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6 THE TELEVISION TRANSMITTER 6.1 INTRODUCTION The transmission of video images depends on a scanning device that can break up the image into a grid and measure the brightness of each element of the grid. This information can be sent serially or in parallel to a distant point and used to reproduce the image. It is evident that the smaller the size of the grid element, the better the definition of the image. One of the simplest devices which can measure the brightness of light is the phototube. It consists of a cathode which is coated with a material which gives off electrons when light is shone on it and an anode which can collect the emitted electrons when a suitable voltage is applied to it. The cathode and anode are enclosed in an evacuated glass envelope. The number of electrons emitted by the cathode is proportional to the intensity of the light impinging on it. Assuming complete collection of the electrons, the current in the resistor R shown in Figure 6.1 will be proportional to the light intensity and so will the voltage across R. A primitive video signal can be generated by using a 3  3 matrix made up of phototubes as shown in Figure 6.2. For simplicity we assume that the tree is black and its background is white. A suitable lens focuses the image of the tree onto the matrix of phototubes. It is clear that the voltage output from phototubes (1,1), (1,3), (3,1) and (3,3) will be high; all others will be low. The voltages so obtained can be transmitted and used to control the brightness of a corresponding 3  3 matrix of lights at a distant point giving a vague idea of what the tree looks like! The picture detail can be improved by increasing the number of elements in the matrix so that each element corresponds to the smallest area possible. The assumption of a black tree on a white background is no longer necessary since, with increasing detail, different shades of grey can be accommodated. The information may be sent along individual wires linking the phototube to the light matrix (parallel transmission) but this would be very expensive and impractical 161 Telecommunication Circuit Design, Second Edition. Patrick D. van der Puije Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBNs: 0-471-41542-1 (Hardback); 0-471-22153-8 (Electronic) for any system other than the simple one described here. A better system would be one in which the voltage from each phototube is scanned in some given order and the voltage and position of each phototube are sent on a single wire to the receiving end for reconstruction (serial transmission). The price to be paid for reducing the number of wires is the increased complexity introduced by the scanner and a system for coding and decoding the voltage and position information at the transmitter and receiver, respectively. 6.2 SYSTEM DESIGN Figure 6.3 shows the basic components of a television transmitter. A system of lenses focus the image onto a camera tube which collects and codes the information about the brightness and position of each element of the matrix forming the picture by scanning the matrix. A pulse generator supplies pulses to the camera to control the scanning process. The output from the camera goes to a video amplifier for amplification and the addition of extra pulses to be used at the receiver for decoding purposes. Figure 6.2. Generation of a primitive video signal using a 3  3 matrix of phototubes. Figure 6.1. The phototube with its added circuitry to convert light intensity to voltage. 162 THE TELEVISION TRANSMITTER A microphone picks up the sound associated with the picture and after amplification the signal is fed to the audio terminal of a frequency modulator. The carrier signal supplied to the modulator is a 4.5 MHz signal, generated by a crystal- controlled oscillator at a lower frequency and multiplied by an appropriate factor. The FM signal carrying the audio information is added to the video signal. The output of the video amplifier consisting of the video signal, receiver control pulses, and the frequency modulated signal is fed to the amplitude modulator. The carrier of the amplitude modulator is supplied by a second crystal oscillator and associated multiplier which produce a signal of frequency which lies within the band 54– 88 MHz (VHF). The radiofrequency power amplifier boosts the power to the legally determined value and the vestigial sideband filter removes most of the lower sideband signal before it goes to the antenna for radiation. 