ture inlays, but by far the greatest recent use of ivory has been for hankos. These small ivorysealsareusedas a means of signing official documents in China, Ja- pan, and Korea. A vegetable ivory from the ivory nut palm could be used in place of animal ivory, but, so far, the vegetable ivory has not been accepted by Asians as a suitable substitute. Lenela Glass-Godwin Further Reading Feldhake, Glenn. Hippos. Stillwater, Minn.: Voyageur Press, 2005. Harland, David. Killing Game: InternationalLawand the African Elephant. New York: Praeger, 1994. Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. 6th ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. Ray, G. Carleton, and Jerry McCormick-Ray, eds. Coastal Marine Conservation: Science and Policy. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2004. Sukumar, Raman. The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior, and Conservation. New York: Ox- ford University Press, 2004. Web Site National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Marine Fisheries Service http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov See also: Endangered species; Endangered Species Act; International Union for Conservation of Nature; Resources as a source of international conflict; United Nations Convention on International Trade in En- dangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Izaak Walton League of America Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1922 Members of the Izaak Walton League of America pledge to strive for the purity of water, the clarity of air, and the wise stewardship of the land and its resources. They seek to understand nature and the value of wild- life, woodlands, and open space. Background Founded in Chicago by fifty-four fishermen to protect fish habitat, the Izaak Walton League of America (IWLA) has grown into a national organization of al- most three hundred local chapters encompassing all conservation activities. With a diverse membership of fishers, hunters, urban environmentalists, and con- servationists in general, the IWLA is a respected voice of commitment and moderation throughout the envi- ronmental community. The league is organized as a bottom-up democracy. All policies are developed by local chapters and, after passing through state divi- sions, become official policy after action by a national convention of delegates from each chapter. Impact on Resource Use The IWLA hasbeen instrumental in obtainingwilder- ness status for parts of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area in Minnesota, establishing the National Elk Ref- uge in Wyoming, cleaning up Chesapeake Bay, and maintaining a strong conservation reserve program in farm bill authorizations. Permanent projects in- clude the league’s well-respected, and often copied, Save-Our-Streams Program, in which local chapters and other groups “adopt” a stream. Using techniques developed by national staff, members monitor stream quality, identify pollution sources, and work to clean up problems. A Midwest office of the IWLA is an im- portant watchdog that observes the power industry, monitoring environmental degradation of the Missis- sippi River basin and supporting alternative energy sources. John R. Dickel Web Site Izaak Walton League of America http://www.iwla.org/ See also: Conservation; Environmental movement; Streams and rivers; Water pollution and water pollu- tion control; Wilderness; wildlife. 648 • Izaak Walton League of America Global Resources J Jackson, Wes Category: People Born: June 15, 1936; near Topeka, Kansas Jackson, a plant geneticist by training, became one of the leading critics of modern industrialized agricul- ture. Cofounder of the Land Institute, he envisioned a radically different approach to farming based on eco- logical models and on polycultures rather than monocultures. Biographical Background Wes Jackson, president of the Land Institute at Salina, Kansas, was born in 1936 near Topeka, Kansas, where he grew up on a 16-hectare farm. He received a B.A. in biology at Kansas Wesleyan University in 1958, an M.S. at the University of Kansas in 1967, and a Ph.D. in plant genetics at North Carolina State University in 1967. He taught at Kansas Wesleyan and at California State University, Sacramento, where he established an environmental studies program. Becoming involved in the growing environmental movement, he and his wife, Dana, left California to found the Land Institute in 1976. Jackson developed strategiesforusing nature as