PEOPLE'S BINH DUONG PROVINCIAL COMMITTEETHU DAU MOT UNIVERSITY ---?--- HOANG THI LE QUYEN AN INVESTIGATION INTO LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS AMONG HI
The study reported in the thesis examines language learning strategy use among students at Binh Phu, Vo Minh Duc, and Nguyen Thi Minh Khai High Schools, and the impact of student motivation on language learning strategy choices The introductory chapter presents the background of the study, the problem the thesis attempts to tackle, and provides the rationale for the chosen area of investigation In addition, the scope of the study, the aims of the study, and the significance of the study will also be presented simultaneously The study’s structure is included at the end of the chapter so that readers can follow more easily
1.1.1 The importance and dominance of English
In this era of integration, the demand for communication is increasing, which leads to the formation of a universal language English has been at the top of the list, surpassing Chinese, Spanish, French, and Esperanto Most documents, international summits, and business contracts are in English English is the language of business, economics, advertisements, etc There are three reasons that make English the dominant language now and in the future Firstly, it currently has an enormous number of speakers Look at these impressive statistics It is estimated that nearly one billion five hundred million people are learning English worldwide There are over one billion English-as-a-foreign-language speakers and approximately four hundred million English-as-a-second-language speakers The second reason is that English itself is an appealing language It has less grammar than other Indo-European languages, such as French or Russian Its writing uses the Latin alphabet, so the writing system is more straightforward than the hieroglyphs of Chinese or Japanese The third reason, also the most decisive, is that it is the language of the top developed countries: the USA and most European countries There is a close link between language dominance and the political, economic, and technological power of a country speaking that language
With the rising importance and dominance of English, more and more people are learning it all over the world as well as in Viet Nam Schools and colleges are making English a compulsory subject In Vietnam, it is not an exception English is a required subject It is tested in almost every high school graduation exam, and English is a prerequisite subject to receive a diploma from colleges and universities The awareness of English entails more attention, so controversies and renovations in classroom teaching and learning methodology The focus that used to be on linguistic competence now moves to communicative competence
1.1.2 The importance of speaking skills
Speaking is one of the productive skills It reveals how much an English language learner has perceived through studying
Wallace (1978) stated that oral practice (speaking) becomes meaningful to students when they have to pay attention to what they are saying Hence, the students can learn better how to require the ability to converse or to express their ideas fluently with precise vocabulary and good or acceptable pronunciation In Bygate’s view, speaking is “the vehicle par excellence of social solidarity, of social ranking, of professional advancement and business” (Bygate, 1987, p vii) Language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowing a language They regard speaking as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in terms of their accomplishment in spoken communication (Burkart, 1998)
The mastery of speaking skills is viewed as a necessity for most EFL and ESL learners (Richards, 2008, p 19; Florez, 1999) Richards’ definition of speaking echoes the interactional aspect of language that is used to fuel social intercourse (Yule, 1989, p 169), promote emotional intelligence (Bora, 2012), fulfill certain goals, or convey particular ideas, intentions, desires, preferences, or opinions Zaremba (2006), Celce-Murcia (2001), and Kayi (2006) also stressed the crucial role of speaking in maintaining oral communication Seen from this perspective, speaking helps strengthen interpersonal ties especially when it is used appropriately in social interactions
Harmer (2007) pointed out three main reasons for getting students to speak in the classroom The first reason is that speaking activities provide rehearsal opportunities, and chances to practice real-life speaking in the safety of the classroom Secondly, speaking tasks in which students try to use any or all of the languages they know provide feedback for both teacher and students Finally, the more students have opportunities to activate the various elements of the language they have stored in their brains, the more their automatic use of these elements arises As a result, they will be able to use words and phrases fluently without very much conscious thought
Flohr & Paesler (2010, p.10) remarked “speaking is the most important skill to master when learning a foreign language The goal of learning a foreign language is to become a fluent speaker by focusing on communication activities and expressive abilities.”
