had expressed interest in the project, but a dispute over the ownership of genetic resources led to a de- lay. Not until 2004 did the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) pave the way for resumption of the proj- ect, which came to be envisioned as a backup to other gene banks. In 2005, planning for the vault resumed, while construction, the cost of which was borne by Norway, began in 2007. The GlobalCrop DiversityTrust (GCDT)funds the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, while NordGen and the Norwegian government manage its operation. Space in the vault is available free of charge to all govern- ments andinstitutions, and theGCDT payspackaging and shipping costs for developing countries. Seeds must have originated in the depositor’s country or be freely available under provisions of the ITPGRFA, but in all cases remain the property of the depositors. The vault itself lies about 130 meters above sea level, and is built into a geologically stable hillside near the settlement of Longyearbyen. It consists of a portal projecting from the hillside, an access tunnel 93.3 meters long, an operations office lying near the far end of the tunnel, and three separate vaults. Each vault isabout 27 meterslong andis linedwith shelving designed to hold plastic boxes containing airtight seed envelopes. Temperature in the vaults is main- tained at −18° Celsius. Impact on Resource Use The Svalbard Global Seed Vault received its first seeds in February,2008, and islarge enoughto hold 4.5mil- lion samples. Each sample will contain some five hun- dred seeds, meaning that the vault’s ultimate capacity is approximately 2.25 billion seeds. The vault will also hold genetic material from plants that do not repro- duce by seed. It was estimated that, as of 2009, there were some fourteen hundred gene banks in the world, holding the seeds of a 1.5 million varieties of plants. However, most of these facilities were vulnerable to natural or man-made threats. Dubbed the “Doomsday Vault” by the media, the SvalbardGlobal Seed Vaultis designed as the ultimate backup to these facilities and is virtu- ally indestructible. It is highenough above sea levelto be safe from the danger of global warming, and the temperature of the permafrost and rock into which it is built guarantees that its contents will remain frozen at −3° Celsius even in the event of loss of electricity. Grove Koger Web Site Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Government of Norway Svalbard Global Seed Vault http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/lmd/ campain/svalbard-global-seed- vault.html?id=462220 See also: Agricultural products; Agriculture indus- try; Agronomy; Jackson, Wes; Land ethic; Land Insti- tute; Resourcesfor theFuture; SeedSaversExchange. Sweden Categories: Countries; government and resources Sweden is important in the global export market. Two of itsmajor resources, timber andiron ore, are mainex- ports. Approximately 10 percent of the world’s timber export is from Sweden. The country also exports paper and wood pulp. Sweden exports approximately 90 per- cent ofits iron oreand ranksin the topten amongiron- ore exporting countries. Hydropower provides the en- ergy formanufacturing themanyproducts itexports. The Country Sweden is located in northern Europe and is part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It shares land borders with Norway and Finland. It borders the Baltic Sea to the southand west andthe Gulf ofBothnia to theeast. Sweden’s terrain is primarily flat with a predomi- nance of lowlands. There are mountains in the west- ern and northern part, numerous rivers and lakes, and an abundance of forests throughout the country. Vänern and Vätern, which are two of the largest lakes in Europe, are in Sweden’s southern lowlands. Swe- den’s most important resources are hydroelectric power; forests, producing timber and residual wood products; and iron ore. The country’s mineral depos- its include uranium, copper, lead, and zinc. Sweden’s economy is highly developed and is oriented to the export market. In 2008, Sweden was ranked seventh in the world in competitiveness by the World Economic Forum. The country’s 2008 gross domestic product (GDP) of $348.6 billion placed it thirty-third in purchasing power parityand twenty-thirdin GDPpercapita inthe world. Sweden plays an active role in the global econ - 1186 • Sweden Global Resources Global Resources Sweden • 1187 Sweden: Resources at a Glance Official name: Kingdom of Sweden Government: Constitutional monarchy Capital city: Stockholm Area: 173,872 mi 2 ; 450,295 km 2 Population (2009 est.): 9,059,651 Language: Swedish Monetary unit: Swedish krona (SEK) Economic summary: GDP composition by sector (2008 est.): agriculture, 1.6%; industry, 28%; services, 70.5% Natural resources: iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, tungsten, uranium, arsenic, feldspar, timber, hydropower Land use (2005): arable land, 5.93%; permanent crops, 0.01%; other, 