High school students use of autonomous language learning activities to improve english reading comprehension

INTRODUCTION

Background to the study

In the era of globalization, proficiency in the English language has become crucial for employment opportunities (Muller et al., 2012) However, Nguyen and Pham (2016) highlight a concerning gap, revealing that many university graduates fail to meet the English language requirements set by recruiters, leading to increased unemployment rates Despite numerous reforms in Vietnam's education system over the past three decades—aimed at enhancing teacher training, upgrading teaching resources, and revising curriculum—the effectiveness of English language teaching and learning continues to be inadequate.

Successful English language learners are often actively engaged in their language acquisition; however, many university students continue to exhibit passive study habits reminiscent of their high school experiences, relying heavily on rote memorization and instructor guidance This over-dependence on traditional learning methods may lead to high grades but fails to equip students with the knowledge and skills desired in the job market Consequently, such learning styles can impede the development of learner autonomy, which is essential for effective language acquisition and lifelong learning.

Autonomous learning skills enhance knowledge retention and application in real-life scenarios and future careers (Mathew, 2018) Therefore, it is crucial for individual learners to practice self-study and foster learner autonomy (LA) through cooperative learning (Shi & Han, 2019) Developing a "teacher-less" study habit is essential for adapting to the self-reliant and proactive environment of universities and succeeding in today's competitive job market (Masouleh & Joomeghani, 2012) Ultimately, LA plays a vital role in improving English reading comprehension (ERC).

Page 2 preparation step for twelfth graders to pass Vietnamese high school Graduation Exam administered by the Ministry of Education and Training to get a diploma called the Graduation Diploma of General Upper Secondary Education because English reading comprehension (ERC) occupies two third of English test paper and be an easy skill for exercising learner independence and autonomy

A study by Nguyễn Thị Tố Hoa and Phạm Thị Tuyết Mai (2016) revealed that approximately 50.7% of university graduates fail to meet recruiters' English requirements, primarily due to insufficient understanding of autonomous English learning relevant to their careers This highlights the importance of autonomous language learning, which is crucial for success in securing employment opportunities (KhaKi, 2013, as cited in Pokhrel, 2016) Furthermore, the ability to learn independently is a vital trait for effective language learners, as it empowers them to take charge of creating a communicative environment in the target language (Pokhrel, 2016).

The applicability of Learning Autonomy (LA) in the Vietnamese education context for English learners of all ages is supported by Nguyen (2016), especially in light of the negative stereotypes often assigned to Asian students, such as being "passive" and "rote learners" (Cao, 2011; Alzubi & Singh, 2017; Murase, 2012) Murase (2012) suggests that these perceived passive traits contradict the principles of LA However, Cao Thị Thanh Nguyên (2011) counters this view, asserting that such characteristics do not accurately reflect all Southeast Asian students Aligning with Lamb's (2004) perspective, Cao (2011 & 2012) argues that many Asian students exhibit autonomy and can exercise it to varying degrees.

Learner autonomy (LA) emphasizes the importance of students taking responsibility for their own learning, including involvement, control, monitoring, and evaluation (Holec, 1981; Little, 1991; Benson, 2007) Teachers play a crucial role as language advisers, supporting learners in this process (Cao, 2012; Teng, 2019) Furthermore, fostering learner autonomy enables language learners to become proactive in addressing their learning challenges independently, even outside the classroom (Benson, 2007; Pawlak, Mystkowska, & Bielak, 2017; Almusharraf, 2018).

This can open the question whether Vietnamese students themselves have really been interested in English subject (Chikwa, Al-Damen, & Mathew, 2018), invested their

Page 3 time and made every effort to become responsible and autonomous learners in their parents’ orientation, adequate support and facilitation (Ho, 2015; Tomita & Sano, 2016; Kim & Barrett, 2017) So far, however, there has been little discussion about high school students’ autonomy in ERC in Vietnam

Yap's research highlights the importance of teachers focusing on high school students' out-of-class learning activities and encouraging them to share their experiences (Lamb, 2004; Benson, 2007) However, many teachers face mounting pressure to extend their working hours due to various responsibilities, such as managing student records, grades, individual educational plans, lesson plans, and career orientation plans for students in grade.

Teachers in Vietnam face low salaries from the government, which contributes to their overwhelming workloads and limited time for lesson planning (Nguyen, 2016) Consequently, they often depend heavily on textbooks and blackboards as primary teaching resources This reliance hinders their ability to create diverse learning activities tailored to the unique needs of individual students (Almusharraf).

In 2018, it was noted that English learners' motivation was overlooked, leading many to engage in part-time jobs for survival (Lamb, 2004) This focus on learner independence and autonomy has detrimental effects on both classroom and extracurricular activities (Lamb, 2004) Consequently, the responsibility for academic outcomes increasingly falls on learners rather than teachers, as students are often more aware of their individual needs, strengths, weaknesses, and learning challenges (Tran & Duong, 2018).

The researcher aims to investigate how high school students at an urban school in Binh Duong utilize autonomous language learning activities (ALLA) to enhance their English reading skills, with the hope of addressing and improving the current educational challenges.

Statement of the problem

High school students, particularly at Nguyen Trai High School in Binh Duong province, often exhibit passive English learning habits that rely heavily on their teachers Most students memorize a limited number of new vocabulary words introduced in class and tend to read passages slowly and meticulously, focusing on individual words rather than understanding word associations and context.

Page 4 phrasal verbs in context which can lead to a different meaning This passive learning style causes learners a sense of embarrassment and utter powerlessness when they can not manage to take care of a severe lengthy ultimate test paper in national English exams in a limited duration

Many students struggle to learn English effectively due to their approach to unfamiliar vocabulary When encountering unknown words, they often pause to look them up in dictionaries or vocabulary lists, which can disrupt their reading flow and lead to disengagement, particularly for less motivated learners This method is time-consuming and can hinder their ability to grasp the overall context and message of the text As a result, students may find themselves rereading passages multiple times without truly understanding the content, despite the fact that reading comprehension is a skill that can be easily practiced.

Students often exhibit a reluctant attitude towards learning English, primarily due to a lack of prior knowledge and insufficient vocabulary, which hampers their ability to infer meaning from context They tend to avoid extensive reading for knowledge or pleasure, whether in school libraries or at home Many feel pressured by parents to attend extra classes on evenings and weekends solely to achieve passing marks in English tests This reliance on rote learning and cramming, often referred to as "spoon-fed" learning, leads to short-term retention of information, with learners quickly forgetting previously acquired knowledge Consequently, this approach fosters demotivation and disinterest in English, while a study by Phuong & Vo (2019) emphasizes that motivation, involvement, attitude, and autonomy are crucial for success in language learning.

The lack of interaction between learners and teachers, along with unengaging teaching methods, contributes to the monotonous atmosphere in English reading classes A single, monotonous voice from the teacher fails to foster an enjoyable learning environment, particularly when students do not respond A survey by Tran (2015) indicated that Vietnamese students often refrain from questioning their teachers' statements out of respect, even when they may be incorrect, and many struggle to seek further clarification.

Page 5 these students are unable to relate what has just learnt to the world to strengthen critical thinking in ERC

The challenges faced by teachers and students at NTHS can impede effective teaching and learning of ERC To maintain student motivation, engagement, and autonomy, teachers must act as facilitators, while students take primary responsibility for their learning outcomes This study aims to investigate high school students' perceptions of learner autonomy in ERC and their attitudes toward improving English reading skills both inside and outside the classroom.

Aims and objectives of the research

This research investigates the utilization of autonomous language learning activities by high school students at Nguyen Trai High School in Binh Duong to enhance their English reading skills The study aims to uncover effective strategies that promote independent learning among students, ultimately improving their proficiency in reading English texts.

⚫ To uncover high school students’ perceptions of learner autonomy in English reading comprehension at Nguyen Trai High School;

⚫ To examine how high school students use autonomous language learning activities to improve their English reading comprehension at Nguyen Trai High School.

Research questions

The issue of two research questions has to be addressed to attain above-mentioned objectives:

1 How do high school students perceive learner autonomy in English reading comprehension at Nguyen Trai High School?

2 How do high school students use autonomous language learning activities to improve their English reading comprehension at Nguyen Trai High School?

Scope of the research

The research was conducted at NTHS in Thuan An, Binh Duong Province, involving 102 10th and 11th graders from three classes It is suggested that a larger participant pool could yield more significant results Additionally, the recommendations made were specifically aimed at enhancing autonomous learning for these students, rather than for other groups within the school.

To minimize the limitation of this study and obtain the results, the Mixed Methods design

Page 6 was applied with instruments, like questionnaire and online semi-structured interview All these instruments are utilized to collect the data Links of section 1 and section 2 in questionnaire were created on Google Forms and sent to 102 participants on 3 Zalo class groups: 10A12, 10A13, 11A11 and all 102 respondents replied fully and sent back to researcher One day later, 6 online semi-structured interview meetings on Microsoft Teams application were employed by six groups, but only 15 interviewees attended in total, the other 15 interviewees were not attended due to forget passwords of Teams accounts or weak connection of 3G.

Significance of the research

The research makes both theoretical and practical contributions

This research explores how high school students utilize Autonomous Language Learning Activities (ALLA) to enhance their English Reading Comprehension (ERC) The findings aim to promote greater awareness of autonomous English learning among learners, specifically focusing on ERC Ultimately, this study seeks to contribute to the advancement of English as a Second Language (ESL) education following the Vietnamese mother tongue.

