GEOCHEMISTRY – EARTH'S SYSTEM PROCESSES Edited by Dionisios Panagiotaras Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes Edited by Dionisios Panagiotaras Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Mia Macek Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published April, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechopen.com Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes, Edited by Dionisios Panagiotaras p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0586-2 Contents Preface IX Chapter 1 Geochemical and Sedimentation History of Neogene Lacustrine Sediments from the Valjevo-Mionica Basin (Serbia) 1 Aleksandra Šajnović, Ksenija Stojanović, Vladimir Simić and Branimir Jovančićević Chapter 2 Arsenic Geochemistry in Groundwater System 27 Dionisios Panagiotaras, George Panagopoulos, Dimitrios Papoulis and Pavlos Avramidis Chapter 3 Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Alteration in Volcanic Rocks 39 Silvina Marfil and Pedro Maiza Chapter 4 Estimated Background Values of Some Harmful Metals in Stream Sediments of Santiago Island (Cape Verde) 61 Marina M. S. Cabral Pinto, Eduardo A. Ferreira da Silva, Maria M. V. G. Silva and Paulo Melo-Gonçalves Chapter 5 The Relevance of Geochemical Tools to Monitor Deep Geological CO 2 Storage Sites 81 Jeandel Elodie and Sarda Philippe Chapter 6 Sm-Nd and Lu-Hf Isotope Geochemistry of the Himalayan High- and Ultrahigh-Pressure Eclogites, Kaghan Valley, Pakistan 105 Hafiz Ur Rehman, Katsura Kobayashi, Tatsuki Tsujimori, Tsutomu Ota, Eizo Nakamura, Hiroshi Yamamoto, Yoshiyuki Kaneko and Tahseenullah Khan Chapter 7 Geochemistry and Metallogenic Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 127 Yong Xia, Wenchao Su, Xingchun Zhang and Janzhong Liu VI Contents Chapter 8 Behaviors of Mantle Fluid During Mineralizing Processes 157 Liu Xianfan, Li Chunhui, Zhao Fufeng, Tao Zhuan, Lu Qiuxia and Song Xiangfeng Chapter 9 Trace Metals in Shallow Marine Sediments from the Ría de Vigo: Sources, Pollution, Speciation and Early Diagenesis 185 Paula Álvarez-Iglesias and Belén Rubio Chapter 10 Organic Facies: Palynofacies and Organic Geochemistry Approaches 211 João Graciano Mendonça Filho, Taíssa Rêgo Menezes, Joalice de Oliveira Mendonça, Antonio Donizeti de Oliveira, Tais Freitas da Silva, Noelia Franco Rondon and Frederico Sobrinho da Silva Chapter 11 The Genesis of the Mississippi Valley-Type Fluorite Ore at Jebel Stah (Zaghouan District, North-Eastern Tunisia) Constrained by Thermal and Chemical Properties of Fluids and REE and Sr Isotope Geochemistry 249 Fouad Souissi, Radhia Souissi and Jean-Louis Dandurand Chapter 12 Potential and Geochemical Characteristics of Geothermal Resources in Eastern Macedonia 291 Orce Spasovski Chapter 13 Using a Multi-Scale Geostatistical Method for the Source Identification of Heavy Metals in Soils 323 Nikos Nanos and José Antonio Rodríguez Martín Chapter 14 Environmental Impact and Drainage Geochemistry of the Abandoned Keban Ag, Pb, Zn Deposit, Working Maden Cu Deposit and Alpine Type Cr Deposit in the Eastern Anatolia, Turkey 347 Leyla Kalender Chapter 15 Application of Nondestructive X-Ray Fluorescence Method (XRF) in Soils, Friable and Marine Sediments and Ecological Materials 371 Tatyana Gunicheva Chapter 16 Lanthanides in Soils: X-Ray Determination, Spread in Background and Contaminated Soils in Russia 389 Yu. N. Vodyanitskii and A. T. Savichev Chapter 17 Cu, Pb and Zn Fractionation in a Savannah Type Grassland Soil 413 B. Anjan Kumar Prusty, Rachna Chandra and P. A. Azeez Contents VII Chapter 18 Characteristics of Baseline and Analysis of Pollution on the Heavy Metals in Surficial Soil of Guiyang 429 Ji Wang and Yixiu Zhang Chapter 19 Evaluating the Effects of Radio-Frequency Treatment on Rock Samples: Implications for Rock Comminution 457 Arthur James Swart Chapter 20 Evolution of Calciocarbonatite Magma: Evidence from the Sövite and Alvikite Association in the Amba Dongar Complex, India 485 S. G. Viladkar Preface Geochemistry is the key to unlock the mysteries of planet Earth’s origin and evolution A better understanding of the fates and sources of chemical species can be reached through application of geochemistry. Geochemistry as a tool set is based on chemical rather than physical observations. Furthermore, it will assist us in explaining the functions of the natural environment. The Earth’s crust and the oceans constitute major geological systems and their mechanisms can accordingly be sufficiently explained via geochemistry. Geochemistry’s area of interest has extended beyond the Earth’s borders, coming to encompass the solar system in its entirety. In addition, it has made important contributions towards understanding a number of processes, including mantle convection, planets formation, as well as the origins of granite