the model for achieving a more sustainable ap- proach to agriculture. The authorofseveralbooks,includingNewRoots for Agriculture (1980) and Altars of Unhewn Stone: Science Wes Jackson stands in the Wauhob prairie in Kansas near the Land Institute, which he founded. (AP/Wide World Photos) and the Earth (1987), and numerous articles, Jackson was honored as a Pew Scholar in 1990 and a MacAr- thur Fellow in 1992. In 2000, he received the Right Livelihood Award, established in 1980 for those “work- ing on practical and exemplary solutions to the most urgent challenges facing the world today.” Impact on Resource Use Jackson became one of a number of critics of main- stream American agriculture; others include Wendell Berry, Gary Paul Nabhan, and Robert Rodale. Jack- son characterized mainstream agriculture as “extrac- tive” in that it uses, or extracts, considerable amounts of resources—including soil, water, and petroleum— to grow food; furthermore, it is capital intensive, and its chemicals pollute streams and groundwater. Jack- son and the LandInstitutehavehadtheirshare of crit- icism, with some calling their efforts impractical and doomed to failure. Nonetheless, they also have staunch supporters and have been influential in ex- panding modern views of agriculture by examining the sociocultural aspects of how a society decides to produce its foodandthroughthegrowth of interdisci- plinary approaches such as agroecology. Thomas A. Eddy See also: Agriculture industry; Agronomy; Erosion and erosion control; Land Institute; Monoculture ag- riculture; Soil management. Japan Categories: Countries; government and resources For a prime industrialized nation, Japan is surpris- ingly poor in natural resources and has to import most of its fuel and other resources for its manufacturing and food industry. Japan imports more fish, its key natural resource, than it exports and is only self-suffi- cient with select industrial mineral resources such as limestone. The Country Japan is an island nation in East Asia. To the east, it faces the North Pacific, and to the west, the Sea of Ja- pan, across which lies the Korean Peninsula and Sibe - ria. Japan is the world’s tenth most populous nation, and 98.5 percent of its more than 127 million inhabi - tants are ethnic Japanese. In 2008, Japan had the world’s second largest gross domestic product ($4.84 trillion), behind the United States. Japan ran the world’s third largest economy, if measured by its pur- chasing power parity of $4.4 trillion, falling just be- hind the United States and China. However, because of its large population, Japan ranked only twenty- fourth with its per-capita annual income of thirty- eight thousand dollars in 2008. Japan comprises more than three thousand indi- vidual islands. The most important are, from north to south, the four main islands of Hokkaidf, Honshn, Shikoku, and Kynshn. The four main islands have steep, inaccessible, forested mountains, including Mount Fuji near Tokyo, which is Japan’s landmark. Earthquakes are common. Agriculture is generally limited to three narrow coastal plains around Tokyo and bsaka, with only about 15 percent of the land us- able for agriculture. Japan’s key natural resources are fish and a few industrial minerals. Thus, the resource- poor but industrialized country is a huge net im- porter of natural resources. Fish Fish is Japan’s key natural resource. Fish, together with rice, has sustained the population of Japan for centuries, losing its importance only in the early twenty-first century as the Japanese have changed their diets. Consequently,thevolume of fish and shell- fish caught by coastal, offshore, and inland Japanese fisheries as well as produced by Japanese marine aquaculture declined by nearly one-halftoabout5bil- lion metric tonsby 2006, down from apeak of 11.5 bil- lion metric tons in 1985. Mackerel, Japanese anchovy, skipjack, scallops, and saury are key fish and shellfish species caught along the coast of Japan and within the roughly 450 nautical square kilometers of Japan’s maritime exclusive eco- nomic zone (EEZ) established by the United Nations in 1995. These species accounted for about 1.9 billion metric tons caught in 2006. Bonito, Japanese com- mon squid, salmon,andtrout arealsocaughtin signif- icant numbers. In addition to catching domestic Japanese fish re- sources, Japan sustains a long-distance fishing fleet. This fishing fleet operates by treaty in the maritime EEZs of other nations. The catch from the neighbor- ing