94.06% Industries: iron and steel, precision equipment (bearings, radio and telephone parts, armaments), wood pulp and paper products, processed foods, motor vehicles Agricultural products: barley, wheat, sugar beets, meat, milk Exports (2008 est.): $183.1 billion Commodities exported: machinery, motor vehicles, paper products, pulp and wood, iron and steel products, chemicals Imports (2008 est.): $165.3 billion Commodities imported: machinery, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, motor vehicles, iron and steel, foodstuffs, clothing Labor force (2008 est.): 4.897 million Labor force by occupation (2008 est.): agriculture, 1.1%; industry, 28.2%; services, 70.7% Energy resources: Electricity production (2007 est.): 143.8 billion kWh Electricity consumption (2006 est.): 133.6 billion kWh Electricity exports (2007): 14.74 billion kWh Electricity imports (2007 est.): 16.61 billion kWh Natural gas production (2007 est.): 0 m 3 Natural gas consumption (2007 est.): 1.006 billion m 3 Natural gas exports (2007 est.): 0 m 3 Natural gas imports (2007 est.): 1.006 billion m 3 Natural gas proved reserves ( Jan. 2006 est.): 0 m 3 Oil production (2007 est.): 2,350 bbl/day Oil imports (2005): 581,000 bbl/day Oil proved reserves ( Jan. 2006 est.): 0 bbl Source: Data from The World Factbook 2009. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. Notes: Data are the most recent tracked by the CIA. Values are given in U.S. dollars. Abbreviations: bbl/day = barrels per day; GDP = gross domestic product; km 2 = square kilometers; kWh = kilowatt-hours; m 3 = cubic meters; mi 2 = square miles. Stockholm Finland Norway Germany Denmark Poland Belarus Russia Lithuania Latvia Estonia Sweden Baltic Sea North Sea Norwegian Sea omy, as both an exporter and an importer, withdollar value of exports exceeding that of imports. In 2008, Sweden was twenty-fourth in the world as an exporter and twenty-seventh as an importer. Sweden’s major trading partners are European countries, especially Germany, Norway, Denmark, and the United King- dom. The United States is an important export mar- ket, and Sweden imports significantly from China. Forests Forests cover between 60 and 65 percent of Sweden’s land. Conifers constitute approximately 85 percent of the 28 million hectares of forest, of which about 23 hectares are classified as productive forestland. Norway spruce is the predominant conifer, along with Scots pine, which is located primarily in the north. Birchisthe maindeciduous species inSweden. The majority of Sweden’s forest is privately owned by families. These family forests are relatively small, usu- ally covering about 50 hectares of land area. Private companies and the government also own forests in Sweden. The forest owned by families or individuals accounts for approximately 51 percent of Sweden’s forest; the remaining 49 percent is divided almost equally between private companies and the govern- ment. Sweden’sforests produce awidevarietyofprod- ucts, including sawedtimber,pulp, paper, paperboard, and veneer. Sweden’s forests have always been the country’s most important resource for bothdomestic and inter- national use. The products of the forest industry ac- count for 4 percent of Sweden’s GDP. Domestically, the forest industry has provided building materials and a supply of fuel and employment, especially in rural areas. In 2005, the forest industry provided jobs for approximately ninety-five thousand workers in Sweden. Biofuelhas gained anincreasing importance in Sweden because of environmental concerns; the residual, or by-products, of the timber harvest, along with peat, are the major source of the country’s bio- fuel. Forests have always been a source of recreation for Sweden’s population and play a significant role in the touristindustry.Atthe globallevel, forestindustry products make up 13 percent of the goods exported by Sweden. These exports account for 60 percent of the products garnered from the forests. In 2004, Sweden was the fourth largest exporter of conifer- ous sawed wood, the fifth largest exporter of wood pulp, and the seventh largest exporter of paper and paperboard. Sweden’s exports of sawed timber to its European neighbors, the United States, and Japan decreased in 2009 as a result of the reduction in con- struction of both residential and commercial build- ings in these countries. However, exports of sawed timber toboththe MiddleEast andAfrica increased. Sweden values its forests for both their economic and environmental importance. During the nine- teenth century, much of the forest was clear-cut and devastated, but as earlyas 1903, Sweden enacted legis- lation to restore its forests and preserve this vital in- dustry.In 1994, the Forestry Actof1903 was revised to ensure that it gave equal importance to maintenance and regeneration of the forest and to the use of the forest for economic advantages. In 1998, the Swedish timber industry, in association with the government, initiated research and development programs