NON-FLAVIVIRUS ENCEPHALITIS Edited by Sergey Tkachev Non-Flavivirus Encephalitis Edited by Sergey Tkachev Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. 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ISBN 978-953-307-720-8 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Part 1 General Problems of Epidemiology 1 Chapter 1 Zoonotic and Animal Vector Mediated Encephalitides 3 Colleen Mikelson and Sean Richards Chapter 2 Zoonoses Surveillance in Italy (2000-2009): Investigation on Animals with Neurological Symptoms 29 Cristina Casalone, Barbara Iulini, Maria Domenica Pintore, Cristiana Maurella, Elena Bozzetta, Carlo Cantile, Gualtiero Gandini, Maria Teresa Capucchio, Arianna Calistri, Antonio D'angelo and Maria Caramelli Part 2 Viral Pathogens 59 Chapter 3 Virus-Induced Encephalitis and Innate Immune Responses – A Focus on Emerging or Re-Emerging Viruses 61 Melanie Denizot, Vincent G. Thon-Hon, Shiril Kumar, Jim W. Neal and Philippe Gasque Chapter 4 Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption and Encephalitis in Animal Models of AIDS 87 Nicole A. Renner, Andrew A. Lackner and Andrew G. MacLean Chapter 5 Herpes Simplex Type 1 Encephalitis 103 Feyzi Birol Sarica Chapter 6 Virology and Pathology of Encephalitis in Alien Hosts by Neurotropic Equine Herpesvirus 9 127 Hideto Fukushi and Tokuma Yanai Chapter 7 Equine Herpesvirus 9 (EHV-9) Induced Encephalitis in Nonhuman Primates 147 Tokuma Yanai, Atsushi Kodama, Hiroki Sakai, Hideto Fukushi, Takeshi Kuraishi, Seisaku Hattori and Chieko Kai VI Contents Chapter 8 Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis and Other Lethal Encephalitis Caused by Measles Virus Infection: Pathogenesis and New Approaches to Treatment 157 Fernandez-Muñoz R., Carabaña J. Caballero M., Ortego J., Liton P.B., Duque B.M, Martin-Cortes A., Serrano-Pardo A., Muñoz-Alia M.A., Porras-Mansilla R., Alvarez-Cermeño J.C. and Celma M.L. Chapter 9 Coronaviruses as Encephalitis - Inducing Infectious Agents 185 Pierre J. Talbot, Marc Desforges, Elodie Brison and Hélène Jacomy Chapter 10 Encephalitic Development in Alphaviral Infection 203 Slobodan Paessler and Katherine Taylor Chapter 11 Human Rabies Epidemiology and Diagnosis 247 Brett W. Petersen and Charles E. Rupprecht Part 3 Protozoan Pathogens 279 Chapter 12 Toxoplasmic Encephalitis 281 Yaowalark Sukthana Chapter 13 Autoimmunity in the Mediation of Granulomatous Amoebic Encephalitis: Implications for Therapy 307 Chandirasegaran Massilamany and Jay Reddy Chapter 14 Encephalitis Due to Free Living Amoebae: An Emerging Issue in Human Health 329 Jacob Lorenzo-Morales, Carmen Mª Martín-Navarro, Enrique Martínez-Carretero, José E. Piñero and Basilio Valladares Part 4 Multicellular Pathogens 339 Chapter 15 Encephalitis Due to Loa loa 341 Jean Paul Akue Preface Encephalitises (from Greek enképhalos — brain) are a group of inflammatory diseases of human and animals brain caused essentially by different pathogens. This book covers the different aspects of non-flavivirus encephalitises of different ethiology. One of the important questions of any pathogens study are the epidemiology and the monitoring and prediction of the epidemiological situation so the first section of the book consider general problems of epidemiology such as study of zoonotic and animal vectors of encephalitis causative agents and methods and approaches for encephalitis zoonoses investigations. The members of different virus species are known to be the causative agents of encephalitis, so the second section of the book is devoted to viral pathogens, their epidemiology, pathology and diagnostics, and the first chapter of the section describes different aspects of the virus infection and molecular mechanisms of encephalitis development. The next chapter of the section is about HIV/SIV encephalitis whose pathogenesis still remains to be completely understood. The authors describe and discuss the association of the viruses with the alterations in the blood brain barrier and possible mechanisms of pathogenesis. The next three chapters are connected with such herpesviruses like herpes simplex virus type 1 and equine herpesvirus 9 that also have shown to be associated with encephalitises in human and animals. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is the most common cause of sporadic fatal encephalitis (95% cases) and the incidence of HSV- associated encephalitises is reported as 2-4/1 million/year. So the corresponding chapter is devoted to its epidemiology and clinical aspects such as pathology and diagnostics. Another example of lethal encephalitis is corresponded with equine herpesvirus 9 (EHV-9) also called as gazelle herpesvirus 1, which was isolated from enzootic encephalitis of Thomson’s gazelles that died of fulminant encephalitis in a Japanese zoo. EHV-9 has been isolated from Thomson's gazelles, zebras, giraffes, polar bears and onager and also was shown to infect several experimental hosts include horse, goat, pig, cattle, hamster, mouse, rat, guinea pig, dog, cat, and marmosette. So the authors of the first chapter make the detailed discussion of the problems of its X Preface virology and pathology, and in the second chapter the authors based on several experimental studies of EHV-9 involving various domestic animals such as dogs and cats suppose the possibility of the virus transmission to humans by contacting affected animals or zebras through certain routes. Also they describe the experimental data on EHV-9 infectivity determination in non-human primates including common marmosets and cynomolgus macaques, which have strong similarities to humans. The next chapter describes the measles virus, its clinical aspects and pathogenicity and antiviral therapeutic approaches to encephalitis caused by virus infection of the central nervous system. Despite the availability of an efficient live attenuated vaccine, measles virus still remains an important global pathogen infecting over 25 million individuals and causing over 250.000 deaths per year, being one of the main causes of child death worldwide. During acute measles, the virus produces a transient clinical significant immunosuppression that can contribute to some complications that infrequently may cause central nervous system lethal complications. The next chapter is devoted to coronaviruses as encephalitis-inducing infectious agents. Coronaviruses are known to be the ubiquitous respiratory and enteric pathogens but they also represent one family of viruses that bear neurotropic and neuroinvasive properties in various hosts including humans, pigs, and rodents. In this work the authors discuss the mechanisms and consequences of virus interactions with the nervous system which are essential for better understanding of potentially pathological relevant consequences and design intervention strategies that are highly relevant to encephalitis. Also, collecting of new data is necessary to the understanding of how a ubiquitous respiratory virus, the human coronavirus, given the proper susceptibility conditions and proper virus evolution and infection conditions, could trigger the neuropathology that is characteristic of at least some forms of encephalitis. The next chapter is about alphaviruses. The Alphavirus genus in the family Togaviridae contains three viruses capable of causing human encephalitis: Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), and western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV). No specific therapy or vaccine is currently available against these viruses. In this chapter the development and progression of alphavirus encephalitis in both human populations and murine models of alphavirus infection, the host response that characterizes the development of central nervous system disease after alphaviral infection and data on immune factors that influence successful resolution of infection were summarized. Also this chapter briefly describes the basic viral dissemination and spread in natural cycles, both enzootic and epizootic, followed by a more in-depth overview of the primary encephalitic alphavirus. The last chapter of the book section contains information about the rabies virus - highly neurotropic zoonotic viruses belonging to the Lyssavirus genus in the Rhabdoviridae family, causing an acute progressive encephalitis. Rabies virus is distributed globally and found on all continents except Australia and Antarctica. In the United States, multiple virus variants circulate in wild mammalian reservoir [...]... pathway for human infection (Pepin et al., 2010) Encephalitis was reported in outbreaks in Egypt and Saudi Arabia (Laughlin et al., 1979; Madani et al., 2003) 2.3 Flaviviridae Family: Japanese Encephalitis Virus Serogroup, Tick Borne Encephalitis and Dengue Fever Encephalitis 2.3.1 Japanese Encephalitis Virus Serogroup: Japanese, St Louis, and Australian Encephalitis Virus and West Nile Virus With over... Virology, Vol 80, No (10), October 1, 1999, pp 2545-2557, 1465-2099 16 Non-Flavivirus Encephalitis Briese, T., X.