EEZs of South Korea, Russia, and China, are counted among Japan’s domestic catch, slightly over - estimating domesticfishhaul.However, the primetar - 650 • Japan Global Resources Global Resources Japan • 651 Japan: Resources at a Glance Official name: Japan Government: Parliamentary government with a constitutional monarchy Capital city: Tokyo Area: 145,924 mi 2 ; 377,915 km 2 Population (2009 est.): 127,078,679 Language: Japanese Monetary unit: yen (JPY) Economic summary: GDP composition by sector (2008 est.): agriculture, 1.5%; industry, 26.3%; services, 72.3% Natural resources: negligible mineral resources, fish (largest importer of coal and liquefied natural gas; second largest importer of oil), limestone, silica sand and stone Land use (2005): arable land, 11.64%; permanent crops, 0.9%; other, 87.46% Industries: motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals, textiles, processed foods Agricultural products: rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruit, pork, poultry, dairy products, eggs, fish Exports (2008 est.): $746.5 billion Commodities exported: transport equipment, motor vehicles, semiconductors, electrical machinery, chemicals Imports (2008 est.): $708.3 billion Commodities imported: machinery and equipment, fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, raw materials Labor force (2008 est.): 66.5 million Labor force by occupation (2005): agriculture, 4.4%; industry, 27.9%; services, 66.4% Energy resources: Electricity production (2007 est.): 1.195 trillion kWh Electricity consumption (2006 est.): 1.08 trillion kWh Electricity exports (2007 est.): 0 kWh Electricity imports (2007 est.): 0 kWh Natural gas production (2007 est.): 3.729 billion m 3 Natural gas consumption (2007 est.): 100.3 billion m 3 Natural gas exports (2007 est.): 0 m 3 Natural gas imports (2007 est.): 95.62 billion m 3 Natural gas proved reserves (Jan. 2008 est.): 20.9 billion m 3 Oil production (2007): 132,400 bbl/day Oil imports (2007): 5.032 million bbl/day Oil proved reserves (Jan. 2008 est.): 44.12 million bbl Source: Data from The World Factbook 2009. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. Notes: Data are the most recent tracked by the CIA. Values are given in U.S. dollars. Abbreviations: bbl/day = barrels per day; GDP = gross domestic product; km 2 = square kilometers; kWh = kilowatt-hours; m 3 = cubic meters; mi 2 = square miles. Tokyo China South Korea North Korea Russia Japan East China Sea Sea of Japan Pacific Ocean gets of the long-distance fleet are EEZs of Pacific Ocean countriesfarther awaythanAsia, as well as high seas. Here, the target is high-valuepredatory fish, par- ticularly tuna. The contribution to Japan’s overall catch by the distance fleet has declined from account- ing for as much as 20 percent in 1985, when it added 2.1 billion metric tons, to just under 10 percent in 2005, when it contributed 544 million metric tons. Statistics often use the total number for all fish caught and harvested by Japanese fisheries, including those from foreign and open seas. For 2006, technically speaking, fish from the waters of Japan (Japan’s own natural resources) accounted for about only 90 per- cent of the total. By 2006, fish and shellfish caught by the Japanese in their own waters accountedforabout6.2percent of the world’s supply of fishery products for human con- sumption. Even though Japan used 85 percent of the fish and shellfish it caught in its waters for this pur- pose, and only 15 percent for fertilizer and animal feed, this could not satisfy the demand of Japanese consumers. Consequently, Japan imported one-half of its fishery products for domestic human consump - tion from other countries. Reflecting the Japanese trend to import low-value fish prod - ucts and export high-value fish,rather than usingallofits catch at home first before adding imports, some 16 per- cent of Japanese fish used for human food was exported and the resulting lack made up by cheaper imports. Reflecting Japan’s primary use of its fish for human food, the country imported more than 80 percent of fish products used for feed and fertil- izer. Of the 15 percent of its owncatch Japan used in this secondary cate- gory, only 10 percent was exported. Aware of problems haunting its fishing industry, such as depletion of resources, marine environmental degradation, aging fish industry pop- ulation, and commercial challenges to the small-scaleoperators constitut- ing the bulk of the Japanese fishing enterprises, Japan