that required an investment of 480 million Swedish kro- nor. The annual growth of forests continues to in- crease each year because of careful attention to the silviculture (the care and development of forests in order to obtain a product or provide a benefit) cycle of the forests and programs for environmentally sound forest management. Sweden is also addressing the is- sue of marketability of sawed timber and researching new products, such as composite and compressed- wood items. Inaddition, the forest industryis produc- ing more customized products and building large, high-technology sawmills. Hydropower Hydropower, the energy that comes from moving water,has been animportantsource of powerfor Swe- den throughout its history. Although Sweden has also used other sources of power at various times, hydropower has always played a significant role as a source ofenergy.Untilthe nineteenthcentury,hydro- power and wood were the main sources of energy. At that time, imported coal replaced much of the wood used for energy production. As a result Sweden be- came reliant upon coal and hydropower as sources of energy. In the early twentieth century, imported oil began to replace the coal, andin 1960, Sweden added nuclear power from imported uranium to its power base. However, hydropower remains a significant source of energy for Sweden. With an abundance of rivers and streams, especially in the north, and more than 100,000 lakes, Sweden has enormous hydropower po - tential. Since the Middle Ages,Swedenhas used small hydropower in the form of waterwheels to run mills 1188 • Sweden Global Resources and various types ofmachinery. In the1880’s, the first hydropower stations that provided energy to commu- nities and industries close to them were built. Soon, hundreds of these small power plants were operating and supplying power throughout the country. How- ever 1900, Sweden began to develop a system of large- scale hydropower. Once the technology for large electrical cables was developed,Sweden’s hydropower systemchanged dramatically. The use of hydropower was no longer limited to the immediate vicinity of the station. It could be transported long distances by large, 400- kilovolt lines. This brought about the establishment of large hydropower stations in the north, where the major riversarelocated.Themajority ofthese stations were built in the 1950’s and 1960’s. These power stations provide energy throughout the country. Uti- lizing a network of cables, Sweden also participates in the international exportation and importation of electricity with its neighboring countries. Hydropower provides Sweden with an economical and abundant source of energy that does relatively lit- tle damage to theenvironment. It produces no green- house gases, and much of its ecological impact can be controlled. Hydropower stations are either run-of- the-river or based on the use of dams. In both cases, they can cause an inadequate supply of oxygen in the water; this is corrected by aeration. Dams alsoimpede the progress of fish, butfish ladders address this prob- lem. There are still problems that arise from flooding areas to create dams and from interfering with the flow of rivers. Sweden is addressing these problems through its Sustainable Energy Act of 1997, acceptance of the Kyoto Protocol, and other environmental regulations. The hydropower stations in Sweden are approxi- mately 50 percent owned by the state and 50 percent owned by private companies. In 1998, Sweden passed the Environment Act,whichregulates thelicensing of hydropower stations. Thus, Sweden is using the eco- nomical advantage of hydropower to promote indus- tries that are globally competitive and, at the same time, ecologically sound. Iron Ore Iron ore is composed of rocks and minerals; it varies in color and may be yellow, gray, purple, or red. Iron ore is assessed as high- or low-grade depending upon the amount ofiron contained init.Iron ore must con- tain more than 54 percent iron to be classed as high- Global Resources Sweden • 1189 An iron-ore mine in Sweden. Iron is a major Swedish natural commodity. (De Agostini/Getty Images) grade; any lesser amount classes it as low-grade. Some of thematerial other thaniron mustbe removed from the low-grade ore to make it marketable, while high- grade ore is soldjust asitis extracted.It is soldas lump ore or fine ore, depending upon its size. Lump ore is greater than 8millimeters in diameter; fineore is less. Iron ore is important in the steel-manufacturing in- dustry. It is used to make pig iron, which is then used to produce steel. Mining of iron ore has been an important factor in Sweden’seconomy sincethe MiddleAges. Thelarg- est deposits of iron ore in Sweden are located in the north, particularly in Swedish Lapland and near Grängesberg. Originally, iron-ore mining wasdone by homesteaders who were both farmers and miners, depending upon the season of the year. Mining was done as a cooperative community project and was a local activity. Eventually, the