“It is questioned whether teaching and learning speaking skills merits as much or more attention than the others Two years later, Patton (2012) stated that when people believe they know or are learning a language, they mean they can speak the language
These authors emphasized the importance of speaking skills The importance of speaking is indisputable Speaking ability is the measure of knowing a language The final goal that every language learner wants to reach is to communicate in the target language
The current study was conducted at three typical high schools in Binh Duong Binh Phu High School, located in Thu Dau Mot City, was established in 1973 Vo Minh Duc High School is one of the top high schools in Binh Duong province It was founded in 1987 and is located in Thu Dau Mot City Nguyen Thi Minh Khai High School, located in Di
An City, was founded in 2020
The schools are beautiful and well-equipped with interactive boards, large classrooms, and many other tools; however, there are no fixed rooms for English and no opportunities to create an appropriate environment where English is the focus of attention
Each room is convenient enough for learning and teaching with an interactive board, a green board, five electric fans, five neon lights, a teacher table, desks, and chairs for students in four series and twenty-four rows The seats are arranged in order in front of the teachers There is also no audio-visual laboratory, which is necessary to practice listening and speaking Teachers must speak loudly because of the large size of each room (about
48 seats) Some say that teachers can use microphones, but the rooms are not soundproof, so the teacher’s voice through microphones can disturb the next classes In English classes, games – the technique to motivate students – cannot be freely organized because of the noise made by the participants; even cassette players should be turned down so as not to annoy the other classes Students sitting in the last row can hardly see the board clearly and the teachers’ gestures The layout of classrooms makes it difficult to engage students in group work, yet the activity helps activate students to communicate in English in real situations This kind of classroom makes students passive because students tend to keep silent in front of a large class
1.1.4 The 2018 English syllabus for high school
In Binh Duong, the new educational syllabus 2018 issued by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training for the 10 th grade comes into force in the 2015-2016 school year, for the 11 th grade in the 2016-2017 school year, and for the 12 th grade in the 2017-2018 school year The new syllabus 2018 aims to develop students’ general knowledge, mainly focusing on communicative competence that provides students with a tool to communicate when they study or work in an international environment
According to the new syllabus 2018, after completing the high school English syllabus, students can achieve Level 3 of English of the 6-level Foreign Language Competency Framework for Vietnam Specifically, students will be able to (1) understand the main ideas of a clear, standard passage or speech on familiar topics in work, school, leisure, and so on; (2) handle most situations that occur where the language is spoken; (3) write simple passages related to familiar topics or of personal interest; (4) describe experiences, events, dreams, hopes, and ambitions, and can briefly state reasons, explanations, opinions, and plans The new English syllabus 2018 regulates that (1) each of the 10 th , 11 th , and 12 th grades have 105 periods of English per year (1 period = 45 minutes) The themes in grade 10, 11, and 12 textbooks are our life, our society, our environment, and our future The textbook has five units in each term, and each unit has eight lessons (see Appendix 22) The innovative grade 10 textbook includes every English part in lesson 7 This part is new compared to the previous textbook, so teachers are inexperienced in introducing it to students
1.1.5 The characteristics of the teaching staff
Many theories of language learning and teaching affect students’ success in learning English and speaking English In Chapter 2, the author would like to review some theoretical foundations (including an overview of speaking, an overview of LLS, and the effects of student motivation on the choice of LLS) and research results concerning the points of view relevant to language learning strategies and speaking skills Simultaneously, the author clarifies that the current study is on a scientific basis
Speaking is one of the critical components of learning a new language Many specialists have studied speaking so far and defined speaking in different ways
Bygate (1987) defines speaking as the skills by which learners are most frequently judged and through which they make and lose friends It is the vehicle par excellence of social solidarity, social ranking, professional advancement, and business while Chastain
(1988) described speaking as the use of background and linguistic knowledge to create an oral message that will be meaningful for the intended audience
For Ladouse (cited in Nunan, 1991,p.23) speaking means the activity to express oneself in a situation, the activity to report acts; situations in precise words, or the ability to converse or to express a sequence of ideas fluently Speaking ability is students’ ability to expresseir ideas orally, which is represented by their scores in speaking
Abidova et al (2020) considered speaking as a speech activity to be conducted for verbal or oral communication to transmit or to exchange information while Ilham et al