passed the Fishery Master Plan of March, 2007. The plan envisioned promotion ofresource re- covery and sustainable management of marine resources, global competi- tiveness of the Japanese fishing industry, and support for fishing villages and their infrastructure. Lumber Even though 66 percent of Japan is covered by forests for a total of about 250 million square kilometers, the importance of lumber as a natural resource has de- clined significantly. Key reasons have been the diffi- culty of accessing much of the forested terrain; the use of forests to conserve headwater and prevent soil runoff; the implementation of strict and growing environmental protection; and an underdeveloped, mostly part-time and small-scale lumber industry. While the total forested area of Japan remained re- markably constant between 1980 and 2010, its use as a source of lumber shifted considerably. Protected for- est area rose steadily from 80,000 square kilometersin 1985 to 113,000 square kilometers in 2005. This was done primarily to increase the area used for headwa- ter conservation and soil runoff prevention, which are serious environmental problems in Japan that in- terfere with the use of forests as lumber sources. Mas - sive reforestation, orartificial forest regeneration,was undertaken in the 1980’s, peaking with the planting 652 • Japan Global Resources Hirotaka Akamatsu (left), Japan’s farm and fisheries minister, visits the Tsukiji fish market in Tokyo. The fishing industry is an important part of the Japanese economy. (AP/Wide World Photos) of 1,600 square kilometers in 1980; this number de - creased to 284 squarekilometersby2004,astheplan’s goals were within sight. As a result, by 2000, nearly 80 percent of the then existing, once heavily harvested needle-leaved tree forests of Japan were the result of reforestation, compared to 98 percent of broad-leaved trees still growing in natural forests. Production of logs fell by approximately one-half from 33 million cubic meters in 1985 to 16 million cubic meters in 2005. Correspondingly, the final an- nual cutting area for lumber in Japan fell from 2,900 square kilometers in 1985 to just 295 square kilome- ters in 2004. Nevertheless, this indicated a more effi- cient yield of lumber per harvested area. In 2004, the majority of logs came from the soft- wood needle-leaved trees of Japanese cedar, yielding 7.5 million cubic meters; Japanese cypress, yielding 2 million cubic meters; and Japanese larch, white fir, and Yezo spruce, accounting for a combined yield of 2.7 million cubic meters. The once heavily harvested Japanese red and black pines accounted for only 800,000 cubic meters, down from 3.8 million cubic meters in 1985. Hardwood from a variety of broad- leaved trees yielded 2.5 million cubic meters, or 16 percent of the total log yield of 15.6 million cubic me- ters for 2004. Of this lumber, the vast majority, 11.6 million cubic meters, was used for saw logs, with just 3.7 million cubic meters turned into wood chips and a negligible 860,000 cubic meters used for veneer sheets and plywood. This reflected the trend toward high-end products by the Japanese lumber industry. Given the declining and limited domestic yields of lumber, Japan imported lumber in great quantities, making up for the domestic limits of this much-used natural resource. In 2006, Japan produced forestry products worth about$1.8 billion, while importing for- estry products worth about $12 billion and exporting forestry products of about $77 million. Clearly, Japan was a large net importer of lumber, with its domestic production falling far behind its domestic demand. Limestone In the early twenty-first century, Japan was one of the world’s leading producers of limestone, an industrial commodity essential for the construction industry. Limestone’s key ingredient is the mineral calcite, chemically defined as calcium carbonate, CaCO 3 .As the calcite in limestone comes primarily from calci - fied marine organisms, Japan benefits from its island nature, leading to rich calcite deposits. In 2006, Japan’s limestone production was 166.6 million metric tons. Almost all of Japan’s limestone was used domestically, accounting for 157.2 million metric tons. Of this amount, Japanese industries used 42 percent for cement manufacturing, 22 percent for concrete aggregate, 15 percent in iron and steel man- ufacturing, 5 percent for road construction, and 7 percent for soda and glassmanufacturing,with the re- maining 15 percent accounting