6.3 COMPONENT DESIGN 6.3.1 Camera Tube 6.3.1.1 Iconoscope. The first practical video camera tube invented by the American scientist Vladimir Zworykin [4,5] is best viewed as a progression from the primitive phototube arrangement discussed earlier. In Zworykin’s iconoscope he Figure 6.3. A block diagram of the television transmitter. 6.3 COMPONENT DESIGN 163 replaced the matrix of phototubes with what he called the mosaic. This was made up of a very large number of droplets of photosensitive material on one side of a sheet of mica. The other side of the mica sheet was covered with a very thin layer of graphite – the signal plate. A cross-section of the iconoscope is shown in Figure 6.4. The mosaic and the signal plate constitute a large number of tiny capacitors which share one common plate. When the image is projected onto the mosaic, each individual droplet of photosensitive material emits electrons proportional to the light intensity. These electrons are collected by an anode placed close to the mosaic. The mosaic is now a picture ‘‘painted with electric charge’’. The transformation of the charge into a voltage output is carried out by the electron gun and the associated circuitry. The electron gun produces a very narrow beam of electrons focussed on the mosaic. The arrival of these new electrons have the effect of ‘‘discharging’’ the tiny capacitor on which they fall. Since the number of electrons required to discharge the capacitor is proportional to the charge induced by the light intensity, the electron gun current is a function of the charge present and hence of the light intensity. The electron gun current is then proportional to the voltage which appears across the resistor R. In order to transform the picture into a video signal, it is necessary to make the beam of electrons sweep across the mosaic in a series of orderly lines. The electron gun has two deflection systems for scanning the picture. The first moves the electron beam at a constant speed along a horizontal straight line and returns it very quickly to the start ready for the next sweep (horizontal trace). The second system controls Figure 6.4. A cross-sectional view of the iconoscope. The two parts of the anode are cylinders formed on the inner wall of the tube and neck. Reprinted with permission from H. Pender and K. McIlwain (Eds) Electrical Engineers Handbook, 4th Ed., Wiley, 1967, pp. 15–21. 164 THE TELEVISION TRANSMITTER the vertical position of the beam and ensures that each line is swept before returning the beam to the top of the picture ready for the next frame (vertical trace). Two major disadvantages of the iconoscope are the high light intensity required to obtain acceptable quality images and the production of secondary electrons from the photosensitive material during the scanning process. The secondary electrons cause noise (false information) in the video signal. In due course, the iconoscope was replaced by the image orthicon, another invention of Zworykin. 6.3.1.2 The Image Orthicon. In the image orthicon [6] the two functions of the mosaic in the iconoscope, which are (a) the production of the image in terms of charge and (b) the target for the electron beam scan, are separated. Figure 6.5 shows a cross-section through the image orthicon. The camera lens focusses the image onto the photocathode. Every small segment of the photocathode emits electrons proportional to the amount of light falling on it. The electrons are attracted to the target by the positive voltage applied to it. The focus coil creates a magnetic field which ensures that the electrons travel to the target in straight parallel paths. The target is a very thin sheet of glass which has a high conductivity through its thickness but low conductivity across points on its surface. The electrons striking the target dislodge secondary electrons from the photocathode side of it and are immediately captured by the very fine wire mesh, called the target screen, which has a relatively low positive voltage on it. This leaves a positive charge on the photocathode side of the target. Due to the high conductivity through the thickness of the target an identical pattern of positive charge is produced on the other side of it. The electron gun positioned at the other end of the evacuated tube produces a narrow stream of electrons which are accelerated towards the target by the high positive voltage on the accelerator anode. The accelerator anode is a graphite coating on the inside of the neck of the tube. If the electrons were allowed to strike the target without