An Investigation Into Vocabulary Learning Strategies Employed By Secondary School Students At Nguyen Trai High School.pdf

RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

One of the key language components which may help learners of English as a second language (ESL) or foreign language (EFL) to improve their language abilities (i.e., speaking, listening, reading, and writing) is vocabulary According to McCarthy (1990), regardless of how well the learners have learned grammar or how well they have mastered the sound system, communication in a second/ foreign language would be challenging without words In addition to grammar and pronunciation, Min (2013) asserted that non-native speakers need a solid lexical foundation to succeed as English users in any academic environment

In Vietnam, English was integrated into the primary education curriculum since 2003 and was taught from grade 3 with a duration of 70 hours per year It is considered a compulsory foreign language and one of the conditions for consideration and recognition of high school graduation (MOET, 2010) Despite efforts to teach and learn English in Vietnam, recent statistics shows that, after more than two decades of teaching English as a compulsory subject, Vietnam is still facing a crisis of quality After seven years of schooling and two years studying at university, students still struggle to communicate effectively in English, according to the former head of Vietnam's National Foreign Languages 2020 Project (MOET,

2008) Vietnam English Proficiency Index (EPI) website shows that Vietnam's ranking drops year by year, from #41(2019) to #52(2020) and #66(2021) (EPI,

2022) Improving Vietnamese learners’ overall language proficiency in general and vocabulary in particular is, therefore, an urgent mission

Of the different factors that may affect vocabulary acquisition (i.e., noticing, elaboration, motivation; Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001) vocabulary learning strategies have been considered influential tools for accelerating learners' vocabulary learning (Boonkongsaen, 2012) However, it seems like there are not enough studies on how

Vietnamese high school students can best approach learning new words in the classrooms, particularly studies that investigate the relationship between learners’ background and their learning strategies.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Aims of the Study

This study was conducted with the aim of gaining insights into vocabulary learning strategies of high school students at the current school, as well as discovering possible relationships between students’ background (i.e., gender, proficiency level) and their vocabulary learning strategies use.

Objectives

Specific objectives identified for the study are as follow:

- to determine the vocabulary learning strategies employed by students at Nguyen Trai High School

- to identify whether there were any differences in vocabulary learning strategies used by male and female students

- to find out if there are any relationships between students’ achievement and vocabulary learning strategies.

RESEACH QUESTIONS

1 What are the vocabulary learning strategies employed by students at Nguyen Trai High School?

2 Are there any differences between strategies employed by male and female students?

3 Are there any relationships between students’ achievement and vocabulary learning strategies?

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study was conducted among 200 students in grades 11 and 12 from Nguyen Trai high school in Thai Binh, Vietnam 10th graders were not the respondents of this research as they were newcomers at the high school and need to take time to adapt to the new environment The difference in students’ adaptability may affect their learning strategies; however, it was not the objective of the study Moreover, in this study, only the vocabulary learning strategies of the students were taken into consideration Strategies that learners used to learn other language components (i.e., grammar, pronunciation) or other language skills (i.e., listening, speaking) were not examined.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this research was to examine the vocabulary acquisition methods used by Nguyen Trai High School students It is expected that this research will benefit high school students who wish to improve their vocabulary learning strategies Educators who want to support students with vocabulary learning may also find useful information from this research Besides the practical benefits, the research would also be a valuable addition to the current body of literature on Vietnamese high school students' strategies for learning new vocabulary words.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY

The research consists of five chapters as follows:

Chapter 1: Provides background and rationale for the study, clarifies the objectives of the research, specifies the research questions, scopes, and barriers of the study as well as highlights potential contributions of the study to research and practice

Chapter 2: Provides an overview of English language teaching and learning in Vietnam as well as the theoretical basis on vocabulary learning strategies

Chapter 3: Describes the research design, specifically the research approach, methods of data collection and analysis

Chapter 4: Presents the findings from the study

Chapter 5: Discusses the research findings and accordingly provide implications for research and practice

Finally, references and appendices are listed sufficiently at the end of the research

This chapter provides the theoretical background to the study It clarifies the conception of language learning strategies, reviews different classification of language learning strategies before focusing on strategies in second/ foreign language learning and factors that may affect students’ linguistic strategies when learning vocabulary Studies that have investigated vocabulary learning strategies employed by high school students are also reviewed.

CONTEXT OF THE STUDY

The linguistic history of Vietnam demonstrates a close relationship between language and politics Vietnam had been split in two before 1975, with the North supporting the communism of Russia and China and the South supporting the capitalism of the United States From 1975 to about 1989, the main foreign language was Russian; now it is English The Doi Moi, which opened the door for Vietnam to join the market economy, has created conditions for the explosive development of English Nevertheless, the primary focus of the English curriculum at that time in Vietnamese schools was on reading development It was common practice to utilize the grammar-translation method (Denham, 1992)

Over the past twenty years, the Government of Vietnam has enacted many policies on the teaching of English and devoted a greater proportion of its budget to its promotion than ever before (Hoang, 2020) While English education has undergone tremendous transformation in major cities, it is still only offered in a few places in rural and isolated locations (Khamkhien, 2010) Despite being a compulsory subject, it seems that English language teaching in Vietnam has not been fully effective, due to many reasons including a shortage of teachers, ineffective teaching, and high costs of external tutoring (Nguyen & Hoang, 2006) The results of language teaching and learning are still quite low compared to the effort and money spent Various factors can account for this; however, the core of these factors may be related to policymaking (Nguyen, 2012) Therefore, research on issues of effective teaching and learning policy-making is much expected in the current context of Vietnam

In many Vietnamese classrooms, the English as a Foreign Language teacher would typically introduce new words to students by writing a list of them on the board Before giving Vietnamese translations, demonstrating how to pronounce the terms, and having the class repeat after the teacher numerous times, the list would be reviewed in the lesson Vu and Peters (2021) argue that the focus is often on a single word, which is often chosen using glossaries in textbooks and reference books Some students may be required by the teacher to show that they have retained the vocabulary from the prior lesson in the subsequent class But when it comes to learning new words, students are often left alone They are pushed to remember the meaning of new words, but are rarely given the opportunity to use these words in the classrooms Priorities are often given to reading and grammar It is important to note that Vietnamese EFL instructors rarely administer pre- and post-lesson vocabulary tests in order to gauge how much their students’ vocabularies have expanded A better command of grammar is typically what they go for instead (Vu & Peters, 2021) Vu and Peters (2021) argue that such an approach can dilute the impact of vocabulary instruction on students' development.

LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

The concept of language learning strategies

As defined by Oxford (1990), language learning strategies (LLS) are the aforementioned purposeful linguistic practices that facilitate the acquisition, processing, retention, and application of new knowledge Cohen (1998) explains that language learning techniques are the actions that students take on purpose to better acquire and use a foreign language These actions include encoding, retrieving, and storing linguistic information However, Ellis (1994) defined language learning methods as both mental and behavioral activities, which are relevant to a specific stage of language acquisition or language use Ellis (1994) argues that LLS can take the form of both physical (such as reciting a new word aloud to memorize it) and mental strategies (such as using a dictionary or the surrounding context to figure out what a word means) It can be challenging to estimate the exact number of definitions for language learning systems that exist Finding one that is useful for all study goals is a considerably harder task Though there was some disagreement between the many theories of LLS, they all seemed to agree that employing the right methods improved students' ability to learn in a variety of contexts The following list of characteristics offered by Ellis (1999) provides a holistic summary of key characteristics of LLS

- The term "strategies" covers both broad ideas and particular acts or tactics used to acquire a second language

- Strategies are problem-focused; the learner uses a strategy to get around a specific learning challenge

- Students frequently know what strategies they use and can identify each component when asked to pay close attention to their actions or thoughts

- Strategies include both language (such as asking for an object's name) and non-linguistic (such as pointing at an object to ask for its name) behavior

- Both the L1 and the L2 can be used for linguistic strategy

- While some tactics are mental, others are behavioral As a result, although some tactics can be observed directly, others cannot

- Others may contribute directly (for instance, memorizing techniques targeted at certain lexical items or grammatical rules), while some tactics contribute indirectly by giving learners information about the L2 that they can then process

- Depending on the task the learner is working on and their personal preferences, strategies are used in a variety of ways.