for all other uses. Unlike the situation with other natural resources in Japan, because of the high volume of limestone production, there were eight industrial-size compa- nies involved by 2006. That year the leading Japanese limestone producer was Taiheiyo Cement Company Limited. With 41.7 million metric tons of limestone extracted per year, Taiheiyo Cement produces about one-quarter of Japan’s limestone, operating in seven prefectures on all four main islands of the nation. Japan’s substantial limestone production gave the country a rare self-sufficiency for a natural resource by 2009. Japan’s proven exploitable reserves of 36.6 billion metric tons of limestone meant that its self- sufficiency for this natural resource would remain in- tact for the foreseeable future. Silica sand and stone By 2006, Japan was one of the key producers of silica sand and stone in Asia and along the western Pacific rim. Chemically definedassilicondioxide, or SiO 2 , sil- ica has been abundantly mined and quarried in Ja- pan. From 2002 to 2006, the annual yield of silica sand was about 5.8 million metric tons. In the same years, silica stone and quartzite was produced in a quantity ranging from 12.8 to 12.9 million metric tons each year. Silica was the second most important of Japan’s industrial minerals. With its high domestic production, Japan was able to cover all its domestic demand for silica sand. In 2006, 25 percent of Japan’ssilicasandwenttowarddo- mestic soda and glass manufacturing. Thirteen per- cent was used for casting and refractories, 9 percent for concrete aggregate, 2 percent for iron and steel manufacturing, and the remaining 50 percent for do- mestic cement manufacturing, road construction, and other, often highly specialized uses. By 2006, Japan had exploitable resources of about 73.6 million metric tons of silica sand and some 462 million metric tons of white silica stone. There would be no shortage of this industrial mineral resource in the foreseeable future in Japan. Global Resources Japan • 653 Gold Japan once was self-sufficient in supplying gold for its industrial, craft, and monetary demands. However, by 2006, Japan’s gold mining industry had shrunk to just one gold mine, down from fifteen major mines in 1986. The reason for this decline was primarily a de- pletion of ore reserves in old mines and the high cost of domestic gold mining and exploration compared to cheaper imports ofgoldingotsand gold powder for refining in Japan. Thus, in 2006, all of Japan’s gold mining took place at the Hishikari Mine of Sumitomo Metal Mining Company, located in Kagoshima Prefecture at the southern tip of Japan’s southernmost main island of Kynshn. There, a staff of 210 produced about 8,900 ki- lograms of gold each year. Japan used about 200,000 kilograms of gold in 2006, one-half of it forelectrical, electronic, and com- munication applications. This meant that domestic gold mining provided only 5 percent of the gold re- sources needed to fulfillthisannual demand, with the rest having to be imported, either as ingots or as gold ore powder; almost one-half of it comes from Austra- lia. Even thoughJapanstillhad exploitable reserves of gold ore, with an estimated pure gold content of 159,000 kilograms, extracting these reserves was con- sidered more costly than importing gold ore. To facili- tate gold imports, Japanese companies also formed joint ventures at foreign gold mines, securing supply of the resource. Other Resources Surprisingly for a major industrialized nation, Japan has very limited natural resources in general and even less indigenous mineral resources. Most of those other resources the country possesses are industrial miner- als such as feldspar and related materials, iodine, and pyrophyllite, which is a talc-related material. Cor- respondingly, the mining sector contributed only a minuscule 0.11 percent to Japan’s gross domestic product in 2005. Indicative of the decline of Japan’s metal mining industry was the March, 2006, closing of the Toyoha Mine on the northern main island of Hokkaidf. Until its closing for ore depletion, the Toyoha Mine was the primary source for Japan’s lead, zinc, and silver. Even though small deposits of these resources re- main, their extraction in Japan is considered cost pro- hibitive, as imports are much cheaper. As a result of its own resource poverty, Japan was one of the largest importers of minerals and interme- diate mineral products, including crude oil, to sus- tain its impressive