Reading is essential for success in English tests in high schools, and improving students' English Reading Comprehension (ERC) can lead to significantly better test results Effective Learning Activities (LA) aimed at enhancing ERC can boost students' motivation to learn English, providing valuable insights for teachers to implement in their classrooms This investigation aims to improve the teaching and learning of ERC at NTHS, highlighting the importance of fostering learner autonomy Teachers should recognize the significance of learner independence and understand its varying levels to support students in becoming self-sufficient learners By integrating knowledge of learner autonomy into their teaching practices, educators can better facilitate student growth and independence.

Organization of the study

The thesis comprises of five chapters, including introduction, literature review, methodology, results and discussions, conclusions and recommendations

Chapter One provides an overview of the educational context for the research, outlining the problem statement, research aims, and objectives It also presents the two key research questions, along with the scope, significance, and organization of the study.

The second chapter lays the foundation for the study, providing a conceptual framework for designing research instruments

Chapter III outlines the methodology employed in the study, featuring a comprehensive description of the Mixed Methods design, the participants involved, and the research instruments used It also details the procedures for data collection and analysis, ensuring a thorough understanding of the study's approach.

The chapter IV depicts results of data and discussions of the results

The last fifth chapter comes up with conclusions, implications, limitations and recommendations as well

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Chapter II will explore key concepts such as reading, reading comprehension, and various models or types of reading It will also examine learning autonomy (LA), its different types or levels, and the traits of responsible and autonomous learners Additionally, the chapter will highlight the importance of responsibility and autonomy in learning, the role of LA in English reading comprehension (ERC), and the application of ALLA to enhance English reading skills, addressing pertinent language issues to establish a solid theoretical foundation for the research.

Reading and reading comprehension

Reading is a complex cognitive skill essential for acquiring a target language, as it enables learners to engage with diverse materials such as books, comics, newspapers, magazines, and articles This practice not only enriches knowledge but also enhances intellectual development (Nurchalis, 2022).

Reading is the meaningful interpretation of written symbols, involving the interplay between phonetic representations and the reader's linguistic, cognitive, and global knowledge (Goodmann, 1988; Albert & Le, 2010, as cited in Rouai, 2014) It is a cognitive process where readers derive meaning through contextual clues within the text Additionally, Rumptz (2003) describes reading as a complex process that includes the visual recognition and analysis of printed letters, ultimately leading to the interpretation of the overall meaning of words (Rouai, 2014).

Reading comprehension (RC) is the ability to understand and interpret written materials, going beyond just the words to grasp the main ideas conveyed in the text (Seyed, 2010; Rouai, 2014) It involves constructing meaning through interaction with written passages, emphasizing a holistic understanding rather than merely extracting meaning from isolated words or sentences (Snow, 2002; Rouai, 2014; Woolley, 2011; Nguyen, 2021).

Reading models provide a detailed understanding of the reading process, illustrating how readers process written texts and construct meaning These models explore the translation of written words into meanings through brain analysis Three primary reading models have been proposed by Marto Redondo (1997) and Perfetti, Landi, & Oakhill (2005).

The Bottom-up approach to reading emphasizes phonics, requiring readers to sequentially match letters with sounds through decoding words individually This method focuses on recognizing individual letters, phonemes, and words, ultimately connecting them to grasp the meaning of phrases and sentences, as well as the overall text.

This model focuses on a linear text processing approach, starting from the smallest linguistic units such as letters and progressing through words, phrases, and sentences to derive the overall meaning of the text By beginning with letters, readers can gradually advance to larger text units, ultimately leading to a comprehensive understanding of phrases, sentences, and the entire text.

Reading involves the integration of a reader's existing knowledge with contextual information stored in long-term memory, facilitating comprehension of written texts (Grabe, 1988; Richards, 1990; Rouai, 2014) This process is often described as a "dialogue between reader and text" (Grabe, 1988) When readers are familiar with a topic, they rely less on graphic information and instead focus on interpreting assumptions and making inferences to understand the text's meaning (Rouai, 2014).

The Interactive model connects a simultaneous interaction of both models: Bottom- up and Top-down one in construction of the meaning of a text” (Eskey, 1988) Consistently,

Figure 2.1Models of the reading process (Perfetti, Landi & Oakhill, 2005)

The interactive model, as defined by Rumelhart (1981; Rouai, 2014), emphasizes a collaborative approach where bottom-up processing interacts with top-down processing to achieve optimal interpretation Carell (1998, cited in Rouai, 2014) highlights that this model assists readers in navigating the reading process, starting from the linguistic surface representation created by the writer and culminating in the construction of meaning by the readers.

Intensive reading involves a deep understanding and long-term retention of a text, requiring readers to engage with the material line by line This process includes analyzing, translating, and memorizing every expression, while focusing on grammatical structures, vocabulary, and sentence patterns to grasp both the rhetorical relationships and the literal meanings of the text (Brown, 1988; Rouai).

Extensive reading involves engaging with a wide range of materials for enjoyment, prioritizing the content over linguistic proficiency (Lituanas, Jacobs, & Renandya, 1999; Channuan, 2014) Skilled readers at advanced levels can read fluently and swiftly, without the need to pause for unfamiliar words or translate the text into their native language (Rouai, 2014).

Learner autonomy (LA)

Holec’s (1981) most prevalent and “global accepted” definition of LA is as

Learners' ability to take responsibility for their own learning is crucial across various aspects, including goal setting, content selection, material choice, and evaluating outcomes (Nunan, 2003; Benson, 2006; Little, 2007; Illés, 2019) This capacity enables them to manage their learning processes effectively, encompassing time management, cognitive strategies, and content mastery (Benson, 2001; Okazaki, 2011) Understanding this learner autonomy is essential from a psychological perspective, as it fosters a more engaged and self-directed approach to education (Dickinson).

Learning autonomy (LA) is characterized as both an attitude towards learning and the ability to study independently (Imane, 2015) It encompasses the learner's readiness and capability to monitor their own learning (Littlewood, 1996; West, 2013; Zarei & Gahremani, 2010) and emphasizes students' responsibility for their learning (Dickinson, 1995; Nguyen, 2017; Little, 2007; West, 2013; Sholeh & Heriyawati, 2015; Ounis, 2016) Successful language learning significantly depends on learners' responsible attitudes (Phuong, 2019), and autonomous learning is fostered when learners actively engage in decision-making regarding their educational processes (Scharle & Szabó, 2000; Tran, 2020).

Little (2007) posits that learning autonomy (LA) is an innate ability present from birth, suggesting that individuals are naturally proactive in exploring their environment and pursuing personal goals (p.17) Conversely, Benson and Voller (1997) argue that LA is not an inherent trait but can be developed through either natural experiences or structured formal education (Ounis, 2016) Consequently, Benson (2003; Imane, 2015) expands the definition of autonomy to encompass the capacity for learners to actively engage in controlling their own learning processes.

Page 12 to implement inside and outside classroom learning activities, monitor progress and evaluate learning outcomes

This study defines learner autonomy (LA) as "the capacity of learners to act individually and in cooperation with others" (Teimourtash & Yazdanimoghaddam, 2018) Autonomous learners take responsibility for their learning by setting objectives, choosing methods, and assessing their progress (Littlewood, 1999; Kharaghani, 2013; Imane, 2015) Initially, learners may struggle with self-reliance and require assistance, a stage referred to as reactive autonomy Over time, they are more likely to tackle challenges independently Dam (1990) describes LA as the ability and readiness to engage in self-study and collaborate socially Najeeb (2013) distinguishes independent learning, which occurs without teacher or peer support, from autonomous learning, which involves collaborative interactions with others, allowing for reflection, self-evaluation, and peer assessment (Kumaravadivelu, 2003; Avazmatova, August 2022).

The research focuses on fostering learners' interest in achieving independent English language learning, transitioning from "reactive autonomy" to "proactive autonomy" (Nunan, 2003) This involves empowering learners to establish achievable goals and equipping them to become professional presenters and skilled teachers Additionally, Fan's 2015 study highlights the importance of autonomy in language learning, drawing on insights from Wenden (1991) and Yang.

(1998) lay particular stress on learners’ strategic reading ability in association with autonomous learning skills

2.3.2 Types and levels of autonomy

Murphy (2011, as cited in Ounis, 2016) emphasizes the importance of autonomy across different learning contexts and individual learner differences According to Littlewood (1999), learner autonomy can be categorized into "proactive" and "reactive" forms Blidi (2017) notes that reactive learners often participate in the learning process with less purposefulness, despite having higher motivation levels.

Page 13 proactive ones while proactive learners have ability to self-manage, self-monitor, self- regulate their learning (Seel, 2012 & Ceylan, 2015) via being well-aware of own learning issues (Pawlak, Mystkowska, & Bielak, 2017; Blidi, 2017), like setting individual goals, making personal study plans, choosing appropriate learning styles, monitoring progress and evaluating study results(Boyno, 2011)

Unlike this view of proactive autonomy, reactive autonomy is developed by collaboration and interdependence, rather than studying solely in isolation (Littlewood,

Many learners struggle to identify their specific needs and where to find the resources to meet them, often leading to a state of reactive autonomy This occurs when learners take responsibility for their learning content without fully understanding or selecting it themselves, as they lack the necessary expert knowledge Littlewood (1999) describes reactive autonomy as a process that does not chart its own course but, once initiated, allows students to use learning materials independently to ultimately achieve proactive autonomy In educational settings, teachers can enhance learners' interest in Autonomous Language Learning Activities (ALLA) by providing supportive guidance that steers them in the right direction.

