woods geraldine basic english grammar for dummies us

Basic English Grammar ForDummies®To view this book''''s Cheat Sheet, simply go toGrammar For Dummies Cheat Sheet” in theSearch box.Table of ContentsCoverTitle PageCopyrightIntroductionAbout

Basic English Grammar For

Dummies®

To view this book's Cheat Sheet, simply go to

Grammar For Dummies Cheat Sheet” in the

Conventions Used in This Book Icons Used in This Book

Beyond the Book Where to Go From Here

Part 1: Getting Started with Basic English Grammar

Chapter 1: Getting a Grip on Grammar

Getting to Know the Ingredients of Standard English Building Language, Block by Block: Parts of Speech Making Sentences

Small but Important: Punctuating, Capitalizing, and Spelling

Facing Everyday Writing Tasks

Chapter 2: Language in Action

Adjusting Language to Suit Your Audience Getting Help from Spelling and Grammar Checkers Recognizing Your Grammar Profile

Part 2: Meeting the Parts of Speech

Chapter 3: People to See, Places to Go, Things to Remember: Recognizing Nouns

Identifying Nouns Sorting Out Singular and Plural Nouns Attaching “This,” “These,” and Other Words to Nouns

Chapter 4: Perfecting Pronouns

Replacing Nouns with Pronouns Solving the Case of Pronouns Forming Possessive Pronouns

Chapter 5: Doing and Being Words: Verbs

Searching Out Verbs Asking Questions to Find the Verb Telling Time with Verbs

Recognizing Forms of Some Important Verbs Getting Assistance from Helping Verbs

Chapter 6: Describing with Adjectives and Adverbs

Adding Detail with Adjectives Writing Well with Adverbs Choosing between Adjectives and Adverbs Placing “a” and “an” in the Proper Place Making Comparisons with Adjectives and Adverbs

Chapter 7: Building Relationships with Prepositions

Recognizing Prepositions Identifying Objects of Prepositions Choosing Pronouns as Objects of Prepositions Placing Prepositional Phrases in the Proper Place

Chapter 8: Connecting and Commenting:

Conjunctions and Interjections

Linking Ideas with Conjunctions Identifying Interjections

Part 3: Creating Correct Sentences

Chapter 9: Making Progress: Verbs Ending in –ing

Keeping Time with –ing Verb Forms Choosing between Simple and Progressive Tenses Correctly Spelling –ing Verb Forms

Chapter 10: Putting the Past in Order: The Perfect Tenses

Building a Bridge between the Present and the Past: Present Perfect Tense

Creating a Timeline with Past Perfect Tense Breaking the Rules: Irregular Past Forms Glancing at the Future Perfect Tense

Chapter 11: Seeking Subjects

Locating the Subject of a Sentence Matching Subjects and Verbs Properly Dealing with Tricky Subjects

Chapter 12: Adding Meaning with Complements

Surveying Complements Choosing the Proper Complement Pronoun

Chapter 13: Writing Complete Sentences

Halfway Is Not Enough: Expressing a Complete Thought Cooking Up a Complete Sentence: The Essential Subject–Verb Pair

Ending Sentences with Proper Punctuation Changing the Rules for Texting and Messaging

Part 4: Punctuation and Capitalization

Chapter 14: Applying Apostrophes Accurately

Using Apostrophes to Show Ownership

Shortening Words with Apostrophes Avoiding Common Apostrophe Mistakes

Chapter 15: Catching a Break with Commas

The Sound of Silence: Why Commas Matter Making a List with Commas

Placing Commas within Sentences Placing Commas after Introductory Words Talking to People: Commas in Direct Address Punctuating Dates

Chapter 16: Who Said What: Quotation Marks

Telling the Truth with Quotation Marks Quoting or Paraphrasing: Which Is Better?

Identifying the Source of a Quotation Adding Punctuation to Quotations Distancing Yourself with Quotation Marks Identifying Titles with Quotation Marks

Chapter 17: Going Big: Capital Letters

Knowing the (Capital) ABCs of Capital Letters Setting Up Sentences with Capital Letters Naming Names

Capitalizing Race and Ethnicity

Mr Mayor or mr mayor: Capitalizing Titles Mom or mom? Capitalizing Family Relationships Writing Capitals in Titles

Capitalizing Abbreviations

Part 5: Grammar in Action

Chapter 18: Texting, Emailing, and Posting

Being Crystal Clear Writing Proper Emails Writing for Websites and Social Media

Chapter 19: Presentation Slides and Bulleted Lists

Sliding into a Great Presentation

Writing Bullet Points

Chapter 20: Writing at School and on the Job

A Is for Accomplished: Writing at School Get to Work: Writing on the Job

Part 6: Fine-Tuning Your Writing

Chapter 21: Tricky Word Traps

Same Sounds, Different Spelling: Sorting Out Word Pairs Together or Apart? One- and Two-Word Expressions Staying Away from Improper Expressions

Chapter 22: Avoiding Common Mistakes

Writing Clear Descriptions Creating Balanced Sentences Writing Clear Pronouns No! No! Understanding Double Negatives

Chapter 23: Finishing Touches: Advanced Grammar Topics

Fine-Tuning Verbs Choosing Tenses for Special Verb Forms Matching Subjects and Verbs in Complicated Sentences Dealing with Pronouns Problems

Writing Correct Comparisons

Part 7: The Part of Tens

Chapter 24: Ten Spelling Tips to Remember

Making Plurals of Words Ending in Y Placing I before E

Doubling Letters in Short Words Doubling Letters in Longer Words Dropping the Silent E

Finishing with AR, ER, and OR Ending with ANT/ENT and ABLE/IBLE One or Two?

