of a rootstock. Upon a successful take, the bud grows and the rootstock is topped or removed at the point of growth. The bud is then transplanted from the nurs- ery to the field. The tree is ready for tapping in five to seven years, when tree girth reaches 50 centimeters at 1.60 meters from ground level. Crown budding may also be done before buddedstumps are transferred to the field. This type of budding is used to provide a crown that is tolerant of or resistant to disease or wind damage. Stand density in rubber plantations ranges from 250 to 400 trees per hectare at an average spac- ing of about 6 square meters. Rubber performs best on deep, well-drained soils with a pH of less than 6.5 (in the 4.5 to 7.5 range). However, Hevea brasiliensis can be grown on a wide range of soils. Thus, while in China rubber planta- tions are found on latosols and lateritic red soils, in Brazil—the primary center of diversity—rubber grows on red yellow podosols. In Malaysia, at one time the world’s leading producer, rubber grows on lateritic red soils. With regard to climatic requirements, P. Sanjeeva Rao and K. R. Vijayakumar, in Natural Rubber: Biology, Cultivation, and Technology (1992, edited by M. R. Sethuraj and N. M. Mathew), summarize the opti- mum conditions as follows: arainfall of 2,000 millime- ters or more, evenly distributed without any marked dry season and with 125 to 150 rainy days per year; a maximum temperature of about 29° to 34° Celsius, a minimum temperature of about 20°, and a monthly mean of 25° to 28° Celsius. There should be high at- mospheric humidity in the order of 80 percent with moderate wind, and bright sunshine amounting to about 2,000 hours annually, at the rate of 6 hours per day in all months. These conditions exist in the major rubber-producing countries of the world. Anatomy and Physiology of Latex Latex is obtained from latex vessels called secondary laticifers in Hevea. The quantity of laticiferous tissue in the tree is determined by a number of anatomical factors such as vessel rings, size of laticifers, girth of trees, and the distribution of latex and latex vessel rows. The flow of latex and, subsequently, the yield of a rubber tree is dependent on these anatomical fea- tures. Tapping, which causes injury to laticifers, does not expel the nucleus or mitochondria as part of the latex; that is, latex itself is a truecytoplasm. Hence latex reconstitution occurs following a complex phe - nomenon that results in the plugging of the wound. Several biosynthetic processes are responsible for the formation of latex from initial monomers through a glycolytic pathway. Increased yield can be obtained by using chemical stimulants on the bark of trees. The most effective and commonly used stimulant (2-chloroethane phosphonic acid) is commercially known as Ethrel or Ethephon. This chemical keeps latex flowing by delaying the plugging mechanism, and through its use certain clones can be made to yield twice as much latex. Present in the latex are three types of suspended particles, two of which are nonrubber (10 to 15 percent of the latex) and the third of which is dry rubber (40 to 60 percent of the latex, depending on clonal characteristics, con- ditions of cultivation and tapping, and other envi- ronmental factors). Latex Processing and the Grading of Commercial Rubber About four to five hours after tapping, the latex is col- lected from the trees. Field latex or cuplumps and “tree-lace” latex (strips or sheets of latex coagulated on a tapping cut) are collected and taken to a factory, laboratory, or small-holder processing center. At the factory or processing center, latex is sieved to remove foreign objects such as stones, branches, and leaves and is then blended by the addition of water or dilute acetic or formic acid. About 10 percent of the latex is shipped as latex concentrate following blending. Concentrates of natural rubber latex are obtained by the process of centrifugation and creaming. Mean- while, the remainder of the latex and field coagulum are processed, either into conventional types of rub- ber or into technically specified rubber (TSR). Conventional grades of dry rubber include ribbed smoked sheets (RBS), air-dried sheets (ADS), michel- lin sheets (MS), skim rubber (SR), pale crepe (PC), sole crepe (SC), and brown and blanket crepe (BBC). These conventional grades are based on visual exami- nation that is dependent on criteria set by the Rubber Manufacturers’ Association, headquartered in Wash- ington, D.C. These criteria include the presence or absence of extraneous foreign matter, bubbles, uni- formity, intensity of color, and mold and rust spots. The major drawback to this method of grading is the lack oftechnologicalbasisorquantifiable assessment. The limitations of the conventional grading of nat - ural rubber led to the development of technically specified rubber (TSR) systems. Although the use of 1038 • Rubber, natural Global Resources TSRs dates back to the 1950’s, the concept was first introduced into the market by Malaysia as Standard Malaysian Rubber (SMR) in 1965. The use of TSR gradings has been facilitated by developments in pro- cessing technologies, notably the heveacrumb and communition processes. The former is a chemical- mechanical process, while the latter is a mechanical process with no chemical additives. Technically specified rubber has the advantages of quality assurance, consistency, reduced storage space, and ease of handling. TSR classification varies from country to country. In Malaysia there are at least ten different grades, and in Indonesia there are more than five. Other rubber-producing countries have also adopted the TSR grading system. Besides TSRs and conventional types of rubber, there are at least ten other grades of natural rubber, including technically classified rubber (TCR), oil- extended natural rubber (OENR), tire rubber (TR), deproteinized natural rubber (DPNR), peptized rubber (PTR), powdered rubber (PR), skim rub- ber (SR), superior processing rubbers (SP), hevea- plug MG rubber (MG), and thermoplastic natu- ral rubber (TPNR). There are also other minor grades, currently not ofcommercial significance. Vulcanization In 1839, a number of fundamental weaknesses as- sociated with manufacturedrubber were resolved with the development of vulcanization by Charles Goodyear, a U.S. inventor. Vulcanization is the process of treating natural rubber with sulfur and lead and subjecting the compounds to intense heat, resulting in what Goodyear first called “fire proof gum” but later called vulcanized rubber. Present vulcanization technology is simply a mod- ification of Goodyear’s invention. Other forms of vulcanization are available based on diurethanes, which are stable at processing temperatures that may be as highas 200° Celsius or more. Vulcanized rubbercan then be processedintoa wide range of applications, including tires, fabrics, bridge con- structions, condoms, and other latex products such as adhesives and footwear. Future Uses of Natural Rubber There are continuing interest and effort on the part of research scientists and natural rubberpro - ducers to find new uses for natural rubber. Thus, in addition to conventional uses, especially in tire production, projections for further uses range from snowplow blades to uses in earthquake-resistant build- ings. Although many proposed uses are engineer- ing applications, there are others in the area of wood and wood products that may eventually make rubber plantations important sources for environmental res- toration, given the increasing deforestation that has taken place in the natural rubber-producing areas of the world. It should be noted that in rubber planta- tions that are more than forty years old, the regenera- tion of secondary forests with associated wildlife spe- cies occurs frequently. Thus, natural rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) is both an important industrial crop spe- cies and a major renewable resource. Synthetic Rubber Much of what people typically consider rubber today is actually synthetic rubber. Synthetic rubber is a poly- mer of several hydrocarbons; its basis is monomers Global Resources Rubber, natural • 1039 Latex is gathered from a rubber tree in Phuket, Thailand. (Jan-Pieter Nap) such as butadiene, isoprene, and styrene. Almost all monomers for synthetic rubber are derived from pe- troleum and petrochemicals. The emulsion polymer- ization process occurs at very high temperatures. There are different types of synthetic rubbers, three of which are dominant in the rubber industry. These are styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), polyisoprene rubber (IR), and polybutadiene rubber (BR). Unlike natural rubber, with a few exceptions, synthetic rub- ber is produced mainly in industrialized countries. Theoretically, synthetic rubber production dates back to 1826, when Michael Faraday indicated that the empirical formula for synthetic rubber was (C 5 H 8 ) x . The technology for synthetic rubberproduc- tion was not developed until 1860, however, when Charles Williams found that natural rubberwas made of isoprene monomers. Significant interest in using synthetic rubber as a substitute for natural rubber de- veloped only during World War II, when the Germans were looking for alternatives to natural rubber. The severe shortages of natural rubber during and imme- diately after World War II stimulated research on syn- thetic rubberand its technology.Today, synthetic rub- ber is used in a wide range of applications, and it constitutes about three-quarters of the total rubber produced and consumed. Oghenekome U. Onokpise Further Reading Allen, P. W. Natural Rubber and the Synthetics. New York: Wiley, 1972. Ciesielski, Andrew. An Introduction to RubberTechnology. Shawbury, England: Rapra Technology, 1999. Del Vecchio, R. J., ed. Fundamentals of Rubber Technol- ogy. Fuquay-Varina, N.C.: Technical Consulting Services, 2003. Finlay, Mark R. Growing American Rubber: Strategic Plants and the Politics of National Security. New Bruns- wick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2009. Jackson, Joe. The Thief at the End of the World: Rubber, Power, and the Seeds of Empire. New York: Viking, 2008. Loadman, John. Tears of the Tree:The Story of Rubber—A Modern Marvel. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Morton, Maurice, ed. Rubber Technology. 3d ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1987. Roberts, A. D., ed. Natural Rubber Science and Technol- ogy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Sethuraj, M. R., and N. M. Mathew, eds. Natural Rub- ber: Biology, Cultivation, and Technology. New York: Elsevier, 1992. Web Site International Rubber Research and Development Board About Natural Rubber http://www.irrdb.com/IRRDB/NaturalRubber/ Default.htm See also: Brazil; Indonesia; Rubber, synthetic; Trans - portation, energy use in. 1040 • Rubber, natural Global Resources Isoprene Units That Compose Natural Rubber Synthetic Elastomer Chloroprene (Neoprene) n = about 20,000 (n + 2) CH — C — CH — CH 22 — — — — — CH C — CHCH – 22 — — – CH C — CHCH – 22 — — – CH C — CHCH — 22 — — CH | C 3 CH | C 3 CH | C 3 ( CH | C 3 ) n — — — — — — (n + 2) CH — C — CH — CH 22 — CH C — CHCH – 22 — — – CH C — CHCH – 22 — — – CH C — CHCH — 22 Cl | C Cl | C Cl | C ( Cl | C ) n Formulas of Natural Rubber and Chloroprene, a Synthetic Rubber, synthetic Category: Products from resources Synthetic rubbers of more than two dozen types have been manufactured since the late 1920’s. Worldwide production of synthetic rubbers totals approximately 13 million metric tons annually, almost 45 percent more than that of natural rubber. Definition Rubbers, more properly called “elastomers,” are com- posed of extremely long-chain molecules (in natural rubber the molecules contain about twenty thousand repeating five-carbon units) that are bonded to each other so that they cannot flow. The molecules assume a coiled shape until they are stretched; then they straighten out. The tendency to reassume the coiled form accounts for the elasticity of these materials— that is, their resumption of their original shape when stress is removed. Natural rubber is made up of units of isoprene. The residual double bonds make it possi- ble to “vulcanize” the natural elastomer—to heat it with 1 to 3 percent sulfur to form −S−S− “cross- links” that hold adjacent molecules together so that they cannot slip and flow away. The double bonds also make the rubber vulnerable to deterioration by reac- tion with atmospheric oxygen and ozone. Resources used to create synthetic rubber include petroleum feedstocks, alcohol from grain, carbon black from pe- troleum or natural gas, finely divided silica, sulfur, and various organic and inorganic chemicals as cur- ing agents and accelerators. Overview One of the earliest successful synthetic elastomers was neoprene (ASTM code CR), made of chloroprene, Global Resources Rubber, synthetic • 1041 Source: Natural Rubber and the SyntheticsAdapted from P. W. Allen, , 1972. Crude petroleum Primary distillation Vacuum distillation Gasoline fraction Naphtha fraction Gas oil fraction Steam cracking Acetylene, ethylene, propylene, butadiene, etc. Propylene, butylenes, isopentene, etc. Catalytic cracking Distillation of higher molecular weight fractions (kerosenes, waxes, etc.) Producing Synthetic Rubber Monomers from Crude Petroleum which resembles isoprene in molecular shape. Neo - prene proved to be resistant to solvents such as gaso- line and oils, unlike natural rubber, but it was expen- sive. It found applications in specialty tubing, electrical insulation, gaskets and seals, and protective clothing. Both the Germans and the Russians used 1,3-buta- diene (CH 2 =CHCH=CH 2 ) in the 1930’sforsynthetic rubber,buttheproduct was inferior until about 25 per- cent styrene (C 6 H 5 CH=CH 2 ) was included in the re- action mixture. This produced styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), which is the most common type of syn- thetic elastomer in use today. In slightly varying for- mulations, and always with about one-third carbon black (sometimes powdered silica) as a filler and strengthener, SBR accounts for most of the tire rub- ber currently in use—which means about 75 percent of all rubber produced. A reaction of butadiene with acrylonitrile (CH 2 =CH−CN) rather than with styrene produces acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR), which has ex- treme solvent resistance and is used in oil hoses, oil well parts, fuel tank liners, gaskets, shoe soles, print- ing rolls, and even as a binder in rocket propellants. A hydrogenated form of NBR, with the residual double bonds eliminated by reaction with hydrogen, is highly resistant to air oxidation