and basalt. Cosmochemistry, isotope geochemistry, biogeochemistry, organic geochemistry, aqueous geochemistry, environmental geochemistry, exploration geochemistry (also called geochemical prospecting) and sedimentary geochemistry constitute primary subsets within the discipline of geochemistry. The distribution of elements and their isotopes in the cosmos is the subject of cosmochemistry, while the study of the elements and their isotopes on the surface and within the Earth is the subject of isotope geochemistry. Furthermore, the effect of life on the Earth’s chemical components is the main focus area of bio-geochemistry. The effect of components deriving from living matter on Earth and the use of chemical indicators associated with life forms to trace human habitation, as well as plant and animal activity on Earth, is the focus for organic geochemists. Organic geochemistry plays a vital role in the understanding of paleoclimate, paleooceanography, primordial life and its evolution. The distribution and role of elements in watershed and the way in which elemental fluxes are exchanged via atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions is the subject of aqueous geochemistry. Determining how mineral and hydrological exploration and environmental issues affect the Earth is the focus area for environmental geochemists. Various geochemical principles are applied when efforts are made towards locating ore bodies, mineral fields, groundwater supplies and oil and gas deposits. These principles derive from exploration geochemistry. The interpretation of what is known from hard rock geochemistry regarding soil and other sediments, their erosion, deposition patterns and metamorphosis into rock, is the main aim of sedimentary geochemistry. Geochemistry constitutes a relatively recent development since its growth was initiated and supported by proof in the early 19 th century. Various issues and concerns in the areas of agriculture, environment, health and economics, related to the Earth’s chemistry, attracted the interest of researchers. In the past, Germany and France have been countries with extensive mining activities, but it was not until the work performed by James Hutton, the so-called "Father of Geology" (1726-1797), that they constituted the forefront of research for earth sciences. The French analytical chemistry laboratory (France Ècole des Mines) was established in 1838 in order to cover the needs of French mining activities. The Clean Freshwater Society published chemical analyses results on drinking water in 1825, while the American geology began to develop rapidly in the first half of the 19 th century. Lardner Vanuxem studied the chemical interaction between the atmosphere and the Earth’s crust in 1827. The concept of metamorphism was introduced by James Dana in 1843, while the amount of carbon stored in rocks from the air was estimated by Henry D. Rogers in 1844. It was in that very period that geochemical achievements caught the attention of wider social and research communities. The "first report of a geological reconnaissance of the northern countries of Arkansas, made during the years 1857 and 1858…." was authored and published in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1858 by David Dale Owen, M.D. who was the State geologist. In the same report, William Elderhorst M.D., who was the State Geologist’s Chemical Assistant, wrote a chapter titled as "Chemical Reports of the Ores, Rocks, and Mineral Waters of Arkansas". At the same time, the State Geologist’s Geological Assistant, Edward D. Cox performed chemical analysis mainly in water samples. There are numerous published reports illustrating the fact that chemistry is a well established aspect within the field of geology. These facts have constituted the starting point for an intensive study of the Earth’s chemical composition and also for geochemistry’s development as a discipline. Furthermore, Wilhelm Ostwald, Jacobus Henricus Van’t Hoff and Svante Arrhenius focused on reactions kinetics, equilibrium, chemical affinities and the conditions under which compounds are formed parallel to chemistry’s growing development during the 19 th century. In 1890s Arrhenius and Van’t Hoff started applying their theories to rocks. More precisely, Van’t Hoff tackled marine chemistry issues and Arrhenius studied the importance of the CO2 content in the atmosphere for the climate. It was early in the 20 th century when physical chemistry made an impact on metamorphic and igneous petrology and geochemistry, while the European geologists were resistant and hesitant towards the implementation of new ideas. Well known American petrographers Joseph Paxson Iddings and Charles R. Van Hise linked the disciplines of physical chemistry and geology together. Iddings tried to explain magmatic differentiation by applying Van’t Hoff’s osmotic pressure theory [...]