LA may be depicted at different levels and in different forms Nunan (1997) exhibits five levels of LA, as illustrated in table 2.1 below

Table 2.1Levels of Learner autonomy (Nunan, 1997)

The five levels of Learning Analytics (LA) encompass three dimensions: content, process, and LA material development However, some researchers, including Hsu (2005) and Nguyen (2017), have criticized this framework for potential overlaps and the likelihood that learners may navigate back and forth among these five levels.

Littlewood (1997) introduces a model of autonomy in language acquisition that encompasses three dimensions: the individual's role as a communicator, a learner in various contexts, and personal development This perspective aligns with the notion that autonomy involves the ability to learn a target language independently and apply it in unpredictable, real-life situations Scholars like Benson (2006) emphasize that learners must take responsibility for their learning and actively utilize strategies to enhance their autonomy Similar to Littlewood's model, Macaro (1997) also outlines three stages of autonomy, which include "autonomous language competence," "autonomous language learning competence," and "autonomous choice and action."

The models suggest a progression from lower to higher levels of learner autonomy (LA), aligning with Little’s (1991) view that LA is not a fixed state achieved permanently by learners Instead, LA varies significantly throughout the learning process, influenced by different contexts and conditions Consequently, it is essential to adopt appropriate strategies to address this variability.

Learner autonomy (LA) is grounded in three key principles: learner involvement, reflection, and target language use The principle of learner involvement empowers students to take charge of their educational journey by actively participating in decision-making related to planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating their learning outcomes Meanwhile, learner reflection encourages students to engage thoughtfully with their learning process and develop critical reflective skills in the context of new knowledge These two principles are interdependent; learners cannot effectively take responsibility for their learning without reflecting on its implications, nor can they reflect meaningfully without being accountable for their outcomes Together, involvement and reflection are fundamental to fostering learner autonomy.

Page 15 the promotion of LA and implement LA; both are equally applied to all subjects in the curriculum However, the development and implementation of language LA demand a third principle called target language use Little, Dam & Legenhausen (2017) states that language acquisition is an inevitably dialogic process If there is no interaction between language learners and target language use, language learners’ input acquisition is useless

Effective output acquisition in language learning is essential, as it requires deeper processing and greater mental effort than input To enhance learner self-management, teachers should assign discussion questions for home study, encouraging students to explore e-newspapers, magazines, and reference materials related to the topic This approach allows students to write reports or present their knowledge in subsequent sessions, reinforcing their understanding and language production skills.

Language serves as a vital tool for communication and reflection, playing a central role in constructivist theory where knowledge is built through linguistic interactions It is not only essential for constructing new knowledge but also supports metacognitive processes such as reflective intervention In the context of second language learning, developing communicative proficiency requires learners to engage with the target language for both task performance and metacognitive reflection Without successful engagement, learners may find their communicative proficiency remains superficial.

Consistently with Little, Dam & Legenhausen 2017’s study, Phillip Benson has written a huge amount of LA and depicts five principles of autonomous learning as follows:

❖ get actively involved in learning process

❖ give options and provide various learning resources as an incentive for learners to learn a language autonomously and independently

❖ suggest choice and decision-making chance

❖ enthusiastically welcome to learner reflection

LA in ERC

In 2019, Ngo Phuong Anh and Dao Thi Hong Thuy conducted a study titled “LA in Learning English Reading Skills” involving 99 freshmen majoring in English The findings revealed that while most students understand the concepts of Learning Autonomy (LA) and Autonomous Language Learning (ALLA), they still depend on their teachers to achieve favorable learning outcomes (Ngo, 2019).

In line with the findings of Ngo Phuong Anh and Dao Thi Hong Thuy's 2019 study, Duong Minh Tuan's 2021 research explored Vietnamese students' perceptions and practices of learner autonomy (LA) in English language learning The results indicated that students recognized the importance of LA in enhancing their language acquisition, particularly among English majors.

Page 19 students’ ability to learn English autonomously was merely over average (Ngo, 2019 & Duong, 2021)

Recent studies by Nguyen Thi Dieu Ha (2021) and Nguyen Tuan Anh (2017) present a more optimistic view than Anh and Thuy's 2019 findings, demonstrating that teacher interventions in teaching three reading strategies—scanning, skimming, and inferring—significantly enhance students' abilities to set learning goals and plan autonomous activities to achieve them This guidance not only fosters improved English reading comprehension skills but also motivates students, enabling them to read more quickly and effectively.

In her 2019 study, Fatimah identifies key characteristics of learner autonomy in extensive reading classrooms, highlighting the importance of goal setting, the ability to adapt learning strategies, independent resource utilization, effective time management skills, and maintaining motivation to learn English.

In her 2017 exploratory study, Nguyen Thi Nga examined students' perceptions and practices of learner autonomy (LA) in the context of English reading comprehension (ERC) The findings indicate that students viewed teachers as primarily responsible for crucial aspects of the ERC learning process, such as determining content and assessing progress, while students mainly responded to teachers' directives Despite this, students expressed a desire to select classroom activities and influence their homework load Additionally, Nga found that students' actual engagement in LA was limited, characterized more by initiative in self-study than by control over the ERC classroom, aligning with Littlewood's concept of "reactive autonomy" (1999).

Autonomous language learning activities (ALLA)

2.5.1 Concept and benefit of ALLA

ALLA refers to activities that promote active and independent learning both inside and outside the classroom, encouraging students to engage in the learning process in a self-disciplined manner (Nowlan, 2008) Additionally, students utilize their free time for self-study and practicing English through out-of-class activities (Hyland, 2004) This approach fosters autonomous learning, allowing learners to take control of their educational journey.

Page 20 integral key to open a great knowledge door and promising job opportunities because autonomous learners will positively cultivate knowledge to meet society’s developing requirements (Unjana, 2018; as cited in Nurchalis, 2022) Having possessed an appropriate learning strategy, ALL may be well-prepared, self-confident, motivated to learn, and evaluate their learning process (Nurchalis, 2022) In globalization process, when Vietnam joined in WTO, mastering English autonomously promotes Vietnam a bit higher position

In addition, the outburst of information technology facilitates students’ greater access to learning resources, which aids to experience English practice autonomously (Vo, 2017)

2.5.2 ALLA to improve English reading skills

To enhance English proficiency, students can engage in various activities, as suggested by Nurchalis (2022), Firman (2020), and others These include reading English novels, social media posts, magazines, newspapers, and academic articles Additionally, previewing class materials, practicing online reading exercises, and revisiting textbook exercises are beneficial Students should seek opportunities for English practice outside the classroom, discuss learning challenges with peers, consult teachers about their progress, and take notes to summarize lessons (Marsevani, 2021) To improve listening skills, watching English videos or movies with subtitles and listening to broadcasts or podcasts is recommended Engaging in conversations with English speakers, writing social media captions and comments in English, texting in English, and taking notes during presentations can further develop writing skills.

In summary, this current study related to ALLA in ERC is conducted and adopted questionnaire designed by Nguyen Thi Nga, 2017 with three main parts “Perceptions of

LA, Responsibilities, and Practice” developed and used by Chan, 2003; Borg and Al- Busaidi, 2012; Joshi, 2011; and Yan, 2007 as follows:

Section I: Students’ perceptions of LA in ERC

• LA means that students are able to perceive their personal learning

• LA means that students alter the purposes and content of learning materials

• LA means that students choose a suitable learning style

• LA means that learners freely decide how to assess their personal learning process

• LA means that students can connect what has just been learned in class with knowledge of the world

• LA demands students to be completely independent of the teacher

• LA requires learners to study independently at home

• LA is promoted if students can pick out how to learn

• LA is promoted if students are likely to pick out some learning materials

• LA is promoted if students freely determine how to evaluate learning outcomes

• Motivated students are capable of fostering LA than unmotivated ones

• Confident learners are capable of increasing LA than unconfident ones

Section II: Students’ responsibilities for ERC learning issues

• Setting learning goals for ERC ability in each semester?

• Determining what would be learned in ERC lessons?

• Picking out text book and materials for ERC lessons?

• Choosing activities to learn ERC in class?

• Deciding how to assess students’ ERC ability?

• Deciding the amount of homework?

• Deciding the type of homework?

• Deciding the frequency of homework?

• Students’ interest in learning ERC?

• Students’ motivation in learning ERC?

• Identify students’ weaknesses in ERC?

Section III: Students’ ALLA to improve ERC

1 Using and monitoring learning strategies

• Seek for and pick out suitable strategies for ERC

• Intentionally use proper strategies when practicing ERC

• Monitor the use of strategies when practicing ERC

2 Monitoring the learning process and performance

• Search for and take advantage of every occasion to learn ERC outside

• Use learning resources available in library to learn ERC

• Connect between what is learned with the world on purpose

• Collaborate with peers to learn ERC outside class

3 Formulating learning objectives and plans

• Formulate your own ERC learning plan outside

• Formulate ERC objectives in your actual ability

• Plan demands to improve ERC every term

• Plan the ERC learning time outside the classroom

4 Tracking the use of learning methods

• Evaluate ERC learning methods to anticipate problems and find solutions

• Recognize if ERC learning methods are effective or not

• Alter suitable ERC learning methods when finding yours inappropriate

• Find errors in ERC learning process

• Analyse why you are wrong and self-correct to improve ERC

5 Identifying the importance of outside classroom learning

• Practice more outside to keep up with peers if you were lagged behind in class

Previous studies

Recent research on students' Autonomous Language Learning Activities (ALLA) includes a review by Nurchalis (2022), which focuses on out-of-class ALLA for mastering English in Indonesia Additionally, the study by Firman, Friscilla Wulan Tersta, and colleagues explores students' perceptions of ALLA within the English classroom context.