and forms films that prevent passage of gases. The poor quality of butadiene rubber (BR) was overcome in the 1960’s by the discovery of special cat- alysts for the rubber-producing reaction that made the geometry uniform about the double bond. This produced BR with high resistance to abrasion and cracking and with low heat buildup with flexing, qual- ities that havebeenusefulin tire treads, particularly in the giant tires used on construction equipment. Many specialty elastomers,suchasethylene-propyl- ene copolymer (EPM), silicone rubber (MQ), fluoro- carbon elastomers (FPM), epichlorohydrin elasto- mers (CO or ECO), and polyurethanes (PU), are produced for their special physical or chemical (resis- tant) properties. Natural rubber still generally holds the market edge in price, but synthetic elastomers have taken over large parts of the automotive and manufacturing markets. Robert M. Hawthorne, Jr. See also: Ethanol; Oil and natural gas chemistry; Oil industry; Petroleum refining and processing; Rubber, natural. Rubidium Category: Mineral and other nonliving resources Where Found Rubidium is widely distributed in the Earth’s crust in moderate amounts. Although it is more common than lead, copper, or zinc, it is never found in concen- trations of more than a few percentage points. The main sources of rubidium are various minerals con- taining potassium that are found worldwide. It can be found in Maine and South Dakota, in evaporites from other states, and in pegmatite sources in Canada, Af- ghanistan, Namibia, Peru, Zambia, and elsewhere. Brine and evaporite sources are located in Chile, China, France, and Germany. Primary Uses Rubidium is used in photoelectric cells and other electronic devices. The radioactive isotope of rubid- ium is used to measure the ages of extremely old rock samples. Rubidium is also increasingly used as an atomic clock for global positioning satellites. Technical Definition Rubidium (abbreviated Rb), atomic number 37, be- longs to Group IA of the periodic table of the ele- ments and resembles cesium in its chemical and phys- ical properties. It has two naturally occurring isotopes and anaverageatomic weight of 85.47.Pure rubidium is a soft, silver-whitemetal.Itsdensity is 1.53 grams per cubic centimeter; it has a melting point of 39° Celsius and a boiling point of 688° Celsius. Description, Distribution, and Forms Rubidium is a widely distributed element resembling cesium. It occurs as oxides in various minerals that contain potassium in concentrations ranging from less than 1 percent to about 5 percent. Because rubid- ium never occurs in higher concentrations and is dif- ficult to extract, its industrial uses are limited. How- ever, the radioactive isotope of rubidium is used to determine the age ofrocks, minerals,andmeteorites. History Rubidium was discovered in 1861 by the German chemist Robert Bunsen and the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff. Because rubidium was diffi - cult to obtain, it had little practical use until the sec - 1042 • Rubidium Global Resources ond half of the twentieth century, when the electron - ics industry developed. Obtaining rubidium Rubidium compounds may be obtained from various potassium ores in a number of ways. These proce- dures all require a complex series of chemical reac- tions. In general, the first step is to obtaincompounds of potassium, rubidium, and cesium from the ore. The potassium compound, which makes up the majority of this mixture, is separated from the others. The ce- sium is then separated from the rubidium. These sep- arations generally involve forming compounds that have different solubilities. The compounds are dis- solved, and the least soluble one is crystallized while the others remain in solution. Once a rubidium compound is obtained, it can be transformed into free rubidium metal by various methods. One common procedure involves mixing rubidium chloride with calcium and heating the mix- ture to between 700° and 800° Celsius. A method of- ten used in the production of photoelectric cells in- volves mixing rubidium chromate with zirconium and heating the mixture to about 700° Celsius. Rubid- ium may also be obtained by heating rubidium azide to about 500° Celsius in a vacuum. Uses of Rubidium The most important use for rubidium is in photoelec- tric cells. Rubidium releases electrons when it is ex- posed to light, resulting in an electric current. An- other use is based on the fact that the naturally occurring radioactive isotope rubidium 87 decays into strontium 87, with a half-life of sixty-three billion years. By measuring the amount of strontium 87 pres- ent, scientists can measure the age of rocks. The ru- bidium atomic clock is extremely accurate, making satellite and other high-tech applications significant. Finally, rubidium 82 is used in positron emission to- mography (PET); hence, its applications have ad- vanced with the use of