Classification of language learning strategies

Many academics have examined how well or successfully language learners attempt to learn in order to determine whether learning methods were effective for them, according to Ellis (1997) It is expected, as Rubin (1975) points out, that successful learning strategies can be taught to less successful students and adopted by them to increase language acquisition Data is gathered through interviews, surveys, questionnaires, and journals as well as through direct observation and student self-reports Good L2 learners, in Rubin's opinion (1975), are accurate guessers, willing to practice and communicate, regularly unfettered, attentive to speech, and focused on the message Good language learners' strategies were examined by Stern (1975, p.309), and they included the following:

Stern's (1975) classification served as a foundation for subsequent research into language learning methods Stern's strategy classification and Rubin's research share certain commonalities, including an emphasis on practice and communication, a focus on meaning, and a commitment to self-monitoring However, the studies did not concentrate much on individual differences in strategy preferences

According to Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978), in order to create an effective learning model, it is important to conduct a thorough analysis of existing lists of learning strategies and procedures Oxford (1990) offered a probably more systematic and comprehensive way of looking at language learning strategies Oxford (1990) proposed classifying LLS into two broad categories: direct and indirect learning strategies Direct learning strategies, which include the learner's interaction with the target, can be further subdivided into:

(1) Memory strategies: techniques created to aid students in memorizing and recalling information, such as introducing new words and phrases in the context of existing ones and employing other sensory cues

(2) Compensatory strategies: the use of strategies to compensate for language barriers and facilitate communication, such as making educated guesses when reading or listening, or substituting synonyms or idioms in place of the original words

(3) Cognitive Strategies: necessitates the development of abilities that help pupils comprehend and generate language in a variety of contexts, such as taking notes, repeating, and summarizing literature

Strategies that enhance language learning indirectly through activities like focusing, planning, evaluating, looking for opportunities, managing fear, and fostering empathy and cooperation (Oxford, 1990, p 146) consist of three groups namely:

(1) Metacognitive strategies: Learning strategies that include things like self- evaluation and make connections to previously learned content to help with organization and evaluation

(2) Affective strategies: methods for controlling one's feelings and motivations, such as learning to relax through deep breathing exercises, listening to music, or watching films in one's target language to overcome language barriers, etc

(3) Social strategies: actions that improve students' ability to engage with others while studying a language, such as questioning, working with classmates, and empathizing with native speakers

Figure 2.1 below provides a visual representation of Oxford’s SILL:

Figure 2.1: Oxford’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)

Learning strategies can be broken down into three groups, according to O'Malley and Chamot (1990): cognitive (such as the rehearsal, organization, inference, summarizing, reducing, imagery, transfer, and elaboration), social/affective (such as seeking clarification and self-talk), and metacognitive Vocabulary learning methods can be broken down into two groups: discovery methods and consolidation methods, as described by Schmitt (1997 ) Strategies for consolidation include social, memorization, cognitive, and metacognitive approaches, whereas those for discovery are focused and collaborative The taxonomy follows Oxford's (1990) categorization of linguistic acquisition strategies into the following six categories: social, memory, cognitive, metacognitive, emotional, and compensatory Schmitt (1997), however, noted that no category in Oxford's system successfully reflects the kinds of procedures a human undertakes when confronted with learning the meaning of a new term without the assistance of another person So, he formulated a fresh class for the methods utilized by students upon first encountering a word: determination tactics According to Schmitt (1997), cultural background is another factor that teachers take into account when selecting vocabulary words for their students According to him, students from differing cultural backgrounds can occasionally hold quite disparate views regarding the value of various vocabulary acquisition strategies The section below summarizes key strategies in Schmitt’s (1997) classification:

- Discovery strategies: the attempt that learners make (reference materials or ask other people) to determine the meaning of a new word

+ Determination Strategies: learners determine the meaning of a word without seeking assistance from others by adopting one or more of the following: word class, word components, cognates, contextual guessing, and dictionary use

+ Social Strategies: Students seek out those already versed in the meaning of the target term by inquiring about it (via activities such as asking for an L1 translation, a synonym, a paraphrased definition, and examples of use)

- Consolidation strategies: learners attempt to memorize the target word after encountering it for the first time

+ Social Strategies: learners engage in group work, ask their teachers to classify the word lists and communicate with native speakers to improve their vocabulary acquisition

+ Memory Strategies: learners deal with the link of the new word to be learned with preexisting knowledge utilizing imagery or grouping for improved retrieval of the phrase; also, physical motions can be employed to help in recalling the words Memory methods include imagery, word association, grouping, keyword, and collocation

+ Cognitive Strategies: although similar to the memory group's strategies, the emphasis here is not on influencing how the mind works Methods such as making lists of words to memorize, using flashcards, taking notes, and consulting textbook glossaries are common

+ Metacognitive Strategies: Learners can use these methods to self- monitor and assess their progress Learners can also assess their own progress with vocabulary tests, and they should understand when to skip or pass a word Although there are several language-learning resources available (e.g., books, magazines, newspapers, and films), learners should be exposed to L2 as often as possible and continue to acquire new vocabulary in order to become proficient in the target language

The Schmitt taxonomy provides several benefits over other approaches The most frequently mentioned benefits are its simple technology implementation, flexibility in accommodating students from a wide range of educational backgrounds and desired language proficiency levels, and depth of content and sensitivity to other relevant learning methodologies, which may allow for cross- study comparisons (Catalan, 2003) It can also be used to easily aggregate student feedback and standardize evaluative benchmarks Because of its usefulness, Schmitt's (1997) taxonomy was selected as the basis for the overarching classification of vocabulary learning strategies in this investigation "Discovery" methods are those that students employ to clarify meanings of unfamiliar terms when they first encounter them, whereas "consolidation" strategies are those that students employ to clarify meanings of unfamiliar phrases when they come across them again (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990).

Factors affecting language learning strategies

2.2.3.1 Gender and language learning strategies

Students' linguistic strategies are influenced by a number of contextual elements The results may be advantageous or detrimental Gender is arguably the most studied element among the many that may influence language learners' strategy selection (e.g., age, degree of proficiency, gender) It's not easy to pin down exactly why men and women learn from each other in such distinct ways methodologically and strategically Women, according to Hong-Nam and Leavell

(2006), make greater use of emotive and social coping mechanisms than men do, but the researchers were unable to determine why this was the case Women have been found to make greater use of tactics for learning a foreign language than men They argue that these kinds of findings are significant because they demonstrate that there can be some constant variations between how women and men in a group acquire a language Green and Oxford (1995) argue that if gender inequalities are shown in many studies across different cultures, it is likely due to biological and/or socialization-related causes and that they should be taken into account when designing language instruction programs

Although the gender factor has long been taken into account in SILL studies The results from studies so far are somewhat contradictory Green and Oxford

(1995) found that gender is a determinant in how people learn a new language In other words, women are more likely than males to employ Memory and Metacognitive methods In contrast, Wharton (2000) in a survey involving 678 foreign language students, on gender differences, found that men used strategies significantly more often than women My-Van (1988) found that among adult Vietnamese refugees, men were more likely to report using multiple learning styles than women In a study among 1200 undergraduate university learners of French, Spanish, German, Russian, and Italian, Oxford and Nyikos (1989) reported that females were more frequent strategy users than males when it comes to formal practice strategies (e.g comparing languages, formulating and revising rules, and analyzing words), general study strategies (e.g studying hard, ignoring distractions, being prepared), and conversational input elicitation strategies (e.g asking questions and eliciting responses)

Other studies indicate that males employed certain strategies more frequently than females Tran's (1988) study of forty- to ninety-two-year-old Vietnamese immigrants in the United States, for example, suggested that males used more strategies to learn and improve their English language skills than females Strategies that were used by these male students included taking classes, practicing with friends, and watching television or radio in English) In a second study among university-level beginning German learners, Nyikos (1990) found that when a visual-spatial stimulus of the color plus image was used in the vocabulary tests, male students performed better When color was the mediator, however, females remembered more Nyikos (1990) accordingly proposed that these strategies were the result of the socialization of males and females and that these differences should be taken into account when promoting the use of strategies in language acquisition

In short, there seems to be a relationship between gender and language learning strategies However, the direction of the relationship is unclear Therefore, more studies are needed to clarify this issue