... C2913α(H)17β(H)20(R)-diasterane; 8 – C285α(H)14β(H)17β(H)20(S)-sterane; 9 – C285α(H)14α(H)17α(H)20(R)-sterane; 10 – C295α(H)14α(H)17α(H)20(S)-sterane; 11 – C295α(H)14β(H)17β(H)20(R)-sterane; 12 – C295α(H)14β(H)17β(H)20(S)-sterane; 13 – C295α(H)14α(H)17α(H)20(R)-sterane; Ts – C2718α(H)-22,29,30-trisnorneohopane; Tm – C2717α(H)-22,29,30-trisnorhopane; C29H – C2917α(H)21β(H)-30-norhopane; C29Ts – C2918α(H)-30-norneohopane; C29M – C2917β(H)21α(H)moretane;... CPI – carbon preference index determined for full amplitude of n-alkanes (Bray & Evans, 1961); Pr – pristane; Ph – phytane; Sq – squalane; i-25 – C25 regular isoprenoid; %C27, C28, C29 regular sterane relative contents calculated from the peak areas of C27-C29 5α(H)14α(H)17α(H)20(R) isomers; C27ααα(R) – 5α(H)14α(H)17α(H)20(R)-sterane; C29ααα(R) – 5α(H)14α(H)17α(H)20(R)-sterane; G – gammacerane; C30H –. .. 14.00 116 2451 228 0.44 0.84 6.96 131 6.68 LOI – loss of ignition; Corg – organic carbon content from elemental analysis; S1 – free hydrocarbons in mgHC/g rock; S2 – pyrolysate hydrocarbons in mgHC/g rock; HI – hydrogen index = S2x100/TOC in mgHC/gTOC; HC – hydrocarbons; TOC – total organic carbon; Tmax – temperature corresponding to S2 peak maximum; SD – standard deviation Table 1 Characteristical... C2918α(H)-30-norneohopane; C29M – C2917β(H)21α(H)moretane; C30H – C3017α(H)21β(H)-hopane; C30M – C3017β(H)21α(H)-moretane; C31(S) – C3117α(H)21β(H)22(S)-hopane; C31(R) – C3117α(H)21β(H)22(R)-hopane; G – gammacerane; C32(S) – C3217α(H)21β(H)22(S)-hopane; C32(R) – C3217α(H)21β(H)22(R)-hopane; C33(S) – C3317α(H)21β(H)22(S)hopane; C33(R) – C3317α(H)21β(H)22(R)-hopane; for other peak assignments, see legend,... Presence of potassium and terrigenic component is explained by the fact that potassium is mainly accumulated in clays by weathering and leaching processes as a result of syn- and postdepositional adsorption and ion exchange in salty or salted waters (Grim, 1968) Total iron (Fe2O3) may be found in crystal lattice of clay minerals, especially illite and chlorite The 6 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes. .. determined in all pyrolysis (Fig 7c) 1 – C275α(H)14α(H)17α(H)20(S)-sterane + C2813α(H)17β(H)20(S)-diasterane; 2 – C275α(H)14β(H)17β(H)20(R)-sterane + C2913β(H)17α(H)20(S)-diasterane; 3 – C275α(H)14β(H)17β(H)20(S)-sterane + C2813α(H)17β(H)20(R)-diasterane; 4 – C275α(H)14α(H)17α(H)20(R)-sterane; 5 – C2913β(H)17α(H)20(R)-diasterane; 6 – C285α(H)14α(H)17α(H)20(S)-sterane; 7 – C285α(H)14β(H)17β(H)20(R)-sterane... is present in relatively low quantity (Fig 4c) 10 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes C31ββH – C3117β(H)21β(H)-hopane; for other peak assignments, see legends, Figs 3 and 7 Fig 4 GC-MS ion fragmentogram of n-alkanes and isoprenoids, m/z 71 (a), steranes, m/z 217 (b) and terpanes, m/z 191 (c) representative for sediments from depth interval 7 5–2 00 m 4.2.3 Depth interval 200-360 m Contents of SiO2,... System Processes n-alkanes are labelled according to their carbon number; Pr – pristane; Ph – phytane; i-25 – C25 regular isoprenoid; Sq – squalane; βαα and ααα designate 5β(H)14α(H)17α(H) and 5α(H)14α(H)17α(H) configurations, (R) and (S) designate configuration at C20 in steranes; C27βH – C2717β(H)-22,29,30trisnorhopane; C30ββH – C3017β(H)21β(H)-hopane; for other peak assignments, see legend, Fig 7 Fig... maturation changes on the planar systems (naphthalene and phenanthrene rings), than on isomerisations in the polycyclic alkanes, steranes and terpanes (Tables 4 and 5) The above observation is in agreement with the theoretical knowledge, as it is known that transition metal ions acting as 20 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes Lewis acids show an affinity for aromatic systems, and that they form stable... presence of searlesite and high amount of immature algal 22 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes OM with good generative liquid hydrocarbon potential, deposited under reducing environment From the organic-geochemical point of view, depth interval 200-400 m is less interesting due to the lower OM content with low liquid hydrocarbons generation potential Interval at depths from 360 to 400 m is significant, . GEOCHEMISTRY – EARTH'S SYSTEM PROCESSES Edited by Dionisios Panagiotaras Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes Edited by Dionisios. i-25. Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes 8 n-alkanes are labelled according to their carbon number; Pr – pristane; Ph – phytane; i-25 – C 25 regular isoprenoid; Sq – squalane;. isotope geochemistry, biogeochemistry, organic geochemistry, aqueous geochemistry, environmental geochemistry, exploration geochemistry (also called geochemical prospecting) and sedimentary geochemistry