state and private compa- nies became involved in mining on a much larger scale. Sweden became Europe’s largest exporter of iron ore and remained so for more than two hundred years. The quantity of iron ore mined in the latetwen- tieth and early twentieth-first century decreased. Then in2007, the production ofiron ore increased by 6.1 percent. The two large state-owned mines, one at Kiruna and theother at Malmberget, mined79 per- cent ofthe iron ore produced. Asof 2009, eightdiffer- ent projects for reopening mines and increasing iron production were in final stages. A number of foreign companies were involved in these projects, both in exploration andin plansfor reopening themines. Eu- ropean markets still account for approximately 68 per- cent of Sweden’s iron-ore exports. North Africa and the Middle East are also important export markets. Sweden is one of the top ten exporters of iron ore in the world. Uranium Uranium is a metallic element used to fuel nuclear reactors that produce energy. Sweden has the larg- est uranium deposits that have been discovered in Europe. However, the uranium is low-grade, that is, the concentration of the uranium averages only 136 grams per metric ton. There was intensive explora- tion for uranium from the 1960’s to the 1980’s, when the government stopped all exploration for the metal. During the 1960’s, uranium was mined at Randstad. The mine produced 195 metric tons of uranium dur - ing a four-year period of activity. Sweden’s first nu - clear reactor was built in 1964, and, as of 2009, ten nuclear reactors supplied one-half of the country’s power requirements. However, all uranium used in the reactors has been imported. Sweden has begun to explore its own uranium re- sources again with the intention of lessening its de- pendency on imported uranium. In 2009, Sweden ranked among the countries that were conducting the mostexploration foruranium.Uraniumminingis favored by the government, and major international mining companies are exploring for uranium in Swe- den. Whilethe Swedish government isin favorof min- ing for uranium, environmental considerations still play an important role in decisions to permit or not permit the establishmentof uraniummines. Thefinal decision rests with the local municipal government where the mining is proposed. Copper Copper is a metal found both in a free state and com- bined with othermetals in ores. Copperis a good con- ductor of both heat and electricity. It is used for mak- ing pipes, in electrical equipment, and in brass and bronze alloys. Copper is mined at the Aitik Copper Mine located near Gällivare in northern Sweden. Al- though the copper was discovered in the 1930’s, the mine was not opened until 1968, after the develop- ment of bulk-mining technology. Aitik was the first open-pit low-grade copper mine opened in Europe. With further development of technology the mine has increased the amount of ore it produces from 2 metric tons per year to 19 metric tons per year. The proven reserves of ore at Aitik were 520 metric tons in 2006, and estimatesindicated that there were an addi- tional 110 metric tons of probable copper reserves. Other Resources Sweden hasa largevariety ofbase metal andindustrial mineral deposits. In addition to copper there are eco- nomically significant deposits of lead, zinc, silver, gold, and nickel. Chalk and limestone are two of the most important industrial minerals. The Swedish govern- ment has encouraged exploration and has worked with both Swedish and foreign mining companies to exploit new sites and to reopen some older mines that have been closed for many years. New mining technology is making the reopening of several of these mines possible. In 2007, the majority of the exploration and mining activities were in three dis - tricts, Skellefte, Norrbotten, and Bergslagen. Shawncey Webb 1190 • Sweden Global Resources Further Reading Blennow, Kristina, ed. Sustainable Forestry in Southern Sweden: The SUFOR Research Project. Binghamton, N.Y.: Food Products Press, 2005. Field, Barry C. Natural Resource Economics: An Introduc- tion. 2d ed. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 2008. Førsund, Finn R. Hydropower Economics. New York: Springer, 2007. Moon, Charles,etal., eds. Introductionto Mineral Explo- ration. 2d ed. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2006. Sverdrup, Harald, and Ingrid Stjernquist, eds. De- veloping Principles and Models for Sustainable Forestry in Sweden. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2002. Whyte, James, and John Cummins. Mining Explained: Discovery, Extraction, Refining, Marketing, Investing. 