2.2.3.2 Language proficiency and language learning strategies

Sukying (2021) examined the connection between language-learning practices and English competency with a sample of 1,523 first-year college students enrolled in a regular English course Using a taxonomy created by Oxford (1990) and data from the Ordinary National Educational Test, researchers created a 36-item questionnaire that found that teaching students about the steps involved in learning led to better performance A survey of 65 college students' approaches to learning Spanish as a foreign language was conducted by Ranjan et al (2021) using the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire plus two free-form items The study found a moderate relationship between the proficiency of 15 high- achieving students and the strategies that they used to acquire the target language

In a study of 1200 undergraduates learning a foreign language, Oxford and Nyikos

(1989) discovered that the use of more strategies corresponded to the perception of greater proficiency and that those who had been studying the language for four or five years used more strategies than those with less experience Green and Oxford

(1995) discovered in a study of university students in Puerto Rico that those with the highest proficiency level employed cognitive strategies more frequently than those with the lowest proficiency level Anderson and Vandergrift (1996) discovered, based on verbal reports from 36 school-aged French learners in Canada, that the prevalence of cognitive strategies decreased as the level of proficiency increased They also discovered that as proficiency levels increased, so did the use of metacognitive strategies

According to a study by Marrie and Nettan (1991), younger pupils adopt tactics similarly to older students They discovered that while both effective and bad communicators utilized a similar number of methods, the sorts of strategies varied The more successful students adopted the more efficient methods Corbeil (1990) reported similar results She mentioned that various people pick up languages at varying rates According to Corbeil (1990), a student's reaction to error correction may be a key element in how well they learn The findings showed that stronger students employed more complex procedures to more effectively incorporate error repair into prior knowledge The more accomplished students did a deeper, more thorough processing of the information Students that were not successful were just willing to process at a surface level It seems that instead of incorporating the correction into their prior knowledge, these students avoided and occasionally rejected the correction Students who did well put in more effort, took more interest in their work, and responded positively to correction, in contrast to those who were doing poorly, who tended to gloss over it Using a variety of strategies, Rost and Ross (1991) were able to distinguish between students with higher and lower levels of proficiency They concluded that higher achievers were employing a distinct level of cognition from those who struggled MacIntyre (1994) underlined further that the application of strategies follows from and contributes to improved proficiency The factors that lead to and produce increased language competence are strategies More research into MacIntyre's conclusion was urged by Bremner

(1999) The research conducted by Osanai (2000) on 147 overseas students studying in American universities revealed a strong correlation between self-rated ability and the use of language learning tactics In his study of SILL practices among university students in 2000, Wharton discovered that those students who regarded their language proficiency as "good" or "fair" were significantly more likely to use SILL strategies than those students who ranked their performance as "poor." He also said that the frequency with which various techniques are reported to be used is linearly related to one's level of expertise However, the effect of proficiency on strategy deployment works both ways

Numerous studies (Vann & Abraham, 1990; Wenden, 1986; Kim, 2001; Yang, 1999; and Hong, 2006) have examined the relationship and influence of students' beliefs on their decisions and strategies (Vann & Abraham, 1990; Wenden, 1986; Kim, 2001; Yang, 1999; and Hong, 2006)

Vann and Abraham (1990) conducted a critical analysis of beliefs and strategies pertinent to language acquisition They utilized a quantitative methodology and discovered that a student's beliefs can influence his or her learning strategies and abilities Two undergraduates participating in the investigation held divergent views on language acquisition Both researchers deemed one respondent's logic for language learning to be limited because she had confidence in examining formal structures for language learning, whereas the other participant's logic was deemed to be expansive because she had confidence in correspondence strategies

At the conclusion of the course, the latter performed well on an oral exam, while the former had a superior TOEFL score Consequently, this investigation revealed that differences in perspectives or beliefs regarding language acquisition can result in the successful application of a variety of systems

Wenden (1986) investigated the relationship between students' beliefs and the technique they employed in an ESL setting She discovered that language learners have distinct beliefs regarding i) utilizing the language, ii) learning about the language itself, and iii) local factors The study supported her contention that strategies were associated with beliefs about the structure of the language, whereas correspondence strategies were associated with beliefs about utilizing the language through cooperative learning

Kim (2001) investigated the relationship between the beliefs of Korean undergraduates about language learning and their use of language learning strategies Sixty undergraduates and their beliefs were evaluated using the BALLI and SILL to gauge their strategies in this examination A factor analysis was conducted to identify the beliefs of Korean undergraduates and their choice of strategies Six conviction factors were included in such an investigation: belief in social cooperation, belief in training, formal language learning, self-proficiency beliefs, language fitness, and belief in inspiration The findings of the study indicated that the beliefs of Korean undergraduates regarding self-efficacy, inspiration, and training conviction enabled them to employ more persuasive strategies

VOCABULARY AND VOCABULARY LEARNING

Words versus Vocabulary

To put it simply, a vocabulary is a group of lexemes (words) that includes not just individual words but also phrases and idioms A word can also be a sound or combination of sounds that together make up a unit of grammar or vocabulary in a language, and hence function as a "part of vocabulary." Therefore, vocabulary consists of more than just single words (Read 2000, p 20; Richards 2000, p xi), it also comprises meaningful linguistic units and complicated and compound terms in addition to fundamental words in all their forms The term "vocabulary" is commonly used to refer to the process of learning a language's whole bank of terms used in specific contexts Specifically, expanding one's vocabulary entails mastering several word categories and strategies for dealing with terms one may initially find difficult to pronounce or understand

The comparative study of words and vocabularies has been undertaken by only a select group of academics, notably Jackson and Amvela (2000) and Richards et al (1992) A word is a unitary structural component that can't be broken down into its component morphemes and is used to build phrases Morphemes, the smallest meaningful components of language, are the ultimate grammatical constituents On the other hand, a vocabulary, sometimes called lexis or a lexicon, is a set of words or a set of subsets of words that are used in specific contexts "word" is defined by Richards et al (1992) as the smallest linguistic unit that can exist on its own in speech or writing, in contrast to "vocabulary," which is defined as a group of lexemes that includes single words, compound words, and idioms (p 400)

First considered in this theoretical investigation is the concept of vocabulary or lexis Some online dictionaries, like Merriam-Webster (2015), define vocabulary as the set of words that make up a language, the set of words that a person is comfortable with and uses, and the set of terms that are associated with a certain topic Words used in a particular language or field of study, or that are familiar to or made use of by a particular person, is how Cambridge (2016) defines a person's lexicon In addition, Macmillan (2016) defines vocabularies as a person's complete collection of words in a given language

Those definitions are consistent with what several scholars in linguistics and applied linguistics have proposed One example is how Linse and Nunan (2005) highlight the fact that a person's vocabulary is simply their word stock Vocabulary, as defined by Richards and Schmidt (2010), is a group of lexemes that may comprise simple words, compound words, and idiomatic expressions Vocabulary, according to Kamil and Hiebert (2005), is commonly seen as familiarity with word meanings The term lexis has only recently been coined, although it is already often used to mean vocabulary The term lexis, from the ancient Greek word for "word," refers to the entire lexicon of a language, or the language itself, as explained by Barcroft, Sunderman, and Schmitt (2011) According to Jackson and Amvela

(2000), lexicon, lexis, and vocabulary are all synonyms In support of their thesis, Larsen-Freeman and Decarrico (2010) argue that the scope of vocabulary/lexis extends beyond syntax and morphology to include phonetics, phonology, semantics, and lexis (vocabulary) On the other hand, some people differentiate lexis from vocabulary Words and their definitions are often brought up when discussing vocabulary The scope of a lexicon, however, extends much beyond words themselves It extends to include deeper lexical meanings as well See van Vlack's

(2013) image below for a visual representation of the gradual increase in complexity from word to lexis

Figure 2.2 Difference between vocabulary and lexis (van Vlack, 2013)

As could be seen from the figure, lexis is a system of words that relate to one another to create a network of meanings, which may include polysemy, collocation, ambiguity, synonymy, and frequency (Schmitt & Meara, 1997; Miller, 1999; Nation, 2001) Therefore, it is believed that the teaching of words in forms of isolated or decontextualized vocabulary lists, may hinder learners' lexical development (Shen, 2008).