(2019) involved non-verbal symbols as part of speaking Non-verbal communication is important since it reinforces verbal communication, and it can be used as a substitute when verbal communication is not effective (Akinola, 2014)
Although the distinction between verbal and non-verbal communication is blur, it can depend on the way the communication is transmitted Verbal communication can be either vocal through spoken language or non-vocal through writing, while non-verbal communication is vocally (e.g., paralanguage) and non-vocally (e.g., body languages) (Konchiab et al., 2021)
Speaking can be viewed differently Under the perspective of sociolinguistics, speaking is understood as the system of words and the principles that combine them that the people in the community use to communicate to each other (Wardhaugh, 2009) Effective speaking skills are verbal expressions, a kind of energy expressed in the language to convey information, express thoughts and emotions accurately, lively and convincing, (Wardhaugh, 2009)
In applied linguistics, speaking is a productive language skill in which speakers and listeners (or called as interlocutors) create and process their spoken interactions simultaneously (Burns & Seidlhofer, 2020) In applied linguistics, speaking is a productive language skill in which speakers and listeners (or called as interlocutors) create and process their spoken interactions simultaneously (Burns & Seidlhofer, 2020)
These definitions capture a number of important features of speaking The above authors have the similar view that speaking is an interactive process involving receiving and providing information Overall, the author concludes that speaking is what we say to what we see, feel and think When we feel something, we want someone to hear us Therefore, in this process, we can call it an interaction between two sides
Based on Hymes’ theory of communicative competence, Canale & Swain (1980) propose that communicative competence includes grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence
Grammatical competence enables students to use vocabulary and understand English language structures accurately To convey meaning clearly, students need to have good knowledge of English words and sentences such as basic sounds of letters and syllables, pronunciation of words, intonation, word stress, and sentence stress (Canale & Swain, 1980)
Discourse competence helps students know how to build chunks of language The parts in a text are combined by markers The rules of cohesion and coherence application can hold communication in a meaningful way Both the production and comprehension of a language require students’ ability to perceive and process stretches of discourse, and to formulate representations of meaning from referents in both previous sentences and following sentences (Canale & Swain, 1980)
Sociolinguistic competence helps students use language appropriately Knowledge of language alone is not adequate for students to use English effectively and appropriately Students need to have sociolinguistic competence to be aware of the social and cultural differences of their interlocutors Understanding the sociolinguistic side of language helps students behave appropriately during an interaction (Brown, 1994) also suggests that language learners need to acquire stylistic adaptability so that they can encode and decode the discourse around them correctly
Strategic competence enhances students’ ability to memorize language, gain and store information, recognize and repair communication breakdowns, compensate for their knowledge gaps, learn how to use the language contextually, evaluate learning achievement, and cooperate with others during the learning process Strategic competence is defined by Brown (1994, p 228) as “the way learners manipulate language to meet communicative goals” Concerning speaking, strategic competence refers to the ability to know how to keep a conversation going, how to pre-close and close the conversation, and how to clarify doubtful information to rescue communication breakdown and solve comprehension problems
Many renowned linguists have defined language-learning strategies from different points of view
Rubin (1975), one of the earliest researchers in this field, provided a comprehensive definition of learning strategies as “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge” (Rubin, 1975, p.43) Oxford (1990) also defines language-learning strategies as approaches or techniques that learners use to enhance their progress in developing L2 skills The author also considers language learning strategies to be “steps taken by students to enhance their learning” (Oxford, 1990, p.8) Strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence They are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations Both Oxford and Rubin are quite resemble; however, Oxford’s definitions are more specific
In Brown’s view, strategies are those specific “attacks” that we make on a given problem They are the moment-by-moment techniques that we employ to solve “problems” posed by second language input and output The field of second language acquisition has distinguished between two types of strategies: learning strategies and communication strategies The formers relate to input–processing, storage, and retrieval, that is, to take in messages from others The latter pertains to output, how we productively express meaning and deliver messages to others (Brown, 1990, p 122) The author indicates strategies are specific methods of approaching a problem or task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end, and planned designs for controlling and manipulating certain information Each person has several possible ways to solve a particular problem, and they choose the most suitable way for a given problem