any control of their speed, it is clear that they will produce secondary electrons. To control the speed of the electrons on arrival at the target, a second ring of graphite coating, called the decelerator grid, is provided. By adjusting the voltages on the accelerator anode and the decelerator grid, the speed of the electron stream at the target can be controlled to ensure that no secondary electrons are emitted. The electron stream striking an elemental area of the target uses up some of the electrons to neutralize the positive charge left there by the image. The remaining electrons are attracted in a backward direction by the accelerating anode but they take a different path. By placing an electron collector in the appropriate position in the neck of the tube, the returning electrons can be collected and amplified by an electron multiplier. The output of the electron multiplier is converted into a voltage inversely proportional to the amount of light impinging on the elemental area of the photocathode. By using a scanning system in conjunction with the electron gun (deflection coil), the complete image can be produced at the output in the form of a varying voltage which is a function of the brightness of all the elements of the image projected on the photocathode. 6.3 COMPONENT DESIGN 165 Figure 6.5. A cross-sectional view of the image orthicon. Reprinted with permission from V. K. Zworykin and G. Morton, Television, 2nd Ed., RCA, 1954, p. 367. 166 6.3.1.3 Vidicon. The vidicon is not as sensitive as the image orthicon but it is generally smaller in size and therefore well adapted to field applications such as surveillance, where high resolution is not critical. Its principle of operation is different from both the image orthicon and the earlier iconoscope since it relies on a change of photoconductivity as a function of light intensity. An electron scanning system is used to extract the video information. 6.3.2 Scanning System In Section 6.3.1, the role of the electron beam scanning system in the production of the video signal was discussed. A series of pulses are generated which control the initiation of the horizontal sweep of the electron beam across the target (horizontal trace) from the left-hand side to the right. A blanking pulse is used to cut off the beam while it is returned to the left-hand side ready for the next sweep (harmonic retrace). During this period, the vertical trace circuit moves the beam down just the right distance for the second line to be swept. When the whole frame has been scanned, a reset pulse returns the beam to the top left-hand corner ready to repeat the process. The beam is blanked during the reset. All the control pulses are added to the video signal and used at the receiver to synchronize the receiver to the transmitter. All the pulses are derived from the 60 Hz power supply or from a 31.5 kHz crystal controlled oscillator and divided down to the appropriate frequency. Black-and-white television in North America uses 525 horizontal lines of scan to cover the image. If the lines were scanned sequentially, the persistence of the phosphor on the first line would have faded before the last line would have been scanned. This would lead to an annoying flicker on the picture tube, especially at high levels of brightness. The scan is therefore interlaced, that is, all odd numbered lines are scanned first from 1 to 525 and then the beam is returned to line 2 and all even numbered lines are then scanned. So each frame has 525=2 lines and they are scanned 60 times per second. This means that there are 262:5 Â60 lines scanned per second. The horizontal scan therefore operates at 15.75 kHz. It must be pointed out that not all the 525 lines are used for picture production; some are used for vertical retrace and other controls as well as equalization and synchronizing purposes. The period for the horizontal scan is 63 ms and it is divided up into 56 ms for the trace and 7 ms for the retrace. The beam deflection system is therefore required to move the beam from the left of the picture to the right in 56 ms and return it in 7 ms. The mechanism for deflecting the electron beam relies on the fact that, when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a force mutually orthogonal to the field and the direction of the current. Motion will occur if the conductor is free to move. In the camera tube, the electron gun and its associated components produce a stream of electrons. Each of these electrons carries a charge and a moving charge is a current. The