The importance of vocabulary

Vocabulary development is highlighted as one of the most crucial aspects of learning English, as it is impossible to have meaningful conversations without it (see Section 2.1) Words and phrases are the foundation of any language education, say Bowen et al (1985) According to Nation (1990), this supports the idea that students of foreign languages consider vocabulary to be among the most crucial aspects of language study Students often ascribe their language learning challenges on a lack of vocabulary knowledge Despite this, various researchers in the fields of vocabulary acquisition and instruction (Hedge, 2000; Long &Richards, 1997; Maley, 1986; Richards, 1985; Zimmerman, 1997) argue that vocabulary has been undervalued in the language classroom for quite some time

As a result, this section's primary goal is to research and assess the significance of vocabulary in language acquisition in order to scrutinize what we have known about English vocabulary and reflect on how this has been implemented in language teaching and learning Vocabulary helps students learn about and make sense of the world, as well as themselves and their feelings They are unable to communicate their innermost feelings because of the limitations of their language On the other hand, they have a wide range of words at their disposal, allowing them to express themselves effectively in every situation Kitajima (2001) argues that one cannot communicate one's thoughts without using words to name things, processes, and ideas

In practice, grammar is usually prioritized over vocabulary However, according to Allen (1983), it would be better for focus on vocabulary at the starting point (Flower, 2000) This view is congruent with Lewis's (1993) view that vocabulary should be the focus of language teaching and learning To put it another way, these scholars understand the importance of proper grammar This lends credence to what we already knew from firsthand experience: that it is feasible to understand others despite their grammatical and pronunciational mistakes, but that communication is extremely difficult without the medium of language It is widely agreed that vocabulary is more crucial than grammar when it comes to learning a new language Wilkins (1972) argues that without grammar, just a small fraction of what a person knows would be understood Since language learners cannot use structures correctly if they do not have enough vocabulary knowledge, Harmer

(1991) argues that careful word choice can sometimes be more important than choosing grammatical structures

Experts have also shared the view that in order to become fluent in communication generally, it is essential to build a large vocabulary For instance, Lewis (1993) claims that having a large vocabulary is crucial for effective communication Without an understanding of the context in which they are being addressed, language learners who have mastered morphology and syntax will be unable to take part in a conversation Krashen and Terrell (2000) argue that in order for second language learners to effectively express themselves, ask questions, and convey information, they must first learn how to create lexical items Vocabulary, as emphasized by Richards in the introduction to Schmitt (2000), is also crucial to communicative competence and second language learning Similarly, Davies and Pearse (2000) are of the belief that the vocabulary of a person is often more important than their grammar skills in a conversation A lack of vocabulary can be discouraging for language students since it prevents them from making themselves understood McCarthy (1990) agrees with the importance of vocabulary, writing that it is impossible to communicate effectively in a second language without a large collection of words to express a variety of meanings, regardless of how well the student learns the grammar or how well they grasp the sounds of the L2 In other words, words are the tools that learners use to think, express ideas, and feel

To sum up, it is undeniable that vocabulary knowledge is important Students who have large and varied vocabulary do better academically, interact more comfortably with native speakers, and go further in their study of the language Learners in any language benefit greatly from building a vast and varied vocabulary, as it allows them to more accurately convey their ideas, feelings, and thoughts Vocabulary, as noted by the aforementioned academics, is essential not only to the learning and understanding of language but also to effective communication.

Aspects of L2 Vocabulary Knowledge

Being aware of the difficulties involved in learning an L2 term is one of the key components of L2 vocabulary learning If the learner is aware of these needs, they may choose appropriate Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLSs) Below are three lists outlining what it takes to know a term, as suggested by Richards (1976), Carter (1998), and Nation (2001)

Many presumptions on what the learner needs to understand about L2 terms to completely acquire them were made by Richards (1976; referenced in Read,

2000) The following are the presumptions:

1 Throughout their lifetimes, native speakers continue to increase their vocabulary

2 Understanding a word requires understanding the chances of running into it in written or spoken communications

3 Understanding a word includes understanding the limitations on its use resulting from variations in function and circumstance

4 Understanding a word requires understanding the syntactic activity related to it

5 Understanding a word requires understanding its base form

Carter (1998) adds the following qualities to the list of requirements for knowing a word:

1 It involves being able to recall it and apply it effectively; however, for certain purposes, just passive knowledge is required and some words are only ever known to certain users in this way

2 It entails understanding the possibility of running across the term in either spoken, written, or both circumstances

3 It entails being aware of the underlying forms and derivations that may be produced from the word, as well as the syntactic frames into which it can be inserted

4 It entails being aware of the connections that a word has to other terms in the language as well as to words that are similar in an L1

5 It entails recognizing the word's relative coreness as well as its more pronounced pragmatic and discoursal roles and its style levels

6 It entails being aware of the many connotations attached to it as well as the variety of its collocational patterns, which are frequently related

7 It implies having words in whole or partially fixed formulations simply stored in memory to repeat and modify as needed

In contrast to learning L2 vocabulary for production purposes, which relies on strategies that activate the lexical store to use items in context-appropriate ways, learning L2 vocabulary for receptive purposes requires using strategies that can aid students in comprehending lexical items and storing them in memory (Carter, ibid)

Nation (2001) differentiates between receptive and productive vocabulary usage in L2, where receptive vocabulary use is defined as the ability to perceive the form of a word while listening or reading and retrieve its meaning

Vocabulary development involves the active pursuit and invention of the most effective word forms for spoken and written communication

What is needed for receptive and productive knowledge of a term is summarized in Table 2.1 below, which is based on work by Nation (2001)

Table 2.1 The requirements for knowing a word receptively and productively (Nation 2001, p.27)

R What does the word sound like?

P How is the word pronounced?

Written R What does the word look like?

P How is the word written and spelled?

R What parts are recognisable in this word?

P What word parts are needed to express the meaning?

Meaning Form and R What meaning does this word signal? meaning P What word form can be used to express this meaning?

R What is included in the concept?

P What items can the concept refer to?

Associations R What other words does this make us think of?

P What other words could we use instead of this one?

R In what patterns does the word occur?

P In what patterns must we use this word?

Collocations R What words or types of words occur with this one?

P What words or types of words must we use with this one?

Constraints on use (register, frequency )

R Where, when and how often would we expect to meet this word?

P Where, when and how often can we use this word?

It is obvious that receptive knowledge has less stringent criteria According to Nation (2001), the following factors contribute to this assumption:

Receptive knowledge requires the ability to recognize the meaning in accordance with the spoken or written forms, whereas productive type necessitates acquiring additional spoken and written output patterns That is to say, in order to have productive knowledge, one must be aware of a word's meaning as well as its spoken and written forms This indicates that learning a word for speaking or writing requires more time and repetition than learning it for listening or reading

Receptive knowledge is more frequently practiced than productive information by native speakers and L2 learners As a result of constant usage and practice, receptive knowledge becomes stronger in one's memory

When L2 learners use L2 language receptively, they translate from L2 to their L1, and when they use L2 productively, they reverse this orientation Nation

(2001) contends that because L2 learners are more proficient in their L1, receptive usage is consequently simpler

If a second language learner has no interest in using a particular expression or form of language (such as a taboo expression, slang word, expression from a different dialect, expression from a different sociocultural background, specialized language for a specific field, etc.), they may not be motivated to learn the expressions or forms necessary for productive use of the language

After the requirement to articulate a concept, comes the necessity to use L2 effectively This concept might be used to clarify something, persuade someone, inquire about something, etc Here, many mental processes start to take place at once

The senses of hearing and/ or vision must be used when employing L2 for receptive purposes On the other hand, productive usage necessitates the employment of other senses Given these prerequisites, presumptions, and qualities of L2 word knowledge, it is reasonable to conclude that learning L2 vocabulary is more difficult than one may anticipate It is a protracted, hard process that calls for both careful planning and the creative application of both explicit and implicit VLSs