chemical, ferrous, and nonferrous metals-manufacturing and power-generating indus- tries. Securing thenatural resources the country needs for its advanced manufacturing base and satisfying the changing food demands of its population re- mained key concerns of Japanese natural resource policies. Japanese agriculture, limited to about 15 percent of the country’s land because of the general hostility of the terrain, is of remarkable intensity and obtains one of the highest yields from the soil in the world. Nevertheless, together with a shift from rice and vege- tables toward a more meat-oriented national diet, Ja- pan became a heavy importer of foodstuffs beginning in the final decades of the twentieth century. R. C. Lutz Further Reading Bunker, Stephen G., and Paul S. Ciccantell. East Asia and the Global Economy: Japan’s Ascent, with Implica- tions for China’s Future. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. Cruz, Wilfrido, et al., eds. Protecting the Global Environ- ment: Initiatives by Japanese Business. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2002. Flath, David. The Japanese Economy. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Pyle, Kenneth B. Japan Rising: The Resurgence of Japa- nese Power and Purpose. New York: Public Affairs, 2007. Samuels, Richard J. Securing Japan: Tokyo’s Grand Strat- egy and the Future of East Asia. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2007. See also: Fisheries; Limestone; Oceans; Rice; Timber industry. 654 • Japan Global Resources K Kaiser, Henry J. Category: People Born: May 9, 1882; Sprout Brook, New York Died: August 24, 1967; Honolulu, Hawaii Henry J. Kaiser was an engineer involved in building roads, dams, bridges, ships, and even cars. He worked in the United States, Canada, and Cuba. The infra- structure he built was to improve the lives of people over many years. Biographical Background The early careerofHenry John Kaiser did not give any indication of the achievements to come. Kaiser had virtually no formal education and worked early in his career in the dry goods, photography, and hardware businesses. By 1914, putting early business failures be- hind him and in an attempt to prove himself to win a bride, he moved to BritishColumbia,Canada, and be- gan a company that paved roads. This work continued into the early 1930’s. During this time, as business waxed and waned in British Columbia and Washing- ton State, Kaiser completed a number of jobs outside the United States, including a series of roads and dams in Cuba. He also moved his business slowly south out of Canada, taking jobs in Washington, Ore- gon, and California before settling his business in Oakland, California. Kaiser shifted his business em- phasis to dams and bridges. He contributed to a num- ber of bridges in the San Francisco Bay Area as well as dams at Hoover, Bonneville, and Grand Coulee. With the outbreak of World War II, Kaiser shifted again, this time to building ships. After the war and a short period in the automobile and aviation busi- nesses, Kaiser moved to the then U.S. territory of Ha- waii, where he remained until his death. Impact on Resource Use Kaiser was an individual who, throughout his profes- sional life, was in the business of making resources available to people. The roads his company built in the northwestern United States and British Columbia gave access to vast resources of timber and minerals in these areas. The dams he worked on at Hoover, Bonneville, and Grand Coulee gave hydroelectric power to large areas of the western UnitedStates. The flood control and irrigation from these dams also made the resources available. As Kaiser moved from roads and dams to bridges, ships, and cars, he was con- tinuing to develop systems that allowed goods, peo- ple, and resources to move. Even when building piers in San Francisco Bay, he was facilitating the move- ment of resources through trade. One of thestatementsconsistentlymadeabout Kai- ser was that, whether he was working with tar, con- crete, steel, or aluminum, he always found the most efficient method of completing a project. He never depended on human strength to complete a task that a machine, vehicle, or processor could complete. This approach allowed his companies to bid successfully on many jobs, even when few workers were available. Over the years, Kaiser’s treatment of his workers was outstanding; he provided them with health care, transportation, housing, and day care for their chil- dren. The crown jewel of the