While Brown considers language learning strategies as techniques to solve problems, Wenden (1991) points out language learning strategies are mental steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so
Chapter 3 describes the methodology that was employed to collect data concerning students’ English learning, students’ motivation, and language learning strategy use among the students at three high schools Binh Phu, Vo Minh Duc, and Nguyen Thi Minh Khai The chapter includes research design, research questions, population and sample, instrumentations, data collection, and validity and reliability The study applied mixed methods approaches; three hundred seventy students participated in answering the questionnaire; fifteen teachers and eighteen students took part in the interviews; nine speaking classes were observed; experimental teaching was conducted within four months
Creswell (2014) defines research designs as types of inquiry within qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches that provide specific direction for procedures in a research study
There have been many authors defining what a case study is According to Yin, R.K.(1984) the case study research method is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used Also, Creswell (2014) defines case studies as a qualitative design in which the researcher explores in depth a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals The case(s) are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period About the reason why case studies are used, Gill, T.G (2011) claims “The real world tends to produce complexity as the needs of stakeholders collide in a way that makes ‘fit’, rather than ‘optimization’ the most relevant goal Where fit is the goal, judgment is nearly always required And the case method is well suited to presenting situations where judgment is needed.” (p.ix)
A case-study approach was chosen to gain a detailed understanding of language- learning strategies to improve speaking skills, the effect of students’ motivation on their use of language-learning strategies, and the differences among the grades in the use of language-learning strategies Since the research site had a large population of 4593, the researcher could not do the survey and interview every member of the population The author collected randomly three classes from three grades of each school to gain the questionnaire’s responses, fifteen teachers and eighteen students from those nine classes to interview, and nine classes for class observation
The current study applied a mixed-methods research design to investigate students’ language learning strategies Dornyei & Ushioda (2021) claimed the main attraction of mixed methods research has been the fact that by using both qualitative and quantitative approaches a researcher can bring out the best of both paradigms while also compensating for their weaknesses
Mixed-method research is defined as an inquiry that involves both quantitative and qualitative data collection (Creswell, 2014; Johnson & Christensen, 2014) “for the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration” (Johnson et al., 2007, p.123) Mixed methods research is not simply collecting multiple types of data (quantitative and qualitative) but integrating and interpreting multiple forms of data to understand the problem under investigation (Creswell, 2015; Creswell & Clark, 2018)
Mixed-method research design has been recently used widely in educational research because of its multiple benefits It is used when one type of research is insufficient to address the research problem (Creswell & Clark, 2018) Combining quantitative and qualitative methods enhances the quality of the study because each approach has different strengths and weaknesses (Johnson & Christensen, 2014) By collecting multiple types of data, mixed methods research provides a deeper understanding of the issue (Creswell,
2014) Integrating multiple sets of data using multiple research methods produces multiple and complementary strengths because each approach provides distinct types of information (Johnson & Christensen, 2014) and the results are more convincing and powerful (Creswell
& Clark, 2018) Creswell (2014) proposes four basic mixed methods research designs: (1) convergent parallel design, (2) explanatory sequential design, (3) exploratory sequential design, and (4) embedded design Explanatory sequential mixed methods design involves using qualitative data to illustrate or further explain quantitative findings (Creswell, 2014; Creswell, 2015; Creswell & Clark, 2018) After collecting and analyzing quantitative data, researchers identify results that need additional explanations (Creswell & Clark, 2018) Also, drawing on the findings, researchers refine the qualitative research questions and select appropriate participants to follow In this way, the qualitative phase is linked to and dependent on the quantitative results (Creswell & Clark, 2018) According to Creswell & Poth (2018), qualitative research is conducted because a problem or issue needs to be explored; a complex detailed understanding of the issue is needed; a desire to empower individual exists; a literary flexible style of reporting is appropriate; un understanding of the contexts in which participants in a study address a problem is warranted; a follow-up explanation of mechanisms about qualitative findings is sought; a theory to address gaps in understandings is developed; a lack of fit between quantitative measures and the problem exists (p.85)