2.3.3.1 Implicit versus explicit vocabulary learning

Native speakers learn their L1 vocabulary mostly implicitly after they have a sufficient command of their native tongue, however, implicit learning may begin at an early level (Schmitt 2000) There are very few phrases that students could learn explicitly from others in their immediate environment (Carter, 1998) It is well acknowledged that the bulk of words are learned implicitly and that vocabulary growth picks up speed from early childhood through formal schooling before slowing down in adulthood (Read, 2000) Despite the fact that different studies have produced different estimates of the amount of the vocabulary of native English speakers dependent on people's age and level of education, this holds true It is estimated that by the time a child is five years old, he or she has learned the families of four thousand to five thousand words (Nation and Waring, 1997) Instruction in subconsciously learning the L2 lexicon is recommended for L2 learners if the findings from studies on L1 vocabulary acquisition are applicable to L2 vocabulary acquisition (Schmitt, 2000; Carter, 1998)

Implicit learning is essential for the development of L2 vocabulary, especially in the latter learning phases when learners are anticipated to come across low-frequency terms L2 learners start to run across a plethora of uncommon words whenever their vocabulary level surpasses that of graded material and they start dealing with texts that lack grammatical control Making a conscious effort to learn uncommon terms is not cost-effective (Parry, 1993) By acquiring new terms from their contexts with the aid of a dictionary, learners of a second language should actively work to expand their vocabularies beyond the 2,000 or so most often used words (ibid) Little-frequency words are frequently crucial for discourse comprehension, whereas explicit learning mostly concentrates on high-frequency words with little information content (Carter, 1998)

Implicit learning is more flexible and forward-thinking than its counterpart, explicit learning, which might be regarded as being faster and more principled According to Read (2000), studies on the vocabularies of infants reveal that only a limited proportion of acquisition occurs by incidental means Two investigations on the word learning of novel terms encountered in a reading book at suitable levels by native English-speaking school kids were undertaken by Nagy, Herman, and Anderson (1985 and 1987; quoted in Read, 2000) The students were not informed that a vocabulary test would come after the reading assignment In the 1985 study, it was estimated that between 10% and 25% of their vocabulary acquisition would be unintentional Only 5% of the new phrases were kept, per the research from 1987 Read (2000) contends that the differences in results between the two trials can be attributed to the fact that the incidental vocabulary test was administered six days after the reading assignment in the second study, as opposed to immediately after the first experiment Read (2000) reports on empirical research showing that when L2 earners are given a test right after finishing the reading, they indicate some comprehension of a few previously unrecognized phrases in the book This relates to haphazard L2 vocabulary acquisition Furthermore, according to Read (2000), knowing a term does not always result from correctly inferring its meaning from a reading text After finishing the reading assignment, one might logically establish a word's meaning for the sake of immediate comprehension without having to recall the meaning or even the shape of the word Implicit learning that is well-staged is essential Even though a second-language learner is instructed to begin with implicit learning, they may run into multiple new terminology that render the strategy ineffective The student may experience or develop potentially hazardous psychological issues under these conditions From a psychological perspective, it is crucial for second language learners to realize that learning new words implicitly using guessing tactics is a lengthy, progressive process that takes a lot of time and effort Sternberg (1987) claims that picking up new words by seeing their usage in context is neither the quickest nor the most effective method According to Sternberg (1987), studies conducted previously by Levin et al (1982), Pressley et al (1982b), and others demonstrate that the keyword strategy is preferable to learning vocabulary from context

When researching how Finns pick up English vocabulary, Pickering (1982; quoted in Carter, 1998) discovered that learning terms in pairs with L1 translations was superior to acquiring words in context Lawson and Hogben (1996) looked at how different methods affected people's ability to remember words After an intentional vocabulary learning task, they informed their students that their recollection of word meanings would be tested Their research showed that when word meanings were formed using the available contextual cues, word meaning recall was unsuccessful Contrarily, excellent memory retention was associated with deliberate mnemonic strategies and paraphrase strategies On the assumption that most L1 vocabulary is picked up unconsciously, the proposition is made that L2 learners also study L2 terms While studies on L1 incidental vocabulary acquisition have shown promising results, several EFL/ESL studies on incidental learning through repeated exposure, especially those involving advanced and intermediate English language learners, show that the results are less promising This could be because students' vocabularies are so little at the outset, especially first-year learners of a second language (L2), and they are unable to take advantage of incidental word acquisition

However, Parry (1993) discovered that the study outperformed past studies on L1 vocabulary learning, which were mostly conducted with youngsters, in terms of guessing unknown words An anthropology-majoring university student from Japan participated in the study Parry attributes this to the student's growing maturity and comprehension as well as how new words are used in a wide range of scenarios in the classroom According to Parry (1993), even if you can understand a new term in a context relatively well, you still haven't learned it in the sense that you can define it for yourself Even if a learner correctly guesses the new word, this does not always mean that it will be retained in long-term memory Even if it seems to be broadly accurate, a guess is merely an estimation of the accurate meaning of the new vocabulary Parry (1993) holds that for the L2 vocabulary learning process to be progressive, several encounters in varied informative settings are necessary

When it comes to learning vocabulary, attention is normally paid to how to help learners remember the vocabulary There have been numerous attempts to help students acquire a larger and more varied vocabulary Alqahtani (2015) offers learning methods to make it easier for learners to memorize vocabulary, depending on how each person remembers, including:

- Using Objects: use mnemonic objects Since it's easier for our brains to remember images and more reliably, this could work to create cues that help learners remember vocabulary

- Drawing: Words can be illustrated on flashcards or the whiteboard Assist students in identifying useful, repeatable concepts

- Using Illustrations and Pictures: Students' prior knowledge can be integrated into the new story through the use of images, which also aids in the acquisition of new vocabulary There are a great number of terms that can be taught with examples They serve as a great tool for explaining unfamiliar concepts

PREVIOUS STUDIES

Similar to general language learning strategies, learners’ choice of vocabulary learning strategies has been found to be correlated with a range of factors namely learning environment, learners’ current vocabulary size, gender, etc

Thiendathong and Sukying (2001) looked into how Thai high school students learned their language The goal was to determine how frequently certain strategies were employed by high school students enrolled in various programs 491 high school students from different academic fields completed a 47-item questionnaire on vocabulary acquisition techniques, which was adapted from Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies In addition, semi-structured interviews were used to collect qualitative data from 21 students regarding how they learned the language The findings showed that determination techniques were more commonly employed than memory strategies The results also demonstrated that the participant's usage of vocabulary learning techniques was impacted by the learning situation The qualitative findings also highlighted the range of vocabulary acquisition techniques and the levels of technology use

Sahandri, et al (2009) in a study on undergraduate EFL learners' vocabulary learning strategies and their relationship to vocabulary size found that there are five distinct categories of strategies for acquiring new words: determination, memory, social, cognitive, and metacognitive The study pointed out that students who used physical actions and English language media to learn vocabulary had a larger vocabulary size

Tanyer and Ozturk (2014) examined this issue among EFL college students who were also preservice English instructors The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between vocabulary size and vocabulary learning strategies A cross-sectional and hybrid research design was adopted for this purpose, and 80 ELT majors from their first to fourth year participated in the study The mixed research design was used to measure the participants' vocabulary size and vocabulary acquisition strategies during the three-week data collection period The results revealed that the most frequently used category of strategies was determination strategies Analysis of multiple regressions revealed that the vocabulary learning strategies utilized by the participants substantially explained 17.8% of the variance in their vocabulary size

Ansari et al (2016) investigated the relationship between gender and students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies The study involved 80 intermediate EFL learners at Shokouh Language Institute in Iran The questionnaires adapted from Kudo (1999) and Schmitt's (1988) vocabulary learning strategies were used as the data collected instrument The results of the study showed that students used psycholinguistic strategies more than metacognitive strategies there was no difference between male and female students in terms of vocabulary learning strategies used

Gu (2002), in a study with all second-year non-English majors at Beijing Normal University, investigated the relationship among gender, academic major, learning strategies, and learning outcomes Questionnaires adapted from Gu and Johnson (1996) and tests adapted from Goulden, Nation, and Read (1990), and the College English Test (CET) were data collection instruments The study found that female students did much better than males in both vocabulary tests Additionally, nearly all vocabulary learning techniques found to be associated with success in EFL learning were used substantially more frequently by women

In summary, this chapter has covered the background of the study, methods for learning a language, vocabularies and how they are learned, and the elements that influence these methods The importance of vocabulary in second language learning has been reaffirmed by numerous researchers, as has the correlation between employing vocabulary learning strategies and increasing one's vocabulary size Therefore, it is crucial to be able to identify the most effective methods of vocabulary acquisition Nonetheless, research findings have been contradictory Furthermore, most investigations were conducted with college-aged participants or in other nations The current study aimed to fill a void in the research literature by focusing on high school students in Vietnam

In this chapter, the research design and the context of the study are presented It also provides information about the respondents taking part in the study, methods of data collection and analysis, and data collection instruments.