Kaiser empire was a pre- paid health care system, Kaiser Permanente, which was one of the earliest and grew into oneof the best of the managed health care systems. Robert J. Stewart See also: Health, resource exploitation and; Hy- droenergy; Timber industry; Transportation, energy use in. Kazakhstan Categories: Countries; government and resources Kazakhstan, with a modest population and relatively undiversified industrial sector, is an important con- tributor to global resources because of its supply of raw materials, not because it is an important market. The Country Kazakhstan, formerly a republic of the Soviet Union, is located in central Asia, positioned just south of Rus - sia between the Caspian Sea and China. In 2007, in terms of total economic output, Kazakhstan’s econ - omy ranked fifty-fifth in the world, below Peru and above Morocco. Though Kazakhstan does not have a large population relative to its land size and is not considered a military or industrial power, it remains important to the world economy because of its im- pressive endowment ofa diverse and abundant mix of raw-material natural resources. In fact, each of the naturally occurring elements intheperiodictablecan be found in Kazakhstan. The ninth largest country in the world in terms of area, Kazakhstan exhibits a wide climatic and physiographic variability. Its dispa- rate climatic and landform regions include the Cas- pian Sea and surrounding deserts in the west; the vast arid and semiarid steppe, extending through central portions of the country; and the mountainous peaks and glaciers in the Alti Mountains of the northeast, the Tian Shan in the east, and the Ala Tau in the southeast. The enormous size of the country and the landform variation within conspire to improve natu- ral resource potential, and Kazakhstan has become a world leader in production and reserves of many im- portant energy and mineral resources. While most current press accounts focus on Kazakhstan’ssubstan- tial oil and natural gas deposits, the country ranks in the top ten among countries in the production or re- serves of at least thirteen different mineral resources, including chromium, uranium, zinc, coal, magne- sium, cadmium, lead, titanium, iron ore, molybde- num, sulfur, silicon, and bauxite. Petroleum The extraction of crude oil and the revenue gener- ated by its exportation form the dominant sector of Kazakhstan’s economy. Oil production accounts for 30 percent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and 53 percent of export revenue. Revenue generated from the export of oil (combined withrela- tively successful privatization and economic reform efforts) contributed greatly to high rates of economic growth in the first decade of the twenty-first century, particularly during periods of high oil prices. The im- pact of Kazakhstan’s oil resources on the global econ- omy is substantial and is expected to increase for de- cades. In 2007, Kazakhstan produced approximately 1.45 million barrels of oil per day (1.7 percent of the world total), ranking it nineteenth in the world between the United Kingdom and Qatar. Of this total, 1,236,000 barrels per day are exported, ranking Kazakhstan seventeenth in the world, between Singa - pore and Angola, in oil exports. While current pro - duction and export totals are significant, Kazakh- stan’s primary influence on the global economy may revolve around its expected production in the future. In terms of proved reserves (those deposits that can be recovered given current technological and market conditions) Kazakhstan is estimated to be home to 30 billion barrels of oil (2.2 percent of world total). This quantity places Kazakhstan eleventh among countries globally, between Nigeria and the United States. Ka- zakhstan’s strategic importance in this regard (partic- ularly for the United States) stems from its location outside the volatile Middle East. Kazakhstan’s economy is influenced by oil in many areas other than GDP and high rates of economic growth. It is a stimulant for foreign direct investment, a major source of employment and income, a source of revenue for publicservices, and areason for the vis- ible boom in urban office and residential building construction. The National Oil Fund of Kazakhstan (valued at more than $20 billion) is designed to insu- late the economy from such sharp drops in crude oil prices as were experienced between summer, 2008, and winter, 2009 ($145 per barrel to $36 per barrel). While oil is an obvious