 + (the auxiliary) Superlatives: in + singular noun  Short adj/adv: S1 + V + adj / adv – EST + of + plural noun in + singular noun  Long adj/adv: S1 + V + THE MOST + adj / adv + of + plural noun Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms: Adjective / Adverb Comparative Superlative Bad/badly worse the worst Far farther / further the farthest / the furthest Good/well better the best (a) little less the least Much / many more the most  MAKING COMPARATIONS:  Talking about differences: + Use comparatives with adjectives, adverbs, and nouns to talk about differences between two things (people, objects, ideas, places, or actions.) For example: 1. My father is older than my mother. 2. The new computer runs more smoothly than the old one. 3. There are more cars than buses on the highways. + Use the comparative without THAN when the meaning is clear from the context. For example: She’s a good student, but I think he’s smarter. ( = smarter than she is.) We sang well, but they sang better.  Expressing Greater and Lesser degrees: + Use MORE / - ER … THAN shows a larger quantity, degree, or size than something else. Use LESS… THAN shows that something is smaller quantity, degree, or size than something else. For example: More / -er …than Less… than Diamonds are more expensive than rubies. Rubies are less expensive than diamonds. He works more quickly than she does. She works less quickly than he does. + Use MORE + count or noncount nouns to talk about larger quantities. Use FEWER + count nouns and LESS + noncount nouns to talk about smaller quantities. Count Nouns Noncount Nouns Mexico City has more people than Seattle. The Smiths have more money than the Johnsons. Seattle has fewer people than Mexico City. The Johnsons have less money than the Smiths.  Changing Situations: + A comparative form can be repeated and joined with AND to show that a situation is changing. This use of the comparative is common with the verbs of change such as GET, BECOME, and GROW, especially in the present continuous. For example: 1. He looks older and older everyday. 2. I have less and less time to study. 3. Taxes are getting higher and higher. 4. Car engines are becoming more and more efficient.  EQUAL COMPARATION: AS…AS with Adjectives, Adverbs, and Nouns:  AS…AS to talk about similar or equal things: + Use AS…AS with adjectives, adverbs, and nouns to say that two things are equal or similar. For example: 1. My office is as big as his office. 2. The student explained the problem as simply as the teacher. 3. We saved as much money as Gina did. 4. They have as many friends as us. + Use ALMOST, ABOUT, NEARLY before AS…AS to say that two things are close but not quite equal. For example: 1. My office is almost as big as his office. 2. Elena is nearly as tall as Eva. + You can omit the second part of an AS…AS phrase when the meaning is clear from the context. For example: 1. Yes, she’s a good student, but he’s as good. (= as good as she is.)  NEGATIVE STATEMENTS WITH AS…AS to talk about differences: + Use negative statements with AS…AS to talk about differences between two things. A negative statement with AS…AS has the same meaning as a comparative sentence with LESS or FEWER. For example: 1. Ken is not as athletic as Tom. ( = Ken is less athletic than Tom.) 2. He didn’t finish as quickly as us. (= He finished less quickly than us.) 3. I don’t have as much energy as they do. (= I have less energy than they do.) 4. He doesn’t know as many students as I do. (= He knows fewer students than I do.) . with certain nouns (store, doctor, hospital, movies, bank, park, TV, telephone) that are familiar to you and a listener in everyday life. For example: 1. A: I’m going to the doctor this morning that I had to buy it. 2. It was such a beautiful necklace that I had to buy it.  CONTRASTING “TOO”, “ENOUGH”: “Too” (to an undesirable degree) comes before an adjective or adverb to express. “ENOUGH” (to an acceptable or sufficient degree) follows an adjective or adverb to express a positive meaning. For example: 1. It’s too hot to eat outside. 2. He works too slowly to finish on