-Y Jia, et al (1999) Identification of a Kunjin/West Nile-like flavivirus in brains of patients with New York encephalitis The Lancet, Vol 354, No (9186), pp 12611262, 0140-6736 Broderick, J., B Sandok, et al (1987) Focal encephalitis in a young woman 6 years after the onset of Lyme disease:... used as an overwinter mechanism for Culex quinquefasciatus in the temperate areas of Argentina, where St Louis encephalitis is endemic Lab studies confirmed that larva and adults both are capable of acquiring the virus Australian Encephalitis can be caused by two viral agents, the Murray Valley Encephalitis Virus or Kunjin Virus, which are distributed in both Australia and Papua New Guinea In Western... 2003) 2.3.2 Tick Borne Encephalitis and Powassan virus There are three main groups of Tick Borne Encephalitis Virus (TBEV): Western (Central, eastern and northern Europe), Siberian (Russia, eastern Europe), Far-Eastern (Eurasia, Asia and Japan) and one main group of Powassan virus (North America, Far eastern Russia), all of which have been reported to be the causative agent in meningoencephalitis (reviewed... northwestern US and Canada, and D andersoni (Rocky Mountain Wood Tick) and the Lone Star Tick, 12 Non-Flavivirus Encephalitis Amblyomma americanum In Latin America, Amblyomma cajennense (Cayenne Tick) is a human vector (Alderdice & Burgess, 1998; Thorner et al., 1998; Treadwell et al., 2000; Dumler & Walker, 2005) Meningoencephalitis can be a side effect of this disease (Horney & Walker, 1988; Sexton & Corey,... Zoonotic and Animal Vector Mediated Encephalitides 15 Armstrong, P M and G A Theodore (2010) Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus in Mosquitoes and Their Role as Bridge Vectors Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol 16, No (12), pp 1869-1874, 1080-6059 Armstrong, R W and P C Fung (1993) Brainstem Encephalitis (Rhombencephalitis) Due to Listeria monocytogenes: Case Report and Review Clinical Infectious Diseases, Vol... potential to develop into encephalitis, though in some cases, this is a rare side effect, or limited to specific groups (i.e., immunecompromised individuals) Of these diseases, all have a life cycle intimately connected with an animal vector or host in some way Some disorders are very well known and studied as a means of vector transmitted encephalitis (e.g., Eastern Equine Encephalitis) , while others... Hanna, J., I Carney, et al (2000) Australian bat lyssavirus infection: a second human case, with a long incubation period Med J Aust., Vol 172, No (12), pp 597-599, 20 Non-Flavivirus Encephalitis Hansen, W and D E Docherty (1999) Eastern Equine Encephalitis In: Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Birds, M Friend and J C Franson, pp (171-174), US Department of the Interior,... variation of St Louis encephalitis virus Journal of General Virology, Vol 89, No 8, pp 1901-1910, 1465-2099 McJunkin, J E., E C de los Reyes, et al (2001) La Crosse Encephalitis in Children New England Journal of Medicine, Vol 344, No (11), pp 801-807, 1533-4406 Zoonotic and Animal Vector Mediated Encephalitides 23 McLean, R G., L J Kirk, et al (1993) Avian Hosts of St Louis Encephalitis Virus in Pine... Dengue encephalitis: why we need to identify this entity in a dengue-prone region Singapore Med Journal, Vol 47, No (11), pp 975-957, 0037-5675 Narasimha Rao, S., N S Wairagkar, et al (2008) Brain Stem Encephalitis Associated with Chandipura in Andhra Pradesh Outbreak Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, Vol 54, No (1), February 1, 2008, pp 25-30, 0142-6338 O'Sullivan, J D., A M Allworth, et al (1997) Fatal encephalitis . NON-FLAVIVIRUS ENCEPHALITIS Edited by Sergey Tkachev Non-Flavivirus Encephalitis Edited by Sergey Tkachev Published. vectors of encephalitis causative agents and methods and approaches for encephalitis zoonoses investigations. The members of different virus species are known to be the causative agents of encephalitis, . associated with encephalitises in human and animals. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is the most common cause of sporadic fatal encephalitis (95% cases) and the incidence of HSV- associated encephalitises