PET medical technology. Rose Secrest Web Site WebElements Rubidium: The Essentials http://www.webelements.com/rubidium/ See also: Cesium; Isotopes, radioactive; Lithium; Metals and metallurgy. Russia Categories: Countries; government and resources Russia holds the world’s largest natural gas reserves, the second largest coal reserves, and the eighth largest oil reserves. Russia is also the world’s largest exporter of natural gas, the second largest exporter of oil, and the third largest energy consumer. In 2005, the miner- als sector accounted for more than 70 percent of the value of exports, and mineral fuels were the leading category of exports in termsof value. Mineral products accounted for about 12 percent of the total value of im- ports in 2005. The Country Russia is located in northern Asia and eastern Europe and borders the Arctic Ocean between Europe and the North Pacific Ocean. In 2008, Russia’s gross do- mestic product was $2.225 trillion, which ranked it as the world’s eighth largest economy. The promi- nent land features in the country are vast interior plains and plateaus rimmed by rugged mountains. Between 1924 and 1991, Russia was the cornerstone of the Soviet Union, or the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). On December 25, 1991, the last Soviet president, Mikhail Gorbachev, resigned, and the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Boris Yeltsin became the first president of the Russian Federation. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was then established by republics of the former Soviet Union, including all former Soviet republics except the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In 2005, the members of the CIS were Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz- stan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. In August, 2005, Turkmen- istan discontinued permanent membership and be- came an associate member. Following the South Ossetian War in 2008, Georgia’s parliament voted unanimously to withdraw from the regional organiza- tion. Russia’s economy is heavily dependent on oil and natural gas exports, and its economic growth in the first decade of the twenty-first century was driven primarily by such energy exports. Rapid industrial- ization led to massive exploitation of natural re - sources with little thought to environmental protec - tion. Global Resources Russia • 1043 1044 • Russia Global Resources Russia: Resources at a Glance Official name: Russian Federation Government: Federation Capital city: Moscow Area: 6,602,148 mi 2 ; 17,098,242 km 2 Population (2009 est.): 141,700,000 Language: Russian Monetary unit: Russian ruble (RUB) Economic summary: GDP composition by sector (2008 est.): agriculture, 4.7%; industry, 37.6%; services, 57.7% Natural resources: wide natural resource base including major deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, many strategic minerals, timber; may have significant other natural resources whose exploitation is limited by harsh climate, terrain, and distance Land use (2005): arable land, 7.17%; permanent crops, 0.11%; other, 92.72% Industries: mining and extractive industries producing coal, oil, gas, chemicals, and metals; all forms of machine building from rolling mills to high-performance aircraft and space vehicles; defense industries including radar, missile production, and advanced electronic components, shipbuilding; road and rail transportation equipment; communications equipment; agricultural machinery, tractors, and construction equipment; electric power generating and transmitting equipment; medical and scientific instruments; consumer durables, textiles, foodstuffs, handicrafts Agricultural products: grain, sugar beets, sunflower seeds, vegetables, fruits, beef, milk Exports (2008 est.): $471.6 billion Commodities exported: petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, wood and wood products, metals, chemicals, and a wide variety of civilian and military manufactures Imports (2008 est.): $302 billion Commodities imported: vehicles, machinery and equipment, plastics, medicines, iron and steel, consumer goods, meat, fruits and nuts, semifinished metal products Labor force (2008 est.): 75.7 million Labor force by occupation (2007 est.): agriculture, 10.2%; industry, 27.4%; services, 62.4% Energy resources: Electricity production (2007 est.): 1.016 trillion kWh Electricity consumption (2006 est.): 1.003 trillion kWh Electricity exports (2007 est.): 18.6 billion kWh Electricity imports (2007 est.): 6 billion kWh Natural gas production (2007 est.): 654 billion m 3 Natural gas consumption (2007 est.): 481 billion m 3 Natural gas exports (2007 est.): 173 billion m 3 Natural gas imports (2007 est.): 68.2 billion m 3 Natural gas proved reserves ( Jan. 2008 est.): 44.65 trillion m 3 Oil production (2007 est.): 9.98 million bbl/day Oil imports (2005): 54,000 bbl/day Oil proved reserves ( Jan. 2008 est.): 79 billion bbl Source: Data from The World Factbook 2009. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. Notes: Data are the most recent tracked by the CIA. Values are given in U.S. dollars. Abbreviations: bbl/day = barrels per day; GDP = gross domestic product; km 2 = square kilometers; kWh = kilowatt-hours; m 3 = cubic meters; mi 2 = square miles. Moscow Finland Ukraine Kazakhstan China Mongolia R u s s i a Caspian Sea Arctic Ocean Natural Gas Russia holds the world’s largest natural gas reserve, with nearly one-third of the world total. Russia gets about 55 percent of its domestic energy needs from natural gas. It is the world’s largest natural gas pro- ducer and exporter. Almost all the country’s gas pro- duction is under the control of Gazprom, Russia’s state-controlled gas company. Growth in Russia’s nat- ural gas sector has been slow because of aging fields, state regulation, Gazprom’s monopolistic control over the energy industry, and limited export pipelines. Nearly 70 percent of Gazprom’s natural gas produc- tion comes from three major fields in western Siberia, Medvezh’yegorsk, Urengoy, and Kingisepp. Produc- tion from these fields will decline. In the future, most of Russia’s natural gas production growth is expected to come from independent gas companies. Russia exports significantamountsofnatural gas to customers in the CIS states. However, Gazprom has expanded its naturalgasexportstoserve the rising de- mand in the European Union, Turkey, Japan, and China. From 1960 to 2010, natural gas consumption increased more than fivefold. Natural gas generates smaller amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) than do other fossil fuels and contains fewer pollutants such as sulfur. In addition, natural gas is easier to clean and burns with much higher efficiency in elec- trical power plants than do other fossil fuels. The Kyoto Protocol calls for many nations to reduce the emission of GHGs, especially carbon dioxide. Using natural gas instead of coal in electrical power plants cuts down on the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by one-half. Natural gas is anticipated to become one of the main energy sources of choice as the twenty- first century unfolds. The usage of natural gas world- wide was expected to nearly double from 1996 to 2020. The Russian Federation’s ministry of energy predicted that natural gas production in Russia would range between 635 and 665 billion cubic meters in 2010 and between 680 and 730 billion cubic meters in 2020. More natural gas pipelines will likely be con- structed to export natural gas to many European countries and to China, Japan, and other Asian coun- tries. Petroleum The Russian city of Baku first began trading its oil around 300 c.e.,andbythelate 1600’s nearly five hun - dred hand-dug wells existed in Baku, producing re - fined oil for lighting and ointments throughout Per - sia and Russia. In 1833, commercial oil production began in Chechnya. In 1846, the first oil well was drilled in Baku by engineer F. M. Semenov. The first American well, drilled by Edwin Drake in Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859, marked the beginning of the modern petroleum industry. During the 1980’s, the Soviet Union was the world’s largest oil producer, and the Russian republic pro- duced more than 90 percent of the total. However, by 1999, Russia had become the world’s third largest oil producer. The fall in oil production was attributed to economic factors following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Oil output began to rebound in 1999 after the privatization of the industry following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the rejuvenation of old oil fields. As of 2009, Russia was the world’s second larg- est oil exporter. Russia gets about 19 percent of its do- mestic energy needsfrom oil.More than70percentof Russian crudeoil production is exported to CIS coun- tries, Germany,Poland,andotherdestinationsincen- tral and eastern Europe. The majority of Russia’s oil exports are transported via Transneft-controlled pipelines. Russian oil exports to the United States have almost doubled since 2004, rising to more than 400,000 barrels per day of crude oil and products in 2007. Global Resources Russia • 1045 A Russian tanker ports liquefied natural gas, a major Russian ex- port, to Japan. (Kyodo/Landov) According to energy statistics from the U.S. gov - ernment released by the Energy Information Admin- istration (EIA),Russiaholdsthe world’s eighthlargest oil reserves. However, Russia ranked second in the world in petroleum reserves after Saudi Arabia, based on the assessment of the Russian government. Rus- sia’s major reserves come from the West Siberian ba- sin and the Volga-Urals region. Offshore basins in the Barents and the Kara seas and the Caspian basin are considered to be promising areas for further develop- ment. Russia’s production growth between 2010 and 2020 will depend on the availability of viable export routes. Inefficient construction practices and poor maintenance have led to frequent pipeline breaks and leakages, which have impacted the environment and ecosystems.Ifmore efficient oil pipelinesarecon- structed, new field developments would likely pro- duce more than 50 percent of the country’s oil by 2020. Coal The United States, Russia, and China hold about 60 percent of the nearly 1 trillion metric tons of recover- able coal reserves. Russia holds the world’s second largest recoverable coal reserves, behind the United States. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, Russia ranked fifth in the world in coal production, af- ter China, the United States, India, and Australia. In 2006, Russia produced291millionmetric tons of coal, consumed 235 million metric tons, and exported 55 million metric tons. Russia’s two largest coal basins are theKansk-Achinsklignite basin in East Siberiaand the Kuznetsk Basin in West Siberia. Russia gets about 16 percent of its domestic energy needs from coal. Environmental concerns and green- house-gas emissions pose challenges to coal as an en- ergy source. In February, 2005, the Kyoto Protocol en- tered into force after being ratified by Russia and other nations. By 2007, 169 countries had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, with the United States and Australia the only major nations abstaining. The Russian gov- ernment and energy industry wanted to increase coal production and consumption so that more natural gases and oil could be exported. However, this action could increase Russia’s GHG emissions. Uranium and Nuclear Energy Uranium mining in Russia was conducted entirely by the corporation JSC TVEL’s ore mining enter - prises, through open-pit mining at its subsidiary JSC Priargunsky Industrial Mining and Chemical Union. Annual uranium production has been about 3,400 metric tons, of which more than 90 percent is pro- duced by Priargunsky. Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, Russia owned a large uranium stock- pile, which totaled between 200,000 and 250,000 met- ric tons. The country’s annual natural uranium con- sumption amounted to approximately 9,000 metric tons. Most of the uranium consumption lies in nu- clear power facilities. Sustainable economic growth and rapid industrial- ization have led to increasing demand for alternative energy resources in the twenty-first century. Hydro- power and nuclear power are two common alterna- tive energy resources used by many countries. Hydro- electric power is productive and supplies nearly all of the electricity in some countries such as Norway. Nu- clear power accounts for about 19 percent of the elec- tricity generated worldwide. In Russia, power from fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal-fired) accounts for about 63 percent of the electricity generated by Russia, followed by hydroelectric power (21 percent) and nuclear power (16 percent). The Russian govern- ment intends to expand the role of nuclear and hy- droelectric power generation to reduce GHG emis- sions and allow for greater export of fossil fuels. However, Russia’s nuclear power facilities are aging and nearly one-half of the country’s nuclear reactors use the reaktor bolshoy moshchnosti kanalniy, more com- monly known as RBMK, design employed in the Ukraine’s ill-fated Chernobylplant. In 1986, a reactor explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant near Kiev, Ukraine (then intheSovietUnion),caused a nu- clear meltdown considered to bethe worst nuclear ac- cident in history; the immediate area had to be evacu- ated and the contamination is not expected to be fully dissipated for at least two centuries. To avoid nuclear accidents and radioactive pollution of this or any other magnitude, the Russian government and the nuclear industry need to take actions to ensure the safety of old nuclear power facilities and to develop new nuclear power plants that employ up-to-date technologies. Gold Gold was adopted as the monetary standard by the British Empire in 1821, which led to “gold fever” in the second half of the nineteenth century. Many gold- rich placer deposits were discovered in Siberia, Alaska, California, Australia, and South Africa, and 1046 • Russia Global Resources gold coinage became the largest use of gold for more than a century. The first gold rush was in Russia, where the czar encouraged exploration for gold. The production went from1.5metrictonsperyearin 1823 to 5.9 metric tons per year in 1830. By 1846, Russian production was more than half of the world produc- tion. In the twentieth century, rapid increases in world gold mining and production occurred. Production in the SovietUnionbegana long climb in themid-1950’s toward its peak of 302 metric tons in 1990. Total world gold production from its beginnings in prehistory through 2000 