Based on the above theories of Creswell, Clark, and Johnson, Dornyei & Ushioda, and Oxford, in a quantitative approach, the researcher implemented a survey through a SILL written questionnaire which was adapted from Oxford (1990) to find out students’ use of language learning strategies, and the impact of motivation on students’ use of learning strategies to improve their speaking skills The author also applied experimental teaching to prove the effectiveness of LLS In a qualitative approach, the researcher used class observations and semi-structured interviews with eighteen random students from nine classes and fifteen teachers of the three schools to get more insights and strengthen the interpretation of data collected from questionnaires (see Figure 3.1)
Figure 3.1 Concept map of data collection and analysis
A sample is a group of elements or a single element from which the data are collected It is often impractical and sometimes undesirable to try and study the entire population that is interested Sampling in educational research is generally conducted to permit the detailed study of part, rather than the whole, of the population (Dhivyadeepa,
E, 2015) An element is a unit (e.g., person, object) of a population A population is a theoretically specified aggregation of elements The cost of studying an entire population is usually prohibitive to both researchers and those being studied in terms of privacy, time, and money Therefore, a subset of a given population must be selected; this is called sampling Sampling is a strategy used to select elements from a population A sample is a subset of population elements that results from a sampling strategy Ideally, a sample is
Convergent Parallel Mixed Methods Study
Quantitative Phase Data Collection Data Analysis
Qualitative Phase Data Collection Data Analysis
Interpretation selected that is representative of the population A sampling frame is the list, index, or records from which the sample will be drawn, which might not be inclusive of the study population Sample designs address two basic issues: (1) how elements of the population will be selected and (2) how many elements will be selected
Sampling is a cost-saving way to create sets of cases The two main methods of sampling, non-random and random, can be merged only at the cost that the result is usually considered to be non-random However, non-random sampling plays an important role in so much social research that I propose to discuss it first Then when describing random sampling the possibility of multistage sampling makes a lot of sense (Olsen, W., 2011) Accordingly, both random and nonrandom sampling were used in the current study
Olsen, W (2011) confirms that sampling is a cost-saving way to create sets of cases The two main methods of sampling, non-random and random, can be merged only at the cost that the result is usually considered non-random However, non-random sampling plays an important role in so much social research that the author proposes to discuss it first Then when describing random sampling the possibility of multistage sampling makes a lot of sense
Three-hundred-seventy students from nine random classes of three grades participated in the current study From these nine random classes, eighteen students were selected randomly to take part in semi-structured interviews and for classroom observation All the interviews were recorded The use of both random sampling in the study was to intensify the reliability of the data collected
Generalize conclusion from the sample to the population
Select a sample from the population
(Sources: http://korbedpsych.com/R06Sample.html, 30 th August 2022) 3.2.2 Population
Student subjects were (1) assumed to face similar problems and need to improve their English speaking, (2) keen on participating in the study to self-evaluate their LLS use,
(3) serious about answering their questionnaires, and (4) supposed to be willing to evaluate the use of LLS to improve their English speaking ability
This chapter reports the results of the study, which includes students’ responses to the questionnaire, the interview answers from both teachers and students, the description of classroom observations, and the results of sample tests These results were analyzed, discussed, and compared to those of the previous studies mentioned in chapter 2
4.1.1 Questionnaires about students’ English learning
The main research question aims to investigate the strategies most frequently used by students to develop their speaking skills, the differences in language learning strategy choices among students, and the effects of motivation on using language learning strategies The first set of questions aims to investigate students’ English learning and students’ needs to take part in a learning strategy-training course (see Table 4.1)
Q5: Students’ need for an LLS training course
As shown in Table 4.1, 162 (43.8 %) students have been learning English for 10 to
11 years The table also shows that 118 students (31.9%) have studied English for 8 to 9 years Only 18 (4.9) students reveal that they have spent 5 to 7 years learning English, while 72 students confirm they have taken 11 to 12 or more 12 years to learn English Secondly, 107 students liked learning English a bit, 78 liked it, 51 adored it, but 94 learners divulged they disliked learning English Forty students disclosed that they neither liked nor disliked Thirdly, 113 students revealed they are never instructed in LLS, and 96 students expressed that their teachers rarely lead in LLS One hundred seven students are sometimes taught LLS, while only 54 students are usually or always trained in LLS Finally, the table also presents that 248 students find it essential or slightly necessary to join a training course LLS to help them study English better, especially in improving their speaking skills Fifty- six students chose the option neutral, while the remaining 66 thought taking part in an LLS training course was slightly unnecessary (see Appendix 3)