9th ed.DonMills, Ont.:The Northern Miner,2007. See also: Forest management; Forestry; Forests; Hydroenergy; Iron; Limestone; Nobel, Alfred. Switzerland Categories: Countries; government and resources Switzerland’s primary resources are hydropower poten- tial, timber, andsalt. With the exceptionof some export of energy in the summerto neighboringcountries, Swit- zerland doesnot export anyform ofraw material,but it is a significant exporter of merchandise and an im- porter of raw materials from other countries. Switzer- land’s major merchandise exports include machinery, chemicals, processed metals, agricultural products, and watches. The Country Switzerland is a landlocked nation located in central Europe, sharing its borders with five adjacent coun- tries. Switzerland is bordered by France to the north and west, Germany to the north, Austria and Liech- tenstein to the east, and Italy to the south. Mountains predominate in the Swiss landscape, with the Jura in the northwest andthe Alpsin thesouth. The centerof the country is a plateau, where there are hills, plains, and a large number of lakes. Switzerland does not have an abundant variety of natural resources and almost no mineral resources. Its primary commodities for export are machinery, chemicals, metals, watches, and agricultural prod - ucts. Its key natural resources are hydropower poten- tial from its numerous lakes, forests, and salt. Raw materials account for approximately 28 percent of Switzerland’s imports. Switzerland’s major trading partners are Germany, Italy, France, and Austria. The United States and the United Kingdom are also im- portant trading partners with Switzerland. Although Switzerlandlacks a vastquantity ofvaried resources, it is an important factor in the global econ- omy, particularly because of its banking and financial services industry. Switzerland ranks forty-first in pur- chasing power parity and second in competitiveness in the global economy. It is the thirteenth richest country inthe world basedon gross domesticproduct per capita. Hydropower Hydropower is Switzerland’s most abundant natural resource andplays animportant role inthe countryas the major source of electricity. Fifty-eight percent of the country’s electricity isgenerated from thissource. Hydropower coincides with Switzerland’s energy pol- icy, which is based on the use of renewable resources and targets efficiency in production and usage. Reli- ance on hydropower for the production of energy is compatible with Switzerland’s goal of reducing car- bon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions. It planned to bring 1990 carbon dioxide emissions levels to 90 percent by 2010. Hydropower produces no carbon dioxide. Switzerland has three different means of produc- ing hydropower. There are mountain stations, run-of- the-river stations, and pumped storage stations. All of these stations have systems that rely on energy from dammed water, which is used to drive turbines and generators. The mountain stations are supplied by large reservoirs of water that are made by building dams. These stations supply one-third of the electric- ity used.The run-of-the-river stationsarethe sourceof an additional one-fourth of Switzerland’s electricity. These stations are equipped with large turbines pow- ered by the natural flow of the river’s water, but they are not adequate to meet the electricity needs during periods of high demand. The pumpedstorage stationsuse asystem ofpaired reservoirs tosupplyenergy. Thesereservoirsare placed at different elevation levels. During periods of low demand for electricity, the available unused electric - ity powers pumps the transfer water from the lower reservoir to the higher elevated reservoir. It is stored Global Resources Switzerland • 1191 1192 • Switzerland Global Resources Switzerland: Resources at a Glance Official name: Swiss Confederation Government: Confederation, structurally similar to a federal republic Capital city: Bern Area: 15,938 mi 2 ; 41,277 km 2 Population (2009 est.): 7,604,467 Language: German, French, Italian, and Romansch Monetary unit: Swiss franc (CHF) Economic summary: GDP composition by sector (2003 est.): agriculture, 1.5%; industry, 34%; services, 64.5% Natural resources: hydropower potential, timber, salt Land use (2005): arable land, 9.91%; permanent crops, 0.58%; other, 89.51% Industries: machinery, chemicals, watches, textiles, precision instruments, tourism, banking and insurance Agricultural products: grains, fruits, vegetables, meat, eggs Exports (2008 est.): $233.1 billion Commodities exported: machinery, chemicals, metals, watches, agricultural products Imports (2008 est.): $213 billion Commodities imported: machinery, chemicals, vehicles, metals, agricultural products, textiles Labor force (2008 est.): 4.053 million Labor force by occupation (2005): agriculture, 3.9%; industry, 22.8%; services, 73.2% Energy resources: Electricity production (2007 est.): 64.56 billion kWh Electricity consumption (2006 est.): 58.77 billion kWh Electricity exports (2007 est.): 50.2 billion kWh Electricity imports (2007 est.): 48.4 billion kWh Natural gas production (2007 est.): 0 m 3 Natural gas consumption (2007 est.): 3.232 billion m 3 Natural gas exports (2007 est.): 0 m 3 Natural gas imports (2007 est.): 3.232 billion m 3 Natural gas proved reserves ( Jan. 2006 est.): 0 m 3 Oil production (2007 est.): 3,202 bbl/day Oil imports (2005): 274,900 bbl/day Oil proved reserves: N/A Source: Data from The World Factbook 2009. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. Notes: Data are the most recent tracked by the CIA. Values are given in U.S. dollars. Abbreviations: bbl/day = barrels per day; GDP = gross domestic product; km 2 = square kilometers; kWh = kilowatt-hours; m 3 = cubic meters; mi 2 = square miles. Bern Austria Italy Germany France Liechtenstein Switzerland there for later use. During periods of high demand for electricity, this water is released back into the lower reservoir by flowing through a turbine, produc- ing electricity. The pumped storage stations are thus able to supply a flexible source of electric power. The cost of generating electricity varies by the location and the type ofstation. Run-of-the-river plants tend to be more expensive to operate than the storage type. While hydropower is a clean, renewable, and envi- ronmentally friendly source of energy from the view- point of air pollution, it does have other detrimen- tal effects on the environment. The large reservoirs needed at the mountain stations and the pumped storage stations remove considerable land areas from other uses and decimate the flora and fauna of the flooded land. In addition, as the water-covered plants and vegetation decay, the possibility of methane pro- duction exists, although, given Switzerland’s cool cli- mate, thisis nota majorconcern. Thedams usedto di- rect water into the reservoirs also have an adverse effect on the rivers as they change the natural water flow. Because of the lack of sediment contained in water that flows from the stations, there is a potential danger ofloss ofriverbanks. Dams impactfish popula- tions as well. Unless fish ladders are provided, fish are unable to cross over the dams. Water from hydro- power stations is usually considerably warmer than naturally flowing water and can have adverse effects on specific fish populations. In comparison with other countries, Switzerland has a rather high consumption of electricity on a per- capita basis. Switzerland’s use of electricity exceeds that of its neighboring European Union countries. Therefore, although the country not only meets its power needs but also exports electricity in the sum- mer, in the winter, it must import electricity. Switzer- land ranks fortieth in the world in production of elec- tricity and fortieth in consumption. Switzerland has used nuclear energy to supple- ment its hydropower-generated electricity and to sup- ply the additional 38 percent that it requires to meet its power needs. In 2005, there were five nuclear power stations in Switzerland. However, plans to use more nuclear energy were stalled by the problems presented by the necessity for long-term disposal of the waste generated. Switzerland has also examined other natural en- ergy sources, including the Sun, the wind, and deep heat mining. Little development has been under - taken insolarand windenergy.These typesof electric - ity generation have remained below 4 percent of the power generated. Some exploration of deep heat mining has been carried out. This technique requires drilling into the Earth some 5 kilometers. Then, hot water isforced tothe surface andused todrive energy- producing turbines. This process caused considerable Earth tremors and was abandoned. It also occasioned fear of the possibility of eventually causing actual earthquakes. Consequently, hydropower remains the preferred and primary power source in Switzerland. Switzerland tends to rely upon different types of hydropower plants at different times. When the power load required is low or medium, run-of-the- river plants supplemented by nuclear power plants are primarily used. During periods of high energy need, the pumped storage plants are the main ones utilized. Forests Forests cover approximately 31 percent of Switzer- land’s land area. The woodlands are spread through- out the country andprovide many benefits, including acting as windbreaks, reducing flooding,and combat- ing air pollution. The forests also provide an impor- tant stabilization of both soil and snow cover. Switzer- land has both deciduous and coniferous forests. The deciduous forests, which are primarily composed of beech and oak, grow at the low altitudes, while the coniferous species, such as pine and spruce, are found at high altitudes. Switzerland also has some chestnut trees, which grow primarily in the area south of the Alps. A uniqueaspect of Switzerland’s woodlandsis its three virgin forests, that is, forests which have experi- enced no human intervention. The three forests are Bödomeren, Derborence, and Scatlé. Bödomeren and Scatlé are spruce forests, and Derborence is a forest heavily populated with silver fir. All three of these woodlands are situated on steep slopes, making them difficult to access. Switzerland’s forests have suffered extensively from air pollution, with damage resulting to almost 35 percent of the