In February 2021, Rengki Afria discovered that while many students grasp the concept of Language Autonomy (LA), their practical application remains at an average level Although students demonstrate good efforts in engaging in autonomous activities, utilizing reference materials, and showing motivation to learn a language, the integration of technology in their learning process is identified as a significant aspect of Autonomous Language Learning (ALLA) among learners (Firman).

Approximately 50% of students acknowledged that they seldom prepare for lessons before class, indicating a perception of teachers primarily as knowledge providers, which diminishes their engagement with learning materials While students are somewhat active in revising and reading supplementary materials, their overall motivation for learning English is low, as evidenced by their infrequent self-rewarding behaviors (Firman, 2020).

In her May 2019 study, Fatimah discovered that incorporating blogs into extensive reading classrooms significantly enhances learners' autonomy This approach empowers students to establish their own learning objectives, access a vast array of reading materials to broaden their knowledge, and effectively manage their time.

In her February 2021 study, Marsevani Maya found that while EFL students engage with English language activities, about 70% reported a lack of confidence in communicating, rarely interacting in English with peers or teachers, and seldom participating in training or international events Despite these constraints, students showed a preference for watching films, engaging with authentic online videos, and listening to foreign music Maya recommends that English teachers focus on incorporating engaging classroom activities, while encouraging students to select appealing materials with the teachers' guidance and support (Marsevani, 2021).

In September 2021, Duong Minh Tuan conducted an investigation into the learning strategies of English majors and found that while students recognized the importance of autonomous learning in improving their academic performance, their actual implementation of these strategies was inadequate This suggests a continued dependence on teachers, as highlighted by Ngo (2019), which hinders students' ability to study independently.

Page 24 mean that learners are unable to become autonomous ones (Duong, 2021) In order for students to take over LA, teacher have to create a supportive and less-threatened learning environment (Ming, 2009; Duong, 2021)

In a study conducted by Ngo Phuong Anh and Dao Thi Hong Thuy (2019) on the use of PPAL in ERC, it was found that participants demonstrated flexibility in employing strategies to enhance their reading skills The analysis revealed that while participants preferred collaborating with teachers for comprehension issues, they infrequently sought advice for overcoming learning challenges Consistent with Duong's (2021) findings, participants exhibited a reliance on teachers for selecting learning materials and motivating learners Additionally, they tended to utilize readily available online resources but rarely participated in reading clubs, seminars, or forums (Ngo, 2019).

A study by Vo Ngoc Hoi in 2017, echoing findings from Anh & Thuy's 2019 research, revealed that students prefer personal activities over public ones when using Online Learning Applications (OLA) This preference is largely driven by a desire to avoid criticism and interpersonal risks, as noted by Hyland in 2004.

2017) Due to be afraid of being seen as showing off, students did not apply English to communicate with English-speaking foreigners (Vo, 2017)

Previous research highlights a significant gap in understanding how high school students in Vietnam perceive Language Awareness (LA) and utilize Academic Language Learning Activities (ALLA) to enhance their English Reading Comprehension (ERC) skills This deficiency has prompted the need for the current study.

Conceptual framework

The two new components are comprised of:

Students' perception of learner autonomy (LA) in English reading comprehension (ERC) encompasses five levels of LA as outlined by Nunan (1997) It highlights the importance of fostering student independence in ERC, promoting LA, and understanding the psychological aspects of learning in this context (Nguyen, 2017) Additionally, it emphasizes the responsibility students hold for addressing their own ERC learning challenges, as noted by various researchers (Nguyen, 2017; Ngo, 2019; ĩstỹnlỹoğlu, 2009; Tomita & Sano, 2016).

To enhance English reading skills, students should implement and monitor Effective Reading Comprehension (ERC) strategies, track their learning processes and performance, set clear ERC learning objectives and plans, assess the application of ERC methods, and recognize the significance of learning outside the classroom (Nguyen, 2017) Additional studies by Marsevani (2021), Nguyen (2017), Nurchalis (2022), and Duong (2021) support the notion that students' engagement in these practices is crucial for their reading development.

Page 25 perceptions of LA in ERC and their ALLA are the key components in promoting LA and improving ERC as well The conceptual framework for students’ ALLA employed in this thesis, is shown in Figure 2.2

Figure 2.2Conceptual framework for Ss’ autonomous language learning activities

Ss' perceptions of LA in ERC use & Five levels of LA in ERC (Nunan, 1997)

Promotion of LA in ERC

Responsibility for ERC learning issues

Ss' ALLA to improve ERC use & monitor ERC learning strategies

(Nguyen, 2017) monitor ERC learning process & performance

(Nguyen, 2017) formulate ERC learning objectives & plans

(Nguyen, 2017) monitor the use of ERC learning methods

(Nguyen, 2017) identify the importance of outside classroom learning ERC (Nguyen, 2017)

This study emphasizes the importance of students' Active Learning Attitudes (ALLA) in enhancing their English Reading Comprehension (ERC) skills The concept of Learning Attitudes (LA) is categorized into two key areas: students' perceptions of LA in ERC and their demonstrated ALLA, as illustrated in Figure 2.2.

The section titled "Students' Perception of Learner Autonomy in English Reading Comprehension" explores five key components: (a) the five levels of learner autonomy as defined by Nunan (1997), (b) the degree of independence exhibited by learners in English reading comprehension, (c) strategies for promoting learner autonomy within this context, (d) the psychological factors influencing learning in English reading comprehension, and (e) the responsibilities that students hold regarding their own learning challenges in English reading comprehension.

The section titled "Students' ALLA to Improve ERC" outlines five key components essential for enhancing ERC (Educational Resource Center) learning: first, the implementation and oversight of effective ERC learning strategies; second, the continuous assessment of the ERC learning process and student performance; third, the establishment of clear ERC learning objectives and action plans; fourth, the evaluation of various ERC learning methods; and fifth, the recognition of the significance of learning opportunities beyond the classroom.

This study examines how students' perceptions of learning autonomy (LA) in English reading comprehension (ERC) influence their engagement in autonomous language learning activities (ALLA) aimed at enhancing ERC skills The conceptual framework, depicted in Figure 2.2, highlights the connections between these elements and underscores the variations among the research questions.

Summary

This chapter aims to explore high school students' perceptions of Language Awareness (LA) in English Reading Comprehension (ERC) and how they leverage Academic Language and Literacy Activities (ALLA) to enhance their English reading skills A literature review has been conducted to establish a theoretical foundation, focusing on key concepts and issues related to ERC and LA in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts This review serves as a framework for analyzing responses from the questionnaire and interviews, facilitating a comparative analysis of the results obtained from both methods.

Figure 3.1 A sequential explanatory design (Creswell, 2009)

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Chapter III critically examines the methodology employed in this study, focusing on key aspects such as research design, the research setting, participant selection, instruments used, and the processes of data collection and analysis Additionally, it addresses the validity and reliability of the research findings.

Research design

This research utilized a mixed-method design to explore high school students' perceptions of language acquisition (LA) in English reading contexts and their autonomous language learning activities Creswell (2013) and Duong (2021) highlight that this approach offers a more comprehensive analysis of complex issues compared to solely quantitative or qualitative methods By integrating both methods, the study aims to gather extensive data and provide a detailed qualitative understanding of respondents' opinions (Reinders & Hubbard, 2013; Duong, 2021), which single-method approaches may overlook (Sandelowski, 2000; Duong, 2021) Data collection and analysis followed a sequential explanatory design as proposed by Creswell.

2009 as illustrated in Figure 3.1 below

The study utilized a two-part questionnaire to gather quantitative data on students' perceptions of Learning Analytics (LA) in English Reading Comprehension (ERC) and their attitudes towards LA for enhancing English reading skills Both quantitative analysis and qualitative interpretation were conducted simultaneously to effectively compare and contrast meaningful responses to the research questions.

Research setting

The study was conducted at Nguyen Trai High School (NTHS) in Thuan An City, Binh Duong province, Vietnam, a public institution established in August 1997 with over 25 years of experience NTHS serves 1,562 students across 40 classes, including 13 in grade 10, 12 in grade 11, and 15 in grade 12, utilizing 30 classrooms equipped with smartboards, speakers, and specialized labs for Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Informatics, along with a Vietnamese-standardized library and a large gymnasium The school's mission is to equip students with essential knowledge and practical skills, fostering their ability to pursue further education or higher studies The management emphasizes the importance of English language proficiency as a key factor in students' future career success.

Research participants

A total of 102 students aged 15 to 17 from grades 10 and 11 were selected for a purposeful convenience sampling, along with 10 participants for one-on-one pilot interviews conducted via Zalo text messages These pilot interviews took place shortly after the completion of first-term tests in school on December 31, 2022.

A month later, six official online interviews were conducted with focus groups from three classes, each consisting of five students Due to internet connectivity issues and forgotten Teams passwords, only 15 participants attended the audio-recorded sessions on January 29, 2023 Additionally, the researcher created two Google Forms links containing 34 questionnaire items, which were shared in the Zalo groups of classes 11A11, 10A12, and 10A13, totaling 102 students All 102 respondents completed and submitted their questionnaires within three days, from January 28 to January 30, 2023.