electron beam therefore experiences a force on it and, since it is free to move, it will be deflected from its original path. Figure 6.6(b) illustrates the situation. Consider the current in the conductor (the electron beam) to be flowing into the plane of the page. The ‘‘right-hand rule’’ gives the direction of the magnetic flux B i 6.3 COMPONENT DESIGN 167 associated with the current in the conductor as concentric circles in a clockwise direction. Assuming the conductor is placed in a magnetic flux B f which is in the vertical upward direction, the two fluxes will interact to produce the distorted field shown in Figure 6.6(b). The flux on the left of the conductor is strengthened while that on the right is weakened; the conductor therefore moves to the right. When trying to determine the direction of electron deflection, it is necessary to remember that electron flow is opposite to current flow. The deflection of the electron beam therefore depends on designing a circuit to supply the appropriate current to the horizontal deflection coil so that it produces a magnetic field which is a linear ramp with respect to time. The vertical deflection system also has to be supplied with a current which produces a linear ramp magnetic field and its operation has to be synchronized to the horizontal trace so that it repeats the process after 262.5 cycles. The video signal, the control pulses, and the output of the FM modulator are combined in the video amplifier. A typical composite video signal is shown in Figure 6.7. Note the following: (1) Only horizontal synchronizing pulses are shown ($5 ms); vertical synchro- nization pulses ($190 ms) are distinguished from the horizontal ones by the difference in their width. (2) The blanking pulse starts before and ends after the horizontal synchronization pulse. (3) The video signal contains the radio-frequency carrier of 4.5 MHz frequency modulated by the audio signal. Figure 6.6. (a) The magnetic field, B i due to a current, i flowing perpendicular to the page superimposed on a uniform magnetic field, B f , with no interaction. (b) The combined effect of the two magnetic fields generates a force mutually at right angles to the conductor and magnetic field. 168 THE TELEVISION TRANSMITTER The spectrum of the composite signal at the output of the video amplifier is shown in Figure 6.8. 6.3.3 Audio Frequency and FM Circuits Various audio frequency amplifiers were discussed in Section 2.7. The design of the crystal oscillator was discussed in Section 2.4.7 and the frequency multiplier in Section 2.5. Design details for the FM modulator can be found in Section 4.4. Figure 6.8. The spectrum of the composite video showing the FM carrier used for the transmission of the audio signal. Figure 6.7. A typical composite video signal with blanking and horizontal synchronization pulses. 6.3 COMPONENT DESIGN 169 6.3.4 Video Amplifier 6.3.4.1 Calculation of Bandwidth. Ideally, a video signal consists of frequen- cies from zero (dc) to some high frequency. The dc response is required when large areas of black, white or other intermediate shades have to be transmitted. The limit of the high-frequency response is determined by the resolution required for a single vertical black line on a white background or vice versa. The minimum visible horizontal line has a height (width) equal to the width of the horizontal trace. To keep the same resolution for the horizontal as for the vertical line, the video signal must go from white to black in 56=525 ms ¼ 0:11 ms: The lowest frequency that can change from peak positive to peak negative is a sinusoid as depicted in Figure 6.9. Note that the period of the sinusoid is 2  0:11 ms or 0.22 ms. It has been determined from psychological experiments that a picture that has a ratio of horizontal-to-vertical dimension less than 4 : 3 is not pleasing to look at. This ratio has been adopted as standard for all video equipment. It is referred to as the aspect ratio. Taking the aspect ratio into account, one cycle of the sinusoid shown in Figure 6.9 must take 0:22  3=4 ms, (i.e., the period T ¼ 0:16 ms). The lowest frequency that must be present in the video signal for it to be able to reproduce the vertical black line on a white background with the same resolution as a horizontal black line on a white background is given by f ¼ 1 T ¼ 6:25 MHz: ð6:3:1Þ This means that all the video circuits in the system must have bandwidths equal to or greater than 6.25 MHz. Note that the bandwidths of the sub-circuits must be greater than 6.25 MHz because cascading reduces the system bandwidth compared to that of the individual sub-circuit. Figure 6.9. The sine wave shown represents the highest frequency required to follow the transition from black to white level in 0.11 ms. 170 THE TELEVISION TRANSMITTER [...]