Table 4.2 Students’ motivation in learning English
Table 4.2 indicates that over half of the students (51.1%) agreed that they learned English because they wanted to find a good job in the future Likely, 52.3 percent agreed and strongly agreed that they attempted to learn English because they wanted to get good marks on tests and examinations and rewards Only 30.6 percent agreed or strongly agreed that they learned English because they intended to live and study abroad after graduation while 51.3 percent agreed or strongly agreed that they were motivated to learn English in order to broaden their knowledge Only 31.4 percent agreed or strongly agreed that they had the motivation to learn English to enjoy English songs, movies, articles, etc Most students had extrinsic motivation to learn English For this, they learned English because they wanted to gain good marks or rewards but not for their interest (see Appendix 3)
Table 4.3 Descriptive statistics of students’ motivation in learning English
It is seen in Table 4.3 that the majority of students from three grades learn English because they want to get good marks on tests and examinations and rewards Fewer students want to find a good job in the future There are two primary purposes for high school students to study English (see Appendix 3)
Another data analysis reveals the frequency of LLS use and the differences in LLS choices among students from the three grades (see Appendix 3)
Table 4.4 Students’ preference for LLS
Table 4.4 displays an overview of students’ priority of LLS use Students are medium-strategy users (average M = 2.86) They prioritize cognitive and affective strategies with M=3.18 & 3.15, respectively The second priority is social, compensation, and memorization strategies, with M=2.96, 2.69, and 2.68 Metacognitive strategy is the least frequently used one by students accounting for M=2.46 According to Oxford (1990), students are medium strategy users because the means are between 2.4 and 3.5 (see Appendix 4)
Figure 4.1 LLS preference of the sample
Figure 4.1 presents that students most frequently used strategy 11 while they were low-strategy users of S12, S7, S1, and S6 In addition, they were medium-strategy users of S8, S10, and S3 In reality, students usually have their teachers, friends, and native speaker to correct their mistakes and this is one of the effective strategies for learning English Many students have not been familiar with learning vocabulary in phrases or sentences instead of single words (S1) Students also have not been used to using gestures when they do not know how to express their ideas (S6) Additionally, students usually pay attention to how to express their ideas but do not notice others’ thinking and emotions (S12) Besides
2 that, students do not usually make plans for a semester or a school year at the beginning of the school year (S7) (see Appendix 4)
A simple statistical analysis was used to determine the difference in the use of LLS among students from the three grades
Figure 4.2 LLS use of three grades
Figure 4.1 shows that the 12 th graders are the higher-strategy users than the 10 th and
11 th graders The 10 th graders are the lowest-strategy users The figure also presents that the 10 th graders are high-strategy users of strategies 11 and 9 (M=3.65, 3.51, “> 3.5”), medium-strategy users of strategies 10, 5, 2, 4, 3 (M= 3.43, 3.07, 3.05, 2.98, 2.66, “2.4 – 3.5”), and low-strategy users of strategies 8, 1, 12, 7, 6 (M=2.27, 1.94, 1.81, 1.70, 1.68,
“ 3.5”), medium-strategy users of strategies 4, 2, 5, 8, 10, 3 (M= 3.40, 3.36, 3.36, 3.22, 3.14, 2.80, “2.4 – 3.5”), and low-strategy users of strategies 7, 12, 6, 1 (M=2.11, 2.09, 2.04, 1.97,
“ 3.5”), medium-strategy users of strategies 12, 2, 8, 3, 9 (M= 2.50, 3.47, 3.33, 3.17, 3.08,
“2.4 – 3.5”), and low-strategy users of strategies 7, 6, 10, 1 (M=2.43, 2.37, 2.26, 2.25,
Figure 4.3 LLS use among three grades
Figure 4.3 shows that grade-12 students were the most frequent strategy users compared to grade-11 and grade-10 students (M=3.04) The 11 th graders used LLS more frequently than the 10 th graders (M=2.89 & M=2.65) Nevertheless, all students from the three grades were medium-strategy users (2.4 3.5”), medium-strategy users of strategies 10, 5, 2, 4, 3 (M= 3.43, 3.07, 3.05, 2.98, 2.66, “2.4 – 3.5”), and low-strategy users of strategies 8, 1, 12, 7, 6 (M=2.27, 1.94, 1.81, 1.70, 1.68,
“ 3.5”), medium-strategy users of strategies 4, 2, 5, 8, 10, 3 (M= 3.40, 3.36, 3.36, 3.22, 3.14, 2.80, “2.4 – 3.5”), and low-strategy users of strategies 7, 12, 6, 1 (M=2.11, 2.09, 2.04, 1.97,
“ 3.5”), medium-strategy users of strategies 12, 2, 8, 3, 9 (M= 2.50, 3.47, 3.33, 3.17, 3.08,
“2.4 – 3.5”), and low-strategy users of strategies 7, 6, 10, 1 (M=2.43, 2.37, 2.26, 2.25,
Figure 4.3 LLS use among three grades
Figure 4.3 shows that grade-12 students were the most frequent strategy users compared to grade-11 and grade-10 students (M=3.04) The 11 th graders used LLS more frequently than the 10 th graders (M=2.89 & M=2.65) Nevertheless, all students from the three grades were medium-strategy users (2.4