Research instruments

Researcher utilized two instruments, including questionnaire and interview to gather data in this study

To measure students’ perceptions of LA in ERC and their ALLA to improve English reading skills, researcher deployed two online close-ended questionnaires (Oppenheim,

In the study conducted by Duong (2021), the use of an online questionnaire via Google Forms was chosen due to its efficiency and cost-effectiveness This method allows researchers to quickly import data from Excel files into SPSS software, facilitating precise and convenient data processing.

In this study, researcher adapted and utilized questionnaire items designed by Nguyen Thi Nga, 2017; Chan (2003); Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012); Joshi (2011); and Yan

The questionnaire utilized in this study comprises 34 questions divided into two sections: students' perceptions of language awareness (LA) in English Reading Comprehension (ERC) and their autonomous language learning activities (ALLA) aimed at enhancing ERC Participants responded using a five-point Likert scale, where '1' indicates 'strongly disagree' and '5' signifies 'strongly agree.' Section 1 features 16 statements categorized into five factors: levels of LA in ERC, learner independence, promotion of LA, psychology of learning, and student responsibility for ERC learning issues.

The second section of the study aims to assess students' attitudes towards learning activities (ALLA) to enhance educational resource consumption (ERC) To gauge respondents' levels of agreement with the questionnaire items, the researcher utilized a five-point Likert scale, where '1' represents 'never' and '5' signifies 'always.'

‘2’ = ‘rarely’, ‘3’ = ‘sometimes’, ‘4’ = ‘often’ and ‘5’ = ‘always.’ The second section named “Students’ ALLA to improve ERC” (item 17-34) consists of 18 items classified into

5 factors: (1) using and monitoring ERC learning strategies (S17-S19), (2) monitoring the

ERC learning process and performance (PP20-PP24), (3) Formulating ERC learning objectives and plans (OP25-OP28), and (4) monitoring the use of ERC learning methods

(M29-M33), and (5) identifying the importance of outside classroom learning ERC

To achieve the desired outcomes, the researcher translated 34 questionnaire items into Vietnamese, ensuring that students faced no language barriers when selecting their responses The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed by Cronbach's alpha coefficients, which were 848 for students' perceptions of Learning Activities (LA) in the Educational Research Context (ERC), 904 for students' Attitudes towards Learning Activities (ALLA), and 893 for the overall set of 34 items, as detailed in Table 3.1.

In addition to utilizing a questionnaire for data collection in this study, the researcher incorporated a semi-structured interview, informed by a pilot one-on-one online interview conducted via Zalo text messages This interview aimed to gather more in-depth information and validate the data obtained from the questionnaire The pilot online interview also served to assess the relevance and appropriateness of the close-ended options in the semi-structured format Furthermore, it allowed the researcher to refine the procedure as needed, thus optimizing resources To facilitate comprehensive responses, two questions in the online interview were translated into Vietnamese for the interviewees.

After 15 volunteers out of 30 randomly chosen students had completed 6 online interview meetings which were audio-recorded on Microsoft Teams, researcher may clarify and explain more for 2 research questions in this study The semi-structured interview comprises 2 questions as follows:

1 In your opinion, what is LA in ERC?

2 How do you use ALLA to improve your English reading comprehension at NTHS?

The choice of 102 participants aims to confirm high school students’ perceptions of

LA in ERC at NTHS, simultaneously examine how high school students use ALLA to improve their English reading skills at NTHS in reality.

Data collection

After the first-term tests, a researcher conducted 10 pilot one-on-one interviews via the Zalo social network with 10 random volunteers from classes 10A12, 10A13, and 11A11 The aim was to assess high school students' perceptions of Learning Activities (LA) in English Reading Comprehension (ERC) and to explore how their actual Autonomous Language Learning Activities (ALLA) contribute to improving ERC skills Based on the pilot interviews, the researcher developed close-ended options for two interview questions, which were included on the reverse side of the questionnaire To prevent miscommunication due to language barriers, the questionnaire items and interview questions were translated into Vietnamese A total of 102 participants aged 15-17 from grades 10 and 11 were selected for this study at a public senior high school in Binh Duong, Vietnam.

From January 28 to January 30, 2023, a total of 102 students aged 15-17 from grades 10 and 11 completed a questionnaire via Google Forms, distributed through Zalo to three classes: 11A11, 10A12, and 10A13 The online data collection method proved efficient, allowing the researcher to quickly import the data into SPSS Statistics version 25 Additionally, 30 students were randomly selected for online semi-structured interviews, organized into six groups of five, using a random name generator on Wordwall.net However, only 15 students participated in the interviews on January 29 due to issues like forgotten Microsoft Teams passwords and poor internet connectivity The interviews, conducted in Vietnamese and recorded on Microsoft Teams, demonstrated the platform's reliability compared to alternatives like Zoom, Google Meet, and Zalo.

Data analysis

To address two research questions, the researcher utilized SPSS 25 for quantitative data analysis, enabling the encoding of findings and value identification SPSS is favored by many scholars for its user-friendly interface, efficient data management, and reliable statistical analysis, providing precise results (Pham, 2015; Duong, 2021).

Descriptive statistics comprises means, standard deviations computed to analyze quantitative data The meaning of mean scores is interpreted as below (Suvarnatemee, 2009; Duong, 2021; Pham, 2019):

• 1.00 through 1.80 (= from 1 to 1.8) refers to “strongly disagree” or “never”

• 1.81 through 2.60 refers to “disagree” or “rarely”

• 2.61 through 3.40 refers to “undecided” or “sometimes”

• 3.41 through 4.20 refers to “agree” or “often”

• 4.21 through 5.00 refers to “strongly agree” or “always”

On January 29, 2023, a researcher conducted six online interviews via Microsoft Teams, gathering qualitative data Utilizing thematic analysis techniques as outlined by Braun & Clarke (2006) and Duong (2021), she identified and reported key themes within the data The audio recordings were translated into English solely for research purposes.

The researcher conducted six online focus group interviews via Microsoft Teams, randomly selecting five students for each session using the Wordwall.net platform Each participant had 5-10 minutes to share their insights on the interview questions All sessions were recorded for further analysis The researcher then performed a content analysis of the responses, following a three-step process: familiarizing and organizing the data, coding and recoding the information, and summarizing and interpreting the findings However, challenges such as weak 3G connections and forgotten Teams passwords limited participation to only 15 interviewees.

30 randomly chosen students in six groups were coded as S1G1, S2G1, S3G1, S1G2, S2G2, S3G2, S4G2, S1G3a, S2G3a, S3G3a, S4G3a, S1G3b, S2G3b, S1G4a, and S1G4b.

Validity and reliability

Validity and reliability are critical aspects of quantitative research design (Silverman, 2005; Duong, 2021) Validity refers to the alignment between researchers' conceptual constructs and actual measurements, ensuring that research questions are accurately addressed within the research context (Neuman, 2003; Duong, 2021) Statistical analysis demonstrates an acceptable level of construct validity for the quantitative instrument used (Chapter 4).

To assess the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, Cronbach alpha coefficients were calculated Additionally, descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were utilized to analyze students' engagement with ALLA in enhancing their English reading skills, as noted by Salvucci.

(1997, as cited in Duong, 2021), Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients (α) were perceived as below:

- α from 0.50 to 0.80 means “moderate reliability”

In addition, Darren and Mallery (2003, cited in Duong, 2021) encoded the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients (α) as follows:

Table 3.1 Cronbach’s Alpha of questionnaire items students’ Perceptions of LA in ERC students’ ALLA to improve ERC

Cronbach's Alpha Number of items Cronbach's Alpha Number of items

Cronbach’s Alpha of 34 questionnaire items

Cronbach's Alpha Number of items

The reliability and validity of the 34 questionnaire items were confirmed with a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of 0.893, exceeding the acceptable threshold of 0.6 The data collected from the questionnaire were analyzed using SPSS Statistics version 25 Additionally, six online semi-structured interviews were conducted and audio-recorded on Microsoft Teams on January 29, 2023 Microsoft Teams was selected for these interviews due to its superior stability and reduced interruptions compared to other platforms like Zoom, Google Meet, and Zalo Networking Site The transcribed data from these interviews were analyzed using pattern coding methods as outlined by Bogdan & Biklen (1994) and Duong.

2021) In order to ensure that data collection from online interviews and online

Page 34 questionnaires were consistent with each other, researcher grouped the questions together in the same categories

The study utilized 34 questionnaire items and two questions for six online interviews, translating them into Vietnamese to eliminate language barriers for participants Prior to the official interviews, ten randomly selected students from three different class groups reviewed the Vietnamese interview protocol to ensure clarity and ease of understanding Each interview lasted approximately 5 to 10 minutes, with direct references omitted to maintain participant anonymity (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007; Duong, 2021) The researcher concurrently analyzed both the questionnaire data and interview responses, transcribing each interview verbatim Following transcription, the researcher meticulously reread the transcripts, summarizing key ideas and employing open-coding techniques for data analysis (Creswell, 2013; Duong).