assetto Kazakhstan’s economy, its impacts have not beenentirely positive. Such draw- backs include high levels of perceived corruption, high rates of inflation (around 18 percent), and pos- sible Dutch disease-style diversion of economic re- sources from the manufacturing sector. (Dutch dis- ease is an economic concept designed to relate the exploitation of natural resources to a decline in the manufacturing sector combined with moral decay.) Initial global exuberance over Kazakhstan’s oil re- serves seems to have been tempered somewhat by un- foreseen challenges, best exemplified by the experi- ence with the large Kashagan oil field. This oil field, located deep below the northern Caspian Sea, is the world’s largest oil field outside the Middle East and the fifth largest deposit in the world. Extraction of oil from the Kashagan field was first planned to begin in 2005, though production was delayed until at least 2014. Difficulties confronting the consortium of six foreign oil companies and Kazakhstan’s national oil company include the deposit’s high sulfur content and extreme geological pressure, heightened extrac- tion challenges faced by the harsh physical environ- ment, and the Kazakhstan government’s levying of high tax rates and insistence on renegotiating con - tracts with foreign firms. Despite such difficulties, 656 • Kazakhstan Global Resources Global Resources Kazakhstan • 657 Kazakhstan: Resources at a Glance Official name: Republic of Kazakhstan Government: Republic under authoritarian presidential rule Capital city: Astana Area: 1,052,166 mi 2 ; 2,724,900 km 2 Population (2009 est.): 15,399,437 Languages: Kazakh and Russian Monetary unit: tenge (KZT) Economic summary: GDP composition by sector (2008 est.): agriculture, 5.3%; industry, 40.9%; services, 53.8% Natural resources: major deposits of petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, manganese, chrome ore, nickel, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, lead, zinc, bauxite, gold, uranium Land use (2005): arable land, 8.28%; permanent crops, 0.05%; other, 91.67% Industries: oil, coal, iron ore, manganese, chromite, lead, zinc, copper, titanium, bauxite, gold, silver, phosphates, sulfur, iron and steel, tractors and other agricultural machinery, electric motors, construction materials Agricultural products: grain (mostly spring wheat), cotton, livestock Exports (2008 est.): $71.97 billion Commodities exported (2001): oil and oil products 59%, ferrous metals 19%, chemicals 5%, machinery 3%, grain, wool, meat, coal Imports (2008 est.): $38.45 billion Commodities imported: machinery and equipment, metal products, foodstuffs Labor force (2008 est.): 8.412 million Labor force by occupation (2006): agriculture, 31.5%; industry, 18.4%; services, 50% Energy resources: Electricity production (2007 est.): 74.93 billion kWh Electricity consumption (2006 est.): 61.81 billion kWh Electricity exports (2007 est.): 3.528 billion kWh Electricity imports (2007 est.): 3.665 billion kWh Natural gas production (2007 est.): 27.88 billion m 3 Natural gas consumption (2007 est.): 30.58 billion m 3 Natural gas exports (2007 est.): 8.1 billion m 3 Natural gas imports (2007 est.): 10.8 billion m 3 Natural gas proved reserves (Jan. 2008 est.): 2.832 trillion m 3 Oil production (2007 est.): 1.445 million bbl/day Oil imports (2005): 127,600 bbl/day Oil proved reserves (Jan. 2008 est.): 30 billion bbl Source: Data from The World Factbook 2009. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. Notes: Data are the most recent tracked by the CIA. Values are given in U.S. dollars. Abbreviations: bbl/day = barrels per day; GDP = gross domestic product; km 2 = square kilometers; kWh = kilowatt-hours; m 3 = cubic meters; mi 2 = square miles. Astana Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Russia China Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Aral Sea Caspian Sea . Established 1922 Members of the Izaak Walton League of America pledge to strive for the purity of water, the clarity of air, and the wise stewardship of the land and its resources. They seek to. over - estimating domesticfishhaul.However, the primetar - 650 • Japan Global Resources Global Resources Japan • 651 Japan: Resources at a Glance Official name: Japan Government: Parliamentary government. of the Japanese fishing enterprises, Japan passed the Fishery Master Plan of March, 2007. The plan envisioned promotion ofresource re- covery and sustainable management of marine resources, global