trees. Switzerland also faces other problems in regard to the sustainability of its forests. The country’s woodland is unbalanced in regard to ages of trees. There is too much aged forest in proportion to the amount of young forest in the country. Timber harvest is important to the domestic econ- omy and lifestyle of Switzerland. In 2006, the harvest of wood amounted to 5.1 million cubic meters of tim - ber. The harvested timber is used for sawed lumber Global Resources Switzerland • 1193 and paper. Itis primarily useddomestically,as Switzer - land is not a significant exporter of timber or wood products. Wood is the main construction material used inSwitzerland tobuild bothresidential andcom- mercial buildings. While the country does not export its timber, Swiss architects and engineers have devel- oped innovative uses of wood and wood products in the construction of buildings that have benefited many nations worldwide (especially underdeveloped countries, where Swiss construction experts have been involved in international building projects). Salt Switzerland has only one working salt mine, Le Bouillet. It is located 9 kilometers south of Bex in the canton of Vaud. The existence of salt in the area was discovered by Maxim Roche when he drank from a spring that had a saline taste. Mining of the subterra- nean deposits of salt began in 1684 and continues to the present day. Salt deposits occur deep in theEarth. Salt is minedby making deepshafts into theEarth,ex- tracting the salt from the rock, and transporting it to the surface. The mineis 50kilometersin lengthand is composed of a labyrinth of tunnels, halls, pits, and stairs. The mine produces salt primarily for domestic consumption. Some naturally occurring brine salts are produced in Switzerland. Le Bouillet contributes to the Swiss economy as a salt-producing mine that provides jobs and an impor- tant commodity, and also as a tourist attraction. A sec- tion of the mine is open to the public for tours. This salt mine near Bex is one of the region’s main attrac- tions and draws a large number of tourists each year. Visitors are able to discover the techniques used to mine salt from the mine’s earliest operation to the present day. In 1684, when mining was first under- taken, miners worked long hours with primitive tools; the process of extracting the salt was dangerous and physically difficult. Modern methods offer a sharp contrast and are an example of the benefits derived from mechanization. Ecological Resources While Switzerland has almost no natural resources that are eitherphysically exportable andor important parts of the global resources from which energy is ob- tained and usable items are produced, the country has made unique use of what natural resources it has. Switzerland hasdeveloped aglobally important sector of its economy in the field of service. Tourism, along with consulting and insurance, are included in the list of services provided by Switzerland. With its two mountain ranges, the Alps and the Jura, Switzerland offers hiking, mountainclimbing, and skiing.Its lakes and riversprovide fishingand water sports, andits for- ests, additional hiking, nature study, and hunting. In 2001, tourism by foreigners ranked third in ex- port income for the country. In terms of export reve- nue, the metal and machinery industry ranked first, and the chemical industry ranked second. Tourism brought in a greater export revenue than did either the watchmaking or the textile industries. Tourism plays a vital role in the Swiss economy, with between 8 and 9 percent of the Swiss workforce employed di- rectly or indirectly in tourism. One in every twelve Swiss citizens is employed insome aspect of the indus- try. By regions, the number of people employed in tourism is highestin the mountainousareas, where al- pine sports and activities create a large tourist indus- try. Spending by foreign visitors in Switzerland in- creases the GDP by approximately 3 percent. Many sectors of the Swiss economy, such as hospitality and transportation businesses, are highly dependent or partially reliant upon tourism. Many of the retail sec- tors also rely on the tourist industry. Tourists involved in various sports purchase a significant amount of equipment once they arrive in the country. Other Resources Switzerland has almost no mineral resources. There are small, virtually insignificant deposits of iron and manganese in the Jura. Switzerland has a large de- posit of marble located in the Jura. Other natural re- sources in Switzerland include sand, gravel, and lime- stone. Switzerland produces avariety ofagricultural prod- ucts, including fruits, vegetables (especially potatoes), wheat, meat, dairy products (such as cheese), and wines. Manufactured products for which Switzerland is known include watches, clocks, machinery, pharma- ceuticals, and precison tools. In addition to tourism, Switzerland’s service economy is focused on financial services that attract international corporations seek- ing to benefit from favorable Swiss banking regula- tions. Shawncey Webb Further Reading Anderson, Anne. A Future for Switzerland: Sustainable Development as an Opportunity for the Economy, Envi - 1194 • Switzerland Global Resources ronment, and Society. Bern: Swiss Agency for Devel - opment and Cooperation, 2001. Beniston, Martin. Climate Change and Its Impact: An Overview Focusing on Switzerland. New York: Springer, 2004. Field, Barry C. Natural Resource Economics: An Introduc- tion. 2d ed. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 2008. Førsund, Finn R. Hydropower Economics. New York: Springer, 2008. Hasenauer,Hubert, ed. Sustainable Forest Management: Growth ModelsforEurope. NewYork:Springer,2006. Steurer, Anton. Developments in Timber Engineering: The Swiss Contribution. Boston: Birkhaüser Basel, 2006. See also: Forestry; Forests; Hydroenergy; World Wide Fund for Nature. Synthetic fuels. See Coal gasification and liquefaction Synthetic Fuels Corporation Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established June 26, 1980; dismantled in 1986 In 1980, Congress passed the National Energy Secu- rity Act, creating the Synthetic Fuels Corporation to help private industry manufacture oil and gas from coal and shale. The Synthetic Fuels Corporation fought a losing battle against numerous hostile conditions be- fore closing without producing a single oil-from-coal plant. Background The technologies for synthetically producing gas and oil have long been known. Likewise, U.S. interest in the technologies has been long-standing,dating from President Woodrow Wilson’s 1916 decision to set aside public oil-shale lands to provide synthetic fuel for the Navy in the event of petroleum shortages. Thereafter, twice between1925 and1973 afear ofinadequate sup- plies of oil caused the United States and other coun- tries to consider producing oil through coal liquefac - tion. On each occasion, however, the oil scare was short-lived, and most countries abandoned the high- cost schemes.Germanywas an exception;the country built a network of synthetic fuel plants to run its war machine during World War II. Germany’s success with synthetic fuel proved the large-scale efficacy of the technologies. It did not, however, demonstrate the commercial viability of synthetic fuels, because cost was noobject to theNaziregime. Hence, asof the 1973 oil embargo by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the ensuing oil cri- sis, synthetic fuels remained unproven in the market- place. The energy crises of the 1970’s dramatically ended the era of cheap oil. Soaring oil pricessuddenly made synthetic fuels appear commercially feasible, even as the double-digit inflation and unemployment rates that they generated were sending oil-importing states in search of alternatives to OPEC oil. Given the deep coal reserves in the United States, coal liquefaction had great appeal to U.S. policy makers facing an un- happy public—and national elections in 1980. Thus, the proposal to launch a synthetic fuels program ca- pable of producing the 500,000 barrels of oil per day used by the U.S. military metamorphosed into an $88 billion government commitment to foster the birth of a large commercialized synthetic fuels indus- try that intended to produce 2 million barrels a day by 1992. However, in 1980, Ronald Reagan, who was hostile toward government involvement in the marketplace, was elected president. His appointee to preside over the Synthetic Fuels Corporation (SFC) was Edward Noble, whohad promised, inhis failedcampaign fora Senate seat, to dismantle the SFC if sent to Washing- ton, D.C. Others appointed to SFC managerial posi- tions had their competency questioned because of in- volvement in failed banking operations. Evenhad the SFC administrators had impeccable credentials, how- ever, they could not have shielded the organization from the three fatal blows it quickly absorbed. Impact on Resource Use First, few qualified applicants sought SFC assistance. The major oil companies, who had the expertise and finances to pursue synthetic fuels on their own, shunned the SFC, lest federal funding jeopardize their exclusive ownership of any research break- throughs theymight make.The lesser companieswho sought SFC money lacked the capacity to develop the large synfuels plants envisioned in the National En - ergy Security Act. Global Resources Synthetic Fuels Corporation • 1195 . im- portant trading partners with Switzerland. Although Switzerlandlacks a vastquantity ofvaried resources, it is an important factor in the global econ- omy, particularly because of its banking and. natural resources that are eitherphysically exportable andor important parts of the global resources from which energy is ob- tained and usable items are produced, the country has made unique use of. centerof the country is a plateau, where there are hills, plains, and a large number of lakes. Switzerland does not have an abundant variety of natural resources and almost no mineral resources. Its