RESEARCH DESIGN

The present study adopted a quantitative survey research design As one of the most common quantitative research design, survey research allows the researcher to (i) provide estimates of populations at large, (ii) provides results which can be condensed to statistics, (iii) make statistical comparison between various groups (Nardi, 2018) Specifically, in this case, self-administered questionnaires were sent to student respondents directly by the researcher during break time Such an approach is an inexpensive and productive way of collecting data It also allows respondents to maintain their anonymity and consider their responses (Nardi, 2018).

RESEARCH POPULATION AND RESEARCH SAMPLE

200 participants in the study were high school students at Nguyen Trai public high school They were in 11th grade and 12th grade After being announced by the researcher about the study, they voluntarily participated in the study.The number of male and female students was also equal in order to see whether there were any differences between male and female students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies Two groups from each grade level (i.e., grades 11, 12) were randomly selected Invitations to participate and the questionnaires were then sent to 200 students in grades 11 and 12 of the school during school hours.

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

The questionnaire used in the current study was adapted from the Vocabulary Learning Strategy Questionnaire of Riankamol (2008), which were developed based on Schmitt (1997)’s taxonomy Specifically, there are two parts on the questionnaire (i.e., background information and learning strategies employed by students) with a total of 23 questions Details of the questions in the main section are as follows:

Table 3.1 Breakdowns of the questions in the questionnaire

Determination Strategies Q1 I use a bilingual dictionary to help me translate

English words into my native language

Q2 I use pictures illustrated in the textbook to find the word meanings

Q3 I learn the meaning of words by identifying their part of speech

Social Strategies Q4 I ask the teacher to translate the words into

Q5 I ask the teacher to put an unknown word into a sentence to help me understand the word's meaning Q6 I practice English in group work activities

Q7 I ask native speakers for help

Q8 I learn words about the culture of English- speaking countries

Memory Strategies Q9 I write a new word in a sentence so I can remember it

Q10 I study the spelling of new words

Q11 I use physical actions when learning words

Q12 I speak words out loud when studying

Cognitive Strategies Q13 I repeatedly practice new words

Q14 I write a new word on a flash card so I can remember it

Q15 I learn words by listening to vocabulary CDs Q16 I record vocabulary from English soundtrack movies in my notebook

Q17 When I try to remember a word, I write or say it repeatedly

Q18 I make vocabulary cards and take them with me wherever I go

Metacognitive Strategies Q19 I listen to English songs and news

Q20 I memorize words from English magazines

Q21 I review my own English vocabulary cards for reviewing before the next lesson starts

Q22 I am not worried very much about the difficult words found when reading or listening, I pass them Q23 I use on-line exercises to test my vocabulary knowledge

The questions were designed in form of a five-point Likert scale (1= never; 2= rarely; 3= sometimes; 4= often; 5=always) To avoid any potential misunderstanding, the questionnaire items were translated into Vietnamese by the researcher and piloted with 40 volunteered students before sending to the participants It was estimated that the students could complete the survey in between

DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

Data after being collected from students were entered into excel and then imported into SPSS 20 for analysis

Prior to use of the data collected from the questionnaire, Cronbach’s alpha value for each scale in the questionnaire was calculated to determine the reliability of the scales

The researcher followed the suggestion made George and Mallery (2003; table 3.2 below) in order to evaluate the scale reliability

Table 3.2 Interpretation of Cronbach’s alpha value (George & Mallery, 2003)

The following table presents Cronbach’s alpha values of five scales in this research

Table 3.3 The scale reliability Vocabulary learning strategies

Q1 I use a bilingual dictionary to help me translate English words into my native language

Q2 I use pictures illustrated in the textbook to find the word meanings

Q3 I learn the meaning of words by identifying their part of speech

Social Strategies Q4 I ask the teacher to translate the words into Vietnamese

Q5 I ask the teacher to put an unknown word into a sentence to help me understand the word's meaning

Q6 I practice English in group work activities

Q7 I ask native speakers for help

Q8 I learn words about the culture of English-speaking countries

Memory Strategies Q9 I write a new word in a sentence so I can remember it

Q10 I study the spelling of new words

Q11 I use physical actions when learning words

Q12 I speak words out loud when studying

Cognitive Strategies Q13 I repeatedly practice new words

Q14 I write a new word on a flash card so I can remember it

Q15 I learn words by listening to vocabulary CDs

Q16 I record vocabulary from English soundtrack movies in my notebook

Q17 When I try to remember a word, I write or say it repeatedly

.894 take them with me wherever I go

Q19 I listen to English songs and news

Q20 I memorize words from English magazines

Q21 I review my own English vocabulary cards for reviewing before the next lesson starts

Q22 I am not worried very much about the difficult words found when reading or listening, I pass them

Q23 I use on-line exercises to test my vocabulary knowledge

As can be seen in Table 3.3, all scales have good or acceptable levels of reliability with Cronbach’s alpha value ranging from 740 to 894 The scales in the questionnaire were thus appropriate for use in subsequent analysis

In order to answer the first research question, the researcher calculated and compared Mean score and Standard Deviation of each scale as well as the individual items in the scale

In order to answer the second and third questions, the researcher used correlational analysis to identify any possible relationships between variables.

DATA ANALYSIS

Both descriptive and inferential analyses were attempted to find out the frequency of use of different vocabulary learning strategies as well as the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and other factors

Demographic information of the participants

As previously mentioned, participants were strategically selected so that there were good representations of students from different grade levels (i.e., 100 grade 11 and 100 grade 12 students) and different genders Students’ level of English proficiency (as measured by their GPA for the English subject at school) and their experience studying English, however, varied The following table provides information about students’ English studying experience and GPA

Table 4.1 The participants’ English-studying experience and GPA

Demographic information Number (students) Percentage (%)

As could be seen in Table 4.1, most students studied English for between six and eight years About one-third of the students claimed they studied English for seven years, followed by those who studied English for six years (29.5%) and eight years (26.5%) The students who studied English for nine or ten years accounted for only a small proportion Only thirteen students, equivalent to 6.5%, studied English for nine years, and five students, taking up only 2.5%, studied English for ten years

In terms of GPA, students who got GPA from 8 to 8.9 took up the largest number of the total respondents (46.5%), followed by those who had English GPA of 6.5-7.9, making up 28% In addition, 10% scored from 9.0-10.0 Students who had GPAs lower than 6.5 accounted for 15.5% in total It can be concluded that the majority of the respondents had fair to excellent English scores.