Summary

This chapter details the adoption of a mixed methods design and the utilization of data collection instruments, including two online questionnaires via Google Forms and six semi-structured interviews conducted on Microsoft Teams The researcher outlines the procedures for data collection and analysis, providing a comprehensive approach to addressing the two research questions The findings and discussions are further elaborated in the subsequent chapter.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Introduction

Chapter IV presents the findings from a quantitative data analysis conducted using SPSS, which involved responses from 102 participants, alongside qualitative insights derived from six online interviews via Microsoft Teams The results focus on two key research questions regarding students’ perceptions of Learning Activities (LA) in English Reading Comprehension (ERC) and their attitudes towards enhancing ERC skills Additionally, the researcher provides an in-depth discussion and explanation of the underlying reasons for these two components.

Results

4.2.1 Students’ perceptions of LA in ERC

Table 4.1 displays the mean scores (M) and standard deviations (SD) for 16 items that assess students' perceptions of Learning Activities (LA) in Educational Research Contexts (ERC) across five aspects of Section 1 of the questionnaire A total of 102 completed questionnaires were collected (N2), with participants' responses evaluated using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).

Table 4.1 indicates that high school students have a positive perception of Learning Activities (LA) in the Educational Resource Center (ERC), with a total mean score of 3.72 and a standard deviation of 0.50.

High school students demonstrated positive perceptions of Learning Autonomy (LA) in Educational Research Competence (ERC) across five key components Their perceptions regarding levels of LA, learner independence, promotion of LA, the psychology of learning, and students' responsibility for ERC learning issues were notably high Although the overall mean scores were elevated, there were some variations in responses to each component Notably, the highest perception among the components was related to the psychology of learning in ERC, with a mean score of 3.97 and a standard deviation of 0.78.

High school students reported positive perceptions of Learning Activities (LA) in the Educational Resource Center (ERC), with an average score of 3.90 (SD = 0.60) They also expressed a strong sense of responsibility towards addressing learning issues in the ERC, scoring an average of 3.86 (SD = 0.56) Additionally, students showed a commitment to promoting LA within the ERC, with an average score of 3.84 (SD = 0.64).

Page 36 mentioned components indicates that high school students agree to take responsibility for ERC learning issues such as English learning outcomes, ERC learning strategies/ choosing and adjusting appropriate ERC learning method/ styles to improve ERC and have willing psychology of learning ERC in their learning process inside and outside classroom Nevertheless, they still have to teacher/ instructor’s guidance, supervision and support when necessary because not all every problem is understandable, when they search supplementary English materials on Google, watch lectures on YouTube, TED talks outside classroom (S1G4a) For this reason, compared with the four components mentioned above, those of Learners' Independence in ERC ranked the fifth (M=2.99; SD=.93)

Table 4.1 High school students’ perceptions of LA in ERC

No Students’ Perceptions of LA in ERC N2

1 Levels of LA in ERC 3.90 60

3 Promotion of LA in ERC 3.84 64

5 Students’ responsibility for ERC learning issues 3.86 56

Note: M: mean; SD: Standard deviation

As shown in the table 4.1 the data of five factors are analyzed deliberately and descriptively as below:

4.2.1.1 Levels of LA in ERC

Table 4.2 presents the mean scores and standard deviations for high school students' levels of Learning Autonomy (LA) in Environmental Resource Conservation (ERC), revealing a generally positive attitude (M=3.90; SD=.60) The analysis, based on five items, indicates that students strongly believe LA allows them to develop personalized ERC learning styles (item L4: M=4.04, SD=.89) and helps them connect classroom content to real-world applications (item L5: M=3.97; SD=.92), demonstrating their ability to adjust their learning goals and content in ERC.

Page 37 outside classroom” (item L3: M=3.97; SD=.87), “are able to aware of their own learning ERC” (item L1: M=3.90; SD=.80) and freely decide how their ERC learning will be assessed (item L2: M=3.63; SD=1.03) Table 4.2 shows significant levels of LA in ERC (“awareness” = L1, “involvement” = L2, “intervention” = L3, “creation” = L4, and

High school students experienced a boost in confidence, responsibility, motivation, and interest when empowered through Learning Activities (LA) in Experiential Reflective Curriculum (ERC) This empowerment led to an increase in their positive perceptions of LA in ERC while simultaneously reducing their negative perceptions.

Table 4.2 High school students’ levels of LA in ERC

Code Students’ levels of LA in ERC N2

L1 LA means that learners are able to perceive their own learning ERC 3.90 80

L2 LA means that learners freely decide how their

ERC learning will be assessed 3.63 1.03

LA means that learners modify their own goals and content of learning ERC materials outside classroom.

L4 LA means that learners create their own ERC learning styles 4.04 89

LA means that learners can connect the content of classroom ERC learning with knowledge of the world

Note: M: mean; SD: Standard deviation

High school students exhibit positive perceptions of Learning Analytics (LA) in Enhancing Reflective Competence (ERC) Through online interviews, insights into students' attitudes towards LA were gathered, revealing that the use of ALLA significantly aids in improving their ERC.

Page 38 results of questionnaire data to add in-depth evidence to the findings Some students gave positive ideas and thoughts as below:

An autonomous learner in English reading and comprehension (ERC) actively seeks methods to enhance their skills beyond the classroom They set personal goals and assess their learning progress while exploring various ERC resources online, including newspapers, films, and images Personally, I prefer reading relatable daily life stories, as they contain simple and accessible language As my ERC abilities improved, I expanded my reading to include newspapers and world news in English, focusing on topics like war and the environment.

If I see common daily word, I will take note it and its phonetic in my handbook to remember and make 1-2 sentences related to that word (S1G1)

To enhance their English reading comprehension (ERC), autonomous learners can acquire additional skills that facilitate a better understanding of texts Personally, I find that engaging with reading materials related to my textbook topics and everyday life, such as "The Role of Water," is beneficial While I seldom read newspapers, I prefer watching TED Talks, as the combination of visual aids and spoken content significantly aids my comprehension of the material.

High school students increasingly favor learning English through engaging daily topics on platforms like YouTube, TED Talks, and Instagram, rather than through traditional, uninteresting texts in books This shift significantly alters their perceptions of language acquisition in English Resource Centers (ERC) and enhances their autonomous language learning activities to improve their skills.

Concerning learners’ independence in ERC, high school students’ independence of

In the analysis of Learners' Independence in the context of ERC, as detailed in Table 4.1, it was found that this component ranked fifth among the five measured items, with a mean score of 2.99 and a standard deviation of 0.93 The results indicated that a significant number of high school students disagreed with the statement that "LA demands students to be completely independent of the teacher in practicing ERC," reflected in item I6, which had a mean of 2.59 and a standard deviation of 1.06 Additionally, students remained uncertain regarding the assertion that "LA requires learners to self-study ERC independently at home," as shown by item I7, which recorded a mean of 3.40 and a standard deviation of 1.15.

Table 4.3High school students’ independence of LA in ERC

I6 LA requires learners to be completely independent of the teacher in practicing ERC 2.59 1.06

I7 LA requires learners to self-study ERC independently at home 3.40 1.15

Note: M: mean; SD: Standard deviation

High school students often exhibit hesitance in independently and confidently engaging with ERC (Education Resource Center) learning outside the classroom, relying heavily on teacher guidance and support This behavior reflects a tendency towards passive learning habits, aligning with the findings of Ngo Phuong Anh and Dao Thi Hong Thuy's study in 2019.

In semi-structured online interviews conducted via Microsoft Teams, students expressed a shared perspective on the importance of teacher supervision in the learning process They highlighted specific reasons for the necessity of support from others in the context of learner autonomy (LA) within the ERC learning environment, emphasizing the value of collaborative assistance outside the classroom.

Teacher asked: “In your opinion, do learner autonomy mean that learners self-study completely independent without any help from others?

S3G1 answered: “Knowledge is very enormous and we can not understand all everything For this reason, I need teacher’s help and supervision For example,

I was confused with distinguishing between simple past and past perfect in understand the different meanings of 2 sentences with these 2 tenses” (S3G1)

Discussions

4.3.1 Students’ perceptions of LA in ERC

High school students generally have positive perceptions of language acquisition (LA) in English Resource Centers (ERC) due to several factors The continuous advancement of 4.0 technology has created an "open multi-dimensional space" filled with valuable English learning tools and free software applications that facilitate the practice of all four English skills With access to 3G or Wi-Fi-enabled devices such as computers, laptops, iPads, and smartphones, students can independently learn English at home, as nearly every student owns a smartphone Additionally, Vietnam's integration into the World Trade Organization (WTO) has positioned English as a crucial means of global communication, making proficiency in the language, particularly in listening and speaking, essential for securing well-paid jobs and meeting the demands of the job market.

Page 52 students are always self-aware of learning English for a better future job Thirdly, because parents in city are always interested in their children’s learning and have financial investment on sending children to study with native speakers at foreign language centres from the early age of 6, this aids small children to formulate natural reaction and confidence when they contact and communicate with foreigners naturally and confidently Simultaneously, this successful communication with foreigners motivates learners to self- study English autonomously and self-disciplined Therefore, majority of today’s high school students tend to learn English for communication skills while they feel quite good at practicing English reading texts subjectively In general, high school students incline to the view that language leaners’ main goal is to utilize it to communicate with everyone successfully in real everyday life From actual observation and data obtained from questionnaire, researcher may conclude that the high school students were autonomous to a certain degree and the level of their autonomy can be considered as “an individual’s autonomy as a communicator” proposed by Littlewood (1997, p.81) Nevertheless, due to high school students’ limited range of specialist knowledge, majority of them disagreed with the points of view “LA requires learners to be completely independent of the teacher in practicing ERC” and were still hesitantly undecided about “LA requires learners to self- study ERC independently at home” For this reason, high school students are not still regarded as “proactive autonomy” suggested by Littlewood (1999)

Autonomous learning is a lifelong journey that demands persistence and determination from learners, encouraging them to overcome obstacles in their pursuit of knowledge Successful language learners often exhibit traits of autonomy, as their perceptions of language acquisition significantly influence their motivation to explore vast realms of knowledge Engaging with a diverse range of English books not only enhances reading skills but also cultivates proficiency in the language, empowering learners to become adept communicators.