... gain–frequency response when a1 ¼ b1 and a2 ¼ b2 and so on Equating the coefficients of ðo=o2 Þ2 in Equation (6.3.21) gives pffiffiffi q ¼ Æ 2 À 1 ¼ 0:414 or À 2:414: ð6:3:22Þ 176 THE TELEVISION TRANSMITTER Figure 6.17 The frequency response of the amplifier for various values of q The negative value has no physical meaning and it is neglected Substituting into Equation (6.3.19), we get q ¼ 0:414 ¼ L L ¼ 4Lcrit... broadcasting television signals, several arrangements of antenna arrays can be Figure 6.21 The spectrum of the video signal after amplitude modulation and vestigial sideband filtering Note that the AM carrier signal occupies the zero frequency position after modulation 180 THE TELEVISION TRANSMITTER used The most popular is the turnstile array The basic principle is that, when two or more radiating elements... stage provides the required voltage gain and the second provides a current gain with a low output impedance Design such a circuit and estimate its bandwidth using the hybrid-p model given in Figure P6. 1 Figure P6. 1 Calculate the value of an inductor that, when connected in series with the collector load of the voltage–gain stage, will optimize the bandwidth of the amplifier ... ½Cgs þ ð1 À Vo ÞC Š: Vgs gd ð6:3:4Þ Figure 6.11 A simplified equivalent circuit of the FET with rd and Cds excluded 172 THE TELEVISION TRANSMITTER Now I1 ) I2, therefore Vo ¼ Àgm Vgs RL : ð6:3:5Þ Substituting into Equation (6.1.4), I3 ¼ joVgs ½Cgs þ ð1 þ gm RL ÞCgd Š Vgs 1 : ¼ jo½Cgs þ ð1 þ gm RL ÞCgd Š I3 ð6:3:6Þ ð6:3:7Þ The FET can now be the represented by the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 6.12... inductance which, when connected in series with RD , will extend the À3 dB cut-off frequency as high as possible while keeping the gain response flat Calculate the new cut-off frequency Solution Neglecting all capacitance effects, the equivalent circuit of the amplifier is shown in Figure 6.19, where Vo ¼ Àgm Vgs RD ð6:3:26Þ Vo ¼ Àgm RD ¼ 15: Vgs ð6:3:27Þ RD ¼ 15 ¼ 3750 O: 0:004 ð6:3:28Þ A¼ Vo R % D... Cg RD To a first approximation, the time-constant Cg RD determines the high-frequency response of the amplifier The À3 dB frequency is o2 % 1 : RD Cg ð6:3:9Þ The bandwidth o2 can be increased by connecting an inductance in series with the drain resistance RD as shown in Figure 6.14 The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 6.15 The load is ZL ¼ 1 ðRD þ sLÞÀ1 þ sCg ð6:3:10Þ Figure 6.15 A simplified equivalent... 1953, a scheme proposed by the National Television System Committee (NTSC) was accepted by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and it has since been adopted as a standard by television broadcasting authorities in many Figure 6.23 The relative sensitivity of the human eye to the wavelength of light 182 THE TELEVISION TRANSMITTER countries The NTSC scheme separates the signal into chrominance... color subcarrier Further advantage can be taken of the greater sensitivity of the human eye to green-yellow light by de-emphasizing the green-yellow component by using a smaller bandwidth for transmitting that part of the spectrum This is called the Q signal The blues and the reds, to which the human eye is less sensitive, are given a relatively larger bandwidth This is called the I signal The comparative... gain at high frequency, thereby increasing the bandwidth The shape of the gain response can be controlled by varying the Q factor of the circuit Let q¼ o2 L L L ¼ 2 ¼ : RD RD Cg 4Lcrit ð6:3:19Þ Substituting q and s ¼ jo into Equation (6.1.14) gives vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  2 u u o u 1 þ q2 u o2 u jAj ¼ A u  2  4 : t o o 2 1 þ ð1 À 2qÞ þq o2 o2 ð6:3:20Þ The . the electrons on arrival at the target, a second ring of graphite coating, called the decelerator grid, is provided. By adjusting the voltages on the accelerator anode and the decelerator grid,. iconoscope is shown in Figure 6.4. The mosaic and the signal plate constitute a large number of tiny capacitors which share one common plate. When the image is projected onto the mosaic, each individual. focussed on the mosaic. The arrival of these new electrons have the effect of ‘‘discharging’’ the tiny capacitor on which they fall. Since the number of electrons required to discharge the capacitor