Research question (rq) 1: what are the vocabulary learning strategies

The questionnaire was delivered to students in order to find out how frequently students employed each vocabulary learning strategies The following table compares the mean scores of different vocabulary-learning strategies used by the students

Table 4.2 A comparison of students’ vocabulary learning strategies Vocabulary learning strategies Mean score

According to Table 4.2, the mean scores of students’ vocabulary learning strategies range from 3.280 to 3.647, which means that the students used all vocabulary learning strategies at a moderate level Of the five vocabulary learning strategies investigated, determination strategies were the most popular, with a mean score of 3.647 and a standard deviation of 790; followed by social strategies (M 3.426; SD = 804) and memory strategies (M = 3.393; SD = 798) Metacognitive strategies (M = 3.280; SD = 977) were the least used by the students in the current study The findings of the studies by Thiendathong and Sukying (2001), Sahandri et al (2009), and Tanyer and Ozturk (2014) also revealed that the most often employed strategy was determination strategies However, in Tanyer and Ozturk

(2014) and Sahandri et al (2009), the least frequently used strategy was social strategy, and in Thiendathong and Sukying’s (2001) study, memory strategy was the least frequently used

Among all determination strategies, using a bilingual dictionary was the most popularly listed one while identifying parts of speech was the least popular (as shown in Table 4.3)

Table 4.3 Item Statistics of Determination Strategies

Q1 I use a bilingual dictionary to help me translate

English words into my native language 3.75 956 200 Q2 I use pictures illustrated in the textbook to find the word meanings 3.67 897 200

Q3 I learn the meaning of words by identifying their part of speech 3.53 1.061 200

Despite the fact that dictionaries provide a plethora of useful information about a term, Miller (1999) warns that "dictionary definitions are deliberately decontextualized" (p 10) According to McAlpine and Myles (2003), the purpose of dictionaries in the study of fundamental languages is to help students increase their vocabulary and comprehend frequent grammatical mistakes In fact, results from studies imply that using dictionaries helps L2 learners' vocabulary grow and ultimately improves reading comprehension (Knight, 1994; Luppescu & Davy,

1993) Making use of dictionaries in particular aids students in connecting form and meaning

The relationship between learners' L2 competency and their dictionary usage has also been emphasized by several researchers (Gonzalez, 1999; Lew, 2011) Higher proficiency learners frequently use a wider range of techniques and focus more on semantics than just lexical meanings and forms Therefore, in order to enhance language development, attention should also be made to suitable training in how to utilize dictionaries

In terms of the second-most frequently used strategy, social strategies, practicing in group work activities (Q6; M = 3.70; SD = 924) was the most popularly listed strategy used by the students, as shown in Table 4.4 below:

Table 4.4 Item Statistics of Social Strategies

Q4- I ask the teacher to translate the words into

Q5- I ask the teacher to put an unknown word into a sentence to help me understand the word's meaning 3.50 1.007 200 Q6- I practice English in group work activities 3.70 924 200

Q7- I ask native speakers for help 2.55 912 200

Q8- I learn words about the culture of English-speaking countries 3.58 953 200

Lin (2018) found that, in general, students appeared to discover more vocabulary information when working in groups as opposed to individually In group work, students had more opportunities to retrieve words and add to their word knowledge during group discussions; they also had the opportunity to learn more pieces of word knowledge by providing assistance (e.g., explanations) to their peers

Data from the study by Shokouhi and Pishkar (2015) revealed that the difference in vocabulary knowledge development was statistically significant, as the collaborative group demonstrated substantially greater vocabulary knowledge growth than the individual group Students are more likely to retain vocabulary words if they work in a collaborative environment and engage in an interactive process when learning words

Among the strategies, Metacognitive strategies were the least frequently used The items’ statistics are illustrated in the following table:

Table 4.5 Item Statistics of Metacognitive strategies

Q19 - I listen to English songs and news 3.26 968 200 Q20- I memorize words from English magazines 3.19 1.008 200

Q21 - I review my own English vocabulary cards for reviewing before the next lesson starts

Q22 - I am not worried very much about the difficult words found when reading or listening, I pass them

Q23 - I use on-line exercises to test my vocabulary knowledge 3.32 1.015 200

According to the statistics, the mean score of Metacognitive strategies ranged from 3.01 (Q21; SD = 990) to 3.64 (Q22; SD = 2.369) Among the strategies listed, reviewing English vocabulary cards before the next lesson starts (Q21; M = 3.01;

SD = 990) was the least chosen by students This was probably because students did not understand the benefits of reviewing vocabulary cards before lessons The low perceptions of Metacognitive strategies are pitiful as according to O'Malley et al (1985, p.561), “students without metacognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction or opportunity to review their progress, accomplishments, and future directions”.

RQ2 Are there any differences between male and female students' use of

Correlational analysis was conducted to discover if there exist any relationship between gender and students’ vocabulary learning strategy use The findings were summarized in Table 4.6 below:

Table 4.6 Correlations between gender and students’ vocabulary learning strategies

As could be seen from the table, there are no significant relationship between gender and the vocabulary learning strategies (p > 0.05)

This result is contrary to most current studies on the issue Jimenez (2003) and Yongqi (2002), for example, found that there were significant differences between male and female vocabulary learning strategy, with female students purportedly using vocabulary learning strategy more frequently than males Riandi

(2022), in a study on the impact of gender on vocabulary acquisition strategies also found that there were differences between male and female students' vocabulary learning strategies Female students employed determination strategies more frequently than males whereas male tended to employ more social strategies

However, the result is similar to Cao’s (2009) study on language learning strategies used by university students in Vietnam, which found that the overall strategies used by male and female students did not differ significantly This could probably be explained by the lack of overall knowledge about different language learning strategies Therefore, they often consult their friends and apply the strategies that their friends consider effective without knowing whether the strategies are effective for them or not.

RQ3 Are there any relationships between students’ achievement and

Another correlational analysis was conducted in order to shed light on the relationship between students’ vocabulary learning strategies and their English GPA Table 4.7 below provides detailed information of the analysis

Table 4.7 Correlations between GPA and students’ vocabulary learning strategies

Determination Strategies Social Strategies Memory Strategies Cognitive Strategies Metacognitive Strategies GPA

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

As shown in Table 4.7, GPA positively correlated with all vocabulary learning strategies, which means students who employed vocabulary learning strategies more often, tend to get higher scores in English Notably, metacognitive strategies were found to have strongest correlation with GPA

In a study on the relationship between vocabulary size and vocabulary learning strategies, Wu (2019) also found that cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and social strategies have a positive impact on vocabulary performance

In particular, the meta-cognitive strategies, which function as an internal and executive factor in vocabulary performance, is highly correlated with the vocabulary size of learners Similarly, Furqon (2013) discovered that vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary levels are positively correlated Given the close relationship between vocabulary size and proficiency level, it could be inferred that there was a relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and English proficiency level of students in the two studies above as well It is comprehensible as students who try to apply vocabulary learning strategies can grasp and retain vocabulary better and therefore have higher learning outcomes than those who do not use or use fewer learning strategies.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of main findings

The current study aimed to investigate the vocabulary learning strategies employed by students at Nguyen Trai High School, Thai Binh Province To achieve this aim, the researcher conducted a survey that involved 200 students in the 11th and 12th grades Most of them studied English for more than six years and had GPAs of more than 6.5 Findings from the study generally suggest that:

In terms of the vocabulary learning strategies employed by students at

Nguyen Trai High School, the students moderately used all vocabulary learning strategies Of all the vocabulary learning strategies, determination strategies (M 3.647; SD = 790) and social strategies (M = 3.426; SD = 804) were the most commonly used The most often mentioned determination strategies was using a bilingual dictionary, and the most popularly listed social strategies was group work activities Metacognitive strategies, surprisingly, were the least frequently used (M

When relationships between vocabulary learning strategies and other factors (i.e., gender, GPA) were investigated, the research found no significant relationships between vocabulary learning strategies by male and female students; yet, there is a positive strong correlation between GPA and students’ vocabulary learning strategies.

Implications

For teachers, being aware of students’ current use of vocabulary learning strategies could help in the planning of subsequent vocabulary instructions Given that “bilingual dictionary” was the most frequently used determination, teachers may take the opportunities to guide students on how to make the best use of these strategies For example, students should not only look at the first translation text, but they should pay attention to the part of speech Besides, they should also look at the collocations and examples offered in the dictionary to understand more about the word Since “group work” is the most frequently used social strategies among student participants, teacher may also maximize students’ vocabulary learning though effective use of group work in class For instance, teachers may organize activities to facilitate students’ interactions and opportunities to use vocabulary to remember longer Collaborative vocabulary learning strategies that teachers may consider using in the classroom may include Collocation Pelmanism (a card game to help students remember collocations), word association recitation, word guessing games, etc

Teachers could also remind students or train them of other strategies With more information about different strategies, students might be in a better position to choose one(s) that best suit(s) their own styles Since metacognitive is the least frequently used vocabulary learning strategy, teachers should focus more on this area Teachers may guide students to assess their own vocabulary learning, make plans to learn vocabulary and keep track of their own learning These strategies would not only help improve students’ vocabulary learning but also be key to fostering learner autonomy (Llach, 2019) There are techniques that teachers can use to train metacognitive strategies for students in their vocabulary learning, for example, using a framework suggested by Chamot and O’Malley (1994) This method's five-phase recursive cycle for teaching involves introducing, instructing, practicing, assessing, and applying learning processes This method gradually reduces the amount of extremely explicit instruction in applying strategies to learning problems so that students can take on more responsibility for choosing and using the best learning methods As fresh tactics or applications are included in students' strategic toolkits, the cycle is repeated