4.3.2 Students’ ALLA to improve ERC

Table 4.1 shows that high school students generally have positive perceptions of Learning Activities (LA) in the Educational Resource Center (ERC) However, as indicated in Table 4.7, students infrequently apply Active Learning Activities (ALLA) to enhance their experience in the ERC This discrepancy in the application of ALLA among high school students may stem from several underlying reasons.

Page 53 high school students have a tendency to learn English for communication, pleasure, relaxation, and entertainment, like listening to foreign music, watching foreign everyday films with English-Vietnamese bilingual subtitles, reports about celebrities or famous businessmen on YouTube, read short comics with eye-catching images while the English reading texts in their textbooks are very dry, monotonous and tedious with uninteresting lengthy paragraphs (extracted from interviewees) For this reason, students only sometimes review some learnt vocabulary and essential grammatical points for their coming exams, whereas they are inclined to lazy for reviewing/ redoing ERC texts/ passages in textbooks Secondly, passive learning habit and over-reliance on teacher prevent many high school students from developing LA in ERC (Alzubi & Singh, 2017; Chikwa, Al-Damen, & Mathew, 2018; Cao, 2011; Alzubi & Singh, 2017; Ngo, 2019) This leads high school students to unable to self-studying independently at home (table 4.3), albeit available electronic devices for learning English such as smartphones, laptops, computers, I-pad connected with 3G, Wifi or the Internet As a matter of fact, almost high school students use electronics for playing online games more than self-studying English at break time while only a few students are diligent in reading English books For this reason, high school learners’ amount of spare time for self-studying English independently outside the classroom is very limited and little while they are busy with attending other subjects’ extra classes with a hectic schedule Thirdly, due to be exhausted with their hectic schedule, almost high school students have not made specific study plans (table 4.10, OP25: M=2.68; SD=.98) and learning time (table 4.10, OP28: M=2.84; SD=1.08) for practicing ERC outside the classroom, albeit formulating their English learning objectives for communication, job opportunity in future The explanation for this overloaded study is poor time-management skills, game addiction and social networks’ temptation In other words, high school students have not known how to manage their logic spare time to prioritize the most important and essential task while they waste most of their spare time on playing games or watching other entertainments and chatting trivial things online, but not for learning purposes

In summary, this study revealed a limited alignment between high school students' perceptions of Learning Activities (LA) in the Educational Resource Center (ERC) and their attitudes towards Learning Activities for All (ALLA) aimed at enhancing the ERC The correlation between the students' perceptions and attitudes was also found to be limited.

Page 54 perceptions of LA in ERC and their actual ALLA has suggested some important implications for developing LA in this specific context, which will be discussed in the next chapter of this report.

Summary

This chapter IV presented the detailed analysis of the collected quantitative and qualitative data and the results generated as well as presented the discussions of findings

The analysis of the collected data reveals significant insights into high school students' perceptions of learner autonomy (LA) within the context of educational research and curriculum (ERC) It addresses key areas such as learners' independence, the promotion of LA, the psychology of learning, students' responsibilities in ERC, and their approaches to autonomous lifelong learning activities (ALLA) across five dimensions: learning strategies, monitoring processes and performance, setting objectives and study plans, learning methods, and the importance of extracurricular learning The upcoming chapter will summarize these findings to effectively answer the research questions and propose strategies to enhance student autonomy in the studied context.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

This study investigates high school students' use of ALLA at NTHS in Thuan An City, Binh Duong Province, Vietnam, utilizing a mixed-method design Quantitative data analysis was conducted using SPSS Version 25 for Windows 10 Chapter V is organized into five sections: introduction, conclusions, implications, limitations, and recommendations for future research.

Conclusions

Many high school students at NTHS believe that self-directed learning significantly enhances their ERC skills, as it enables deeper and longer retention of knowledge compared to traditional teacher-led instruction This finding aligns with students' perceptions of effective learning strategies.

High school students at NTHS demonstrated positive perceptions of Learning Autonomy (LA) in English Reading Comprehension (ERC) They frequently employed various Autonomous Language Learning Activities (ALLA) to enhance their ERC skills, such as identifying and analyzing mistakes in their texts, correcting errors, and seeking additional practice opportunities outside the classroom However, most other ALLA were only occasionally utilized Overall, the findings indicate that these students are generally willing to adopt ALLA, perceiving an increase in their autonomy in language learning and extending their application of ALLA beyond the classroom setting.

High school students generally have a positive perception of Learning Analytics (LA) in Educational Resource Centers (ERC), particularly regarding the levels and promotion of LA, as well as their psychological approach to learning and responsibilities related to ERC learning issues However, they express uncertainty about their independence in ERC, often relying on teacher supervision due to a lack of specialized knowledge Additionally, most participants prefer to implement the ALLA process in enhancing their listening skills rather than reading skills, as they identify primarily as auditory learners who frequently engage with music and listening activities.

Page 56 to voice of native speakers to imitate and reinforced their English ability by sound Gradually, thanks to implementing ALLA in listening in general and in reading in particular, high school students improved their language learning activities beyond the classroom autonomously.

The implications of the research

The thesis highlights the importance of high school students' perceptions of Autonomous Language Learning Activities (ALLA) in enhancing their English reading comprehension (ERC) and language acquisition Recognizing the benefits of ALLA is crucial for learners, as regular implementation can significantly improve their skills Autonomous students are encouraged to engage in diverse learning activities, communicate confidently, and collaborate with peers both inside and outside the classroom By utilizing ALLA, learners can set personal learning objectives, create practice schedules, select relevant content, apply effective strategies, and independently assess their progress.

5.3.1 Students’ positive attitudes towards ALLA

High school students have shown a positive attitude towards English reading materials that relate to their daily lives, as these texts often feature engaging images that enhance comprehension This visual appeal encourages students to read more English books, enabling them to effectively apply the knowledge gained to real-life situations Consequently, students prefer illustrated English texts over those without images Additionally, the topics in their English textbooks are relevant and accessible, avoiding complex vocabulary or idioms that could discourage struggling readers.

5.3.2 LA training for teachers and students

Vietnamese high school teachers must receive intensive training in Learning Assessment (LA) from the Ministry of Education and Training to effectively fulfill their new roles as instructors, facilitators, supervisors, and monitors Once equipped with LA skills, teachers can guide and support their students, helping them connect academic knowledge to practical applications for solving complex real-life problems It is essential for students to be adequately prepared with the necessary learning tools to enhance their educational experience and success.

Page 57 methods and learning strategies to conduct ALLA In order to carry out this, teachers should organize some training courses, plan a learning syllabus, pick out suitable materials and assessment rubric carefully for students

5.3.3 The support from the stakeholders

Stakeholders, including librarians, device managers, and security guards, play a crucial role in the implementation of ALLA (Active Language Learning Activities) in high schools Their collaboration with teachers and students is essential for facilitating ALLA in classrooms, computer rooms, and libraries The Ministry of Education and Training should organize training courses or online conferences to equip high school teachers with vital information about ALLA It is also important to invite experienced teachers to share their hands-on experiences, which can support students in effectively engaging with ALLA and enhancing their English performance.

Limitations of the research

This thesis has limitations, primarily due to its small sample size of only 102 participants from grades 10 and 11 across three classes at NTHS, Thuan An, Binh Duong, Vietnam, making it challenging to generalize the findings for the entire student population Future research should expand the participant pool to include high school students in grade 12 to enhance the representativeness of the study.

The questionnaire may not fully capture all aspects of perceptions of Learning Analytics (LA) in Educational Research Communities (ERC) and Academic Learning Analytics (ALLA) Additionally, the limited number of interview participants highlights a focus on depth rather than breadth in the qualitative approach.

Recommendation for further research

From the discussion mentioned above, a number of recommendations for further research can be deduced:

This study reveals a disconnect between students' understanding of Learning Activities (LA) in English Reading Comprehension (ERC) and their Autonomous Learning Activities (ALLA) aimed at enhancing ERC To address this, students need guidance and supervision to utilize their ALLA more confidently, self-discipline, and consistently Furthermore, it is essential to teach them effective strategies for using ALLA to improve their ERC skills.

Pre-test and post-test need doing in a large number of high school students to compare between participant groups and evaluate degree of change in the study.

The participants picked out to implement a survey should be experienced ones in implementing ALLA.

This article examines the similarities and differences in English learning outcomes based on gender, age, study schedules, and duration of using ALLA It highlights the impact of attending English classes at foreign centers and the importance of self-regulated learning time By analyzing these factors, the study aims to provide a broader understanding of how various demographics and learning environments influence English proficiency.