was estimated to be 142,000 metric tons, of which more than two-thirds came from only five countries—South Africa, 34 percent; Russia, 11 percent; the United States, 10 percent; Australia, 7 percent; and Canada, 6 percent. In 1999, Russia ranked sixth in world gold output. The majority of production was from placer deposits in the eastern part of country. More than 65 percent of the re- sources are located in eastern Siberia and the Russian far east. In recent history, foreign companies have controlled 15 to 18 percent of Russian gold produc- tion, which was the largest share held for any com- modity in the Russian mining industry. Diamond In 1999, Russia was estimated to be the world’s third largest producer of gem and industrial diamonds. The first diamondiferous kimberlite pipe, a low-grade pipe, was found in Siberia in 1954, and several higher- grade diamondiferous kimberlite pipes have been discovered since. Among them, the Mir pipe (also known as the Mirny Mine) was one of the world’s larg- est excavated holes, with a depth of 525 meters and a diameter of 1,200 meters. Similar to the diamondifer- ous kimberlite in South Africa, a regional zoning of the kimberlites occurs within the Siberian Platform.A central zone of diamondiferous kimberlites is sur- rounded by a zone with pyrope and lower-grade dia- mond and, then, by a zone of pyrope, and, eventually, by an outer zone of kimberlites, in which neither of these high-pressure minerals is present. The Almazy Rossii-Sakha Association (ALROSA) accounted for 97 percent of Russian diamond production and about 25 percent of world rough-diamond production in 2005. Its major mining operations were located in the Sakha Republic. However, in 2005, the company be- gan production at the Lomonosov diamond deposit in the northern European part of the country in Arkhangel’sk Oblast. Almost all the production came from kimberlite deposits near Mirny in the Sakha Re - public. ALROSA was able to maintain its level of mine output by gradually switching to underground min- ing to extract low-grade diamond ore reserves. Poten- tial production of gem-quality synthesized diamonds may influence the diamond market in thefuture.Rus- sia is also one of the major producers synthesized dia- mond. Nickel Russia is the world’s leading producer of nickel. Ac- cording to Russia’s minister of natural resources, the country has 36 percent of the world’s nickel reserves. The Noril’sk region had 77.5 percent of the country’s nickel reserves. The world-class deposits of copper, nickel, and platinum group metals of the Noril’sk- Talnakh district in Russia are hosted by relatively small, complex mafic-ultramafic bodies that intrude Permian sedimentary rocks and the lowermost suites of the Siberian continental flood-volcanic sequence. Noril’sk has world-class nickel sulfide deposits, with an estimated reserve of 900 million metric tons of ore. Nickel is an important ferroalloy metal used to make nickel steels, nickel cast irons, coinage, and many other alloys. More than 90 percent of nickel in Russia has been produced by Noril’sk Nickel, which mines deposits of mixed sulfide ores mainly near Noril’sk in East Siberia, but also on the Kola Peninsula. The city of Noril’sk in western Siberia is probably the most polluted city in Russia. Millions of metric tons of toxic gases and wastes are released by the Noril’sk Metallurgical Combine each year. The soci- ety and ecosystem in the region are severely damaged. Local physicians have reported that residents in the region have a high incidence of respiratory illness and shortened life expectancy (as low as fifty years). Iron Russia is the world’s fourth-ranked steel producer af- ter China, Japan, and the United States. Russia andJa- pan are the world’s leading steel exporters. From 1998 to 2005, Russian steel production increased by more than 50 percent. Steel companies in Russia re- lied on iron ore from domesticdeposits. These depos- its often were owned by more than one Russian steel company. Almost 60 percent of iron-ore reserves are located in the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly (KMA) in Eu- ropean Russia, and about 15 percent are located in the Ural Mountains region. More than 50 percent of the country’s iron ore was mined from the KMA. Iron- Global Resources Russia • 1047 . the latex are three types of suspended particles, two of which are nonrubber (10 to 15 percent of the latex) and the third of which is dry rubber (40 to 60 percent of the latex, depending on. limitations of the conventional grading of nat - ural rubber led to the development of technically specified rubber (TSR) systems. Although the use of 1038 • Rubber, natural Global Resources TSRs. with little thought to environmental protec - tion. Global Resources Russia • 1043 1044 • Russia Global Resources Russia: Resources at a Glance Official name: Russian Federation Government: Federation Capital