Ha (2008) believes that students should be instructed in learning strategies so they can continue their studies outside of the classroom In order to encourage students to implement and utilize the strategies, it is suggested that teachers adhere to a few fundamental principles: (1) The strategies should be explicitly taught so that the students understand why they are important to learn (2) The language components (grammar, vocabulary, and phonology) or language skills (speaking, reading, listening, or writing) should be taught with the techniques There shouldn't just be instruction on learning techniques (3) Students should receive practical training so they may experiment and evaluate the effectiveness of the tactics As an example of how some tactics should be taught, consider the following: a) Guessing: Since this tactic often aids in the improvement of reading abilities, it ought to be covered in reading lessons The technique may also be applied to other abilities, such as hearing Before students begin reading a text, the teacher will instruct them to consider the content of the text by asking them to consider the title, subtitle, illustrations, and graphs (if any) They will be required to develop assumptions about the material and explain what they anticipate learning from it When they read, they might have to start by looking for the information they are specifically looking for The instructor will advise them that in order to truly read for meaning, they need always bring a purpose and certain expectations to their reading activity And when they come across new terms, they ought to make an effort to deduce their meaning from the context or from any hints they may already be aware of After they comprehend the technique, they will practice using it while reading the lesson's material with the teacher's assistance and encouragement The strategies should be explained several times throughout time so that the students can develop a habit of using it b) Practice: The author surmises that learners are already familiar with this method, even if they might not be aware that it is a cognitive strategy When grammar or vocabulary is the emphasis of the session, the approach might be implemented to help the students recall certain grammar rules and terminology The instructor will explain to the class that "practice makes perfect" and provide practical exercises for them to do Tasks can range from carefully monitored repetition, rule application, imitation, and so forth to less carefully monitored practice such as creating their own phrases or other more imaginative tasks It is important to let the students know that the practice will emphasize correct language usage c) Memorization: This technique appears to be similar to practicing at first

Students should be explicitly told what makes the two different The former emphasizes usage precision while the latter emphasizes the process of storage and retrieval, even though they both involve practice and may employ the same drill and repetition Organization is the aim of the memorization technique Introduce this tactic when the lesson's main focus is vocabulary The teacher and the students can talk about the best strategies to learn and remember terminology The students may have already tried some methods, so they can share those with the class Examples include learning words in associations, words from a certain class, word stress learned based on suffix norms, etc The most useful method should be chosen by the students and used from that point forward The teacher will occasionally ask the students to report back on their progress after keeping track of it themselves or by the teacher d) Monitoring: The process of monitoring seems to involve both cognitive and metacognitive techniques The students must be able to recognize an issue, choose a solution, and fix it In reality, this method can be applied to a variety of language learning tasks, particularly when honing speaking and writing abilities One option is to introduce this tactic during a speaking lesson where students will give oral presentations and have the opportunity to receive immediate feedback The instructor will advise students to pay attention to how their audience responds when they speak to them in order to identify any gaps in their own language From the perspective of interactionists, through interaction, interlocutors can identify their errors and seek for partner correction so they can learn from them The instructor will explain to the students that this technique is useful not only for their language acquisition but also for speaking and writing in the target language They may always learn from the recipients of their errors and manage to fix them in their own way Role playing and pair projects in the speaking class are the finest ways to practice the method

For students: The current study proved that using vocabulary learning strategies often can help students improve their achievement Therefore, students should find the most suitable vocabulary learning strategies and make specific plans to use them to enrich their vocabulary size

For researchers who are interested in this area, further studies on a larger scale could be attempted Further studies conducted on a larger scale, or using different research designs (i.e., experimental research, mixed method research) could probably bring more insights into the problem.

Limitations

There were certain limitations of the study due to time and resource restrictions Firstly, the study was conducted on a small scale Data were collected from only 200 students in the 11th and 12th grades of a provincial high school in the North of Vietnam Therefore, care should be taken when interpreting the research findings Future research might be conducted on a larger scale and/ or with students from other contexts as well Secondly, although the research found some correlation between vocabulary learning strategies and students’ learning outcomes, it is not possible to make any claims about the cause-effect relationships Future research in (quasi-) experimental design may help shed light on the actual impact of certain vocabulary learning strategies on students’ outcomes

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1 Full Name / Họ tên đầy đủ:

3 Gender / Giới tính: ฀ Male / Nam ฀ Female / Nữ

4 Your Grade Point Average in English:

II – Learning strategies employed by students

For the questions below, please tick the column that best describe your use of vocabulary learning strategies

Trong khi học từ vựng tiếng Anh, em thường sử dụng các chiến lược học tập nào? Hãy tick vào cột tương ứng với mức độ thường xuyên sử dụng của em l Never (Không bao giờ)

3 Sometimes (Thỉnh thoảng)

Strategies / Chiến lược học tập 1 2 3 4 5

1 I use a bilingual dictionary to help me translate English words into my native language

Em dùng từ điển song ngữ để tìm nghĩa Tiếng Việt của các từ Tiếng Anh

2 I use pictures illustrated in the textbook to find the word meanings

Em dùng tranh, ảnh minh họa trong sách giáo khoa để đoán nghĩa của từ

3 I learn the meaning of words by identifying their part of speech

Em dựa vào từ loại (danh từ, động từ, tính từ …) để đoán nghĩa của từ

4 I ask the teacher to translate the words into Vietnamese

Em nhờ giáo viên dịch các từ sang tiếng Việt

5 I ask the teacher to put an unknown word into a sentence to help me understand the word's meaning

Em nhờ giáo viên đặt từ mới vào câu để em có thể đoán được nghĩa của từ

6 I practice English in group work activities

Em thực hành tiếng Anh thông qua các hoạt động nhóm

7 I ask native speakers for help

Em nhờ người bản ngữ giúp đỡ

8 I learn words about the culture of English-speaking countries

Em học từ vựng về văn hóa của các nước nói Tiếng Anh

9 I write a new word in a sentence so I can remember it

Em viết một một câu có chứa từ mới để nhớ được từ đó

10 I study the spelling of new words

Em học cách viết của các từ mới

11 I use physical actions when learning words

Em sử dụng các hành động hình thể khi học từ

12 I speak words out loud when studying

Em đọc to các từ khi học

Em thực hành từ mới liên tục

14 I write a new word on a flash card so I can remember it

Em viết từ mới lên thẻ học từ vựng để ghi nhớ nó

15 I learn words by listening to vocabulary CDs

Em học từ bằng cách nghe các CDs từ vựng

16 I record vocabulary from English soundtrack movies in my notebook

Em chép các từ vựng từ nhạc phim tiếng Anh vào vở

17 When I try to remember a word, I write or say it repeatedly

Khi cố gắng ghi nhớ một từ, em liên tục nói hoặc viết từ đó

18 I make vocabulary cards and take them with me wherever I go

Em làm các thẻ từ vựng và mang theo chúng bất cứ nơi nào em đến

19 I listen to English songs and news

Em nghe nhạc và bản tin Tiếng Anh

20 I memorize words from English magazines

Em nhớ các từ trong các tạp chí Tiếng Anh

21 I review my own English vocabulary cards for reviewing before the next lesson starts

Em xem lại các thẻ từ vựng của mình để ôn tập trước khi bắt đầu bài học tiếp theo

22 I am not worried very much about the difficult words found when reading or listening, I pass them

Em không quá lo lắng về các từ vựng khó gặp phải khi đọc hoặc khi nghe, em bỏ qua chúng

23 I use on-line exercises to test my vocabulary knowledge

Em sử dụng các bài tập trực tuyến để kiểm tra kiến thức từ vựng của mình

- Selection of the research topic

- Write the MA thesis proposal

- Submit the MA thesis proposal to the supervisor

- Finalize the Literature Review and Research Methodology

8 4/2023 - Write the Discussion and Findings of the research

- Submit the thesis with the certification of the supervisor

10 6/2023 - Submit the thesis to the Faculty of Post-graduate studies