Almusharraf, N (2018) English as a foreign language learner autonomy in vocabulary development: Variation in student autonomy levels and teacher support Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning

In 2024, the Vietnamese government aims to enhance English education, recognizing it as a vital second language Despite many students achieving proficiency in reading and writing, speaking skills remain underdeveloped English is primarily studied for career advancement, higher education abroad, and migration to English-speaking countries However, traditional teaching methods in schools emphasize reading and writing, neglecting speaking and listening, which hinders effective communication with foreigners The high student-to-teacher ratio in classrooms further exacerbates this issue Conversely, private English centers provide targeted training in all language skills, presenting opportunities for educators and learners alike For those interested in teaching English in Vietnam, numerous positions are available, provided they meet the necessary qualifications Engaging with local students through informal conversations can also enhance their learning experience.

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STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF LA IN ERC & THEIR ALLA TO IMPROVE ERC

Phiếu điều tra nhằm tìm hiểu nhận thức về tự chủ học tập trong kỹ năng đọc hiểu tiếng Anh của học sinh, cùng với những hoạt động học ngôn ngữ tự chủ mà học sinh thực hiện để cải thiện kỹ năng này Nghiên cứu này sẽ giúp xác định các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến khả năng tự học và phát triển kỹ năng đọc hiểu tiếng Anh hiệu quả hơn Thông qua việc khảo sát, chúng tôi mong muốn thu thập thông tin để nâng cao phương pháp giảng dạy và hỗ trợ học sinh trong quá trình học tập.

This questionnaire seeks to understand your views and practices regarding learner autonomy in English reading comprehension Rest assured, all personal information will remain confidential, and your responses will solely contribute to the research project report Please indicate your opinions by selecting the option that best reflects your perspective.

Phiếu điều tra này nhằm tìm hiểu nhận thức và mức độ thực hiện của bạn về sự tự chủ học tập trong việc học kỹ năng đọc hiểu tiếng Anh Tất cả thông tin cá nhân của bạn sẽ được bảo mật và chỉ được sử dụng cho báo cáo nghiên cứu Vui lòng đánh dấu tích (√) vào lựa chọn phù hợp với ý kiến của bạn.

1 How do high school students perceive learner autonomy in English reading comprehension at Nguyen Trai High School?

2 How do high school students use autonomous language learning activities to improve their English reading comprehension at Nguyen Trai High School?

STUDENTS’ ALLA TO IMPROVE ENGLISH READING

Table 2.1 Levels of Learner Autonomy (Nunan, 1997) 13

Table 4.1 High school students’ perceptions of LA in ERC 36

Table 4.2 High school students’ levels of LA in ERC 37

Table 4.3 High school students’ independence of LA in ERC 39

Table 4.4 High school students’ promotion of LA in ERC 40

Table 4.5 High school students’ psychology of learning ERC 42

Table 4.6 High school students’ responsibilities for ERC learning issues 43

Table 4.7 High school students’ ALLA to improve ERC 45

Table 4.8 High school students’ using and monitoring ERC learning strategies 45

Table 4.9 High school students’ monitoring ERC learning process and performance 46

Table 4.10 High school students’ formulating ERC learning objectives and plans 48

Table 4.11 High school students’ monitoring the use of ERC learning methods 49

Table 4.12 Identifying the importance of outside classroom learning ERC 51 xiii

Figure 2.1 Models of the reading process (Perfetti, Landi & Oakhill, 2005) 10Figure 2.2 Conceptual Framework for Ss’ Autonomous Language Learning Activities 25 Figure 3.1 A Sequential Explanatory Design (Creswell, 2009) 27 xiv

ALLA Autonomous language learning activities

NTHS Nguyen Trai High School

PALAQ Students’ perceptions of learner autonomy in English reading comprehension and their autonomous language learning activities to improve English reading comprehension questionnaire

PALAI Students’ perceptions of learner autonomy in English reading comprehension and their autonomous language learning activities to improve English reading comprehension interview ESL English as a second language

EFL English as a foreign language

PPAL Perceptions and practices of autonomous learning

OLA Out-of-class learning activities

This chapter provides an overview of the educational background relevant to the study, outlines the problem statement, and defines the aims and objectives It also includes two key research questions, discusses the scope and significance of the study, and details the organization of the research.

In today's globalized world, proficiency in English is crucial for enhancing employment opportunities (Muller et al., 2012) However, Nguyen and Pham (2016) highlight a concerning trend where university graduates fail to meet the English language requirements set by recruiters, leading to increased unemployment rates Despite numerous reforms over the past thirty years aimed at improving Vietnam's education system—including updates to teaching methods, training qualifications, and curriculum design—the effectiveness of English teaching and learning continues to fall short.

Successful English language learners are often actively engaged in their language acquisition, yet many university students still exhibit passive learning habits reminiscent of high school, relying heavily on rote memorization and instructor guidance This dependence may lead to high grades but fails to cultivate deeper knowledge or essential skills for the job market Consequently, such learning styles can obstruct the development of learner autonomy, which is crucial for academic and professional success.

Autonomous learning skills significantly enhance knowledge retention and application in real-life situations and future careers (Mathew, 2018) To foster learner autonomy (LA), individuals should engage in self-study and collaborative learning practices (Shi & Han, 2019), thereby developing a "teacher-less" study habit (Masouleh & Joomeghani, 2012) This approach is crucial for adapting to the self-reliant and proactive environment of university life and succeeding in today's competitive global job market Ultimately, LA plays a vital role in improving English reading comprehension (ERC) and is essential for academic and professional success.

Page 2 preparation step for twelfth graders to pass Vietnamese high school Graduation Exam administered by the Ministry of Education and Training to get a diploma called the Graduation Diploma of General Upper Secondary Education because English reading comprehension (ERC) occupies two third of English test paper and be an easy skill for exercising learner independence and autonomy

A study by Nguyễn Thị Tố Hoa and Phạm Thị Tuyết Mai in 2016 revealed that approximately 50.7% of university graduates fail to meet English proficiency requirements set by recruiters, primarily due to a lack of understanding of autonomous English learning relevant to their careers This highlights the importance of autonomous language learning, which is crucial for graduates to succeed in securing job opportunities Moreover, the ability to learn independently is a vital characteristic of effective language learners, as it empowers them to create a communicative environment in their target language.

The applicability of Learning Autonomy (LA) in the Vietnamese education context spans all age groups of English learners (Nguyen, 2016) Common negative perceptions of Asian students, such as being "passive," having a "lack of critical thinking," and being "rote learners," have been widely discussed (Cao, 2011; Alzubi & Singh, 2017; Murase, 2012, p 66) Murase (2012) suggests that these traits contradict the essence of LA However, Cao Thị Thanh Nguyên (2011) argues that such characteristics do not apply to all Southeast Asian students Supporting this view, Cao (2011 & 2012) and Lamb (2004) assert that many Asian students exhibit autonomy and can apply it to varying degrees.

Learner autonomy (LA) emphasizes the importance of learners taking responsibility for their own education by engaging in activities such as controlling, monitoring, and evaluating their learning processes, as highlighted by various scholars (Holec, 1981; Little, 1991; Benson, 2007; Everhard & Murphy, 2015; Blidi, 2017; Pawlak, Mystkowska, & Bielak, 2017; Ou, 2017; Teng, 2019) Teachers play a crucial role as language advisers, supporting this autonomy (Cao, 2012; Teng, 2019) Significantly, fostering learner autonomy enables language learners to become proactive in addressing their learning challenges independently, even beyond the classroom environment (Benson, 2007; Pawlak, Mystkowska, & Bielak, 2017; Almusharraf, 2018).

This can open the question whether Vietnamese students themselves have really been interested in English subject (Chikwa, Al-Damen, & Mathew, 2018), invested their

Page 3 time and made every effort to become responsible and autonomous learners in their parents’ orientation, adequate support and facilitation (Ho, 2015; Tomita & Sano, 2016; Kim & Barrett, 2017) So far, however, there has been little discussion about high school students’ autonomy in ERC in Vietnam

Yap's research highlights the importance of teachers focusing on high school students' out-of-class learning activities and promoting the sharing of these experiences (Lamb, 2004; Benson, 2007) However, many educators face mounting pressure to extend their working hours due to additional responsibilities such as managing student records, grades, individual educational plans, lesson plans, and career-orientation strategies for students.

Teachers in Vietnam face low salaries from the government, which leads to overwhelming workloads that limit their ability to innovate in the classroom (Nguyen, 2016) Consequently, they often depend on traditional resources such as textbooks and blackboards, leaving little time to develop diverse learning activities tailored to the unique needs of individual students (Almusharraf).

In 2018, it was noted that English learners often prioritize part-time jobs over their studies, leading to a lack of motivation (Lamb, 2004) This situation is exacerbated by a focus on learner independence and autonomy in both classroom and extracurricular activities, which can hinder their educational progress Consequently, the responsibility for academic outcomes tends to fall on the learners themselves, as they are expected to identify their own needs, strengths, weaknesses, and learning challenges (Tran & Duong, 2018).

The researcher aims to investigate how high school students at an urban school in Binh Duong utilize autonomous language learning activities (ALLA) to enhance their English reading skills This study aspires to provide insights that may help address the existing challenges in language learning.

High school students, particularly at Nguyen Trai High School in Binh Duong province, exhibit a passive approach to English learning, heavily relying on their teachers They typically memorize a limited number of vocabulary words taught in class and often engage in slow, word-for-word reading of passages, neglecting the importance of word associations and broader context.

Page 4 phrasal verbs in context which can lead to a different meaning This passive learning style causes learners a sense of embarrassment and utter powerlessness when they can not manage to take care of a severe lengthy ultimate test paper in national English exams in a limited duration