Which vowel?

Checking the Dictionary

Chapter 25: Five “Always” and Five “Never” Rules

of English Grammar

Always Adapt Always Ensure Accuracy Always Be Clear

Always Be Consistent Always Aim to Improve Your Style Never Use a Word You Just Learned Never Neglect Punctuation

Never Leave a Thought Unfinished Never Overcorrect

Never Skip Proofreadding Proofreading

Index

About the Author

Connect with Dummies

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 6

FIGURE 6-1: How to identify adjectives.

FIGURE 6-2: Questions to find adverbs.

FIGURE 6-3: Adjective or adverb.

FIGURE 12-1: Locating the direct objects.

FIGURE 12-2: Locating the indirect object.

FIGURE 12-3: Locating the subject complement.

Chapter 19

FIGURE 19-1: Sample presentation slide.

FIGURE 19-2: A title replaces the introduction.

Basic English Grammar For Dummies ® , 2nd Edition

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2024931748

ISBN 978-1-394-24472-0 (pbk); ISBN 978-1-394-24473-7 (ebk); ISBN978-1-394-24474-4 (ebk)

Someone important — a teacher or a boss — is judging your work andwants you to submit a self-evaluation You begin to write:

I had given I gived I gave alot of a lot of much thought to all my

work I believe my performance is really real excellent Everyonepraised the most recent project the more recent the project about

stocks and bonds

What a headache! You know what you want to say You're just not surehow to say it Fortunately, help is on the way In fact, it’s already here

Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, explains what youneed to know about writing reports, texts, presentation slides, letters,

and, well, anything Instead of listing outdated rules, Basic English

Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, focuses on current usage — what’scorrect today

Does that last bit surprise you? When you’re sitting in an English

classroom, grammar rules seem set in stone They’re not Human beingscreate language Because human beings change, language does too

Pronouns (words that stand in for names of people, places, and things)

are a good example Thou and thy have faded, and they has recaptured an

old meaning, which I explain in the boxed text Punctuation is also

different Old books contain more commas ( , ) and fewer exclamationpoints ( ! ) than today’s works

A NOTE ABOUT PRONOUNS

A pronoun is a word that stands in for a noun or another pronoun Because of

pronouns, you can write “George said that he forgot his phone” instead of “George said

that George forgot George’s phone.” The pronouns he and his make the sentence flow

Some pronouns are masculine (he, him, his), some are feminine (she, her, hers), and others are neuter (it and they when referring to objects, ideas, or places) The rules for

these pronouns have stayed the same So have the rules for pronouns referring to a

group of people (they, them, their, theirs).

The rules have changed, though, when a pronoun refers to a person whose gender is unknown or not accurately described as “male” or “female.” For these situations, many

grammarians (including me) select they, them, their, and theirs Each of these pronouns

may be either singular or plural, depending on the word it refers to Take a look at some examples:

The children ate their lunches (The plural pronoun their pairs with the plural noun children.)

If anyone forgot their lunch, the teacher will give them something to eat (The

singular pronouns their and them refer to the singular pronoun anyone.)

Alix arrived late because they were stuck in traffic (The singular pronoun they pairs with the singular noun Alix, the pronoun Alix prefers.)

The first two examples may look familiar to you From the 14th century onward, they,

them, and their have been used to refer to one person or a group, just as the pronoun you does In the 18th century, though, a few grammarians decided that the pronouns they, them, their, and theirs were correct only for references to a group According to

these grammarians, the forms he, him, and his and she, her, and hers were the only appropriate references to one person If the gender was unknown, he, him, and his

were said to be the proper choice You can imagine how popular this decision was with

supporters of women’s equality! In the late 20th century, many writers used pairs — he

or she, him or her, and his or her — for singular references That practice often resulted

in awkward sentences like “Everyone must bring his or her gym suit with him or her.” Paired pronouns also ignore people whose identity isn’t described by a male or female

label, the situation in the third example about Alix The singular they/them/their/theirs

solves these problems.

It may take a while to get used to they as a singular word If you’re expecting one

dinner guest and hear “they're on the way," you may rush to cook more food before you

remember that they is your guest's preferred pronoun You may also find yourself writing for an authority figure who insists you use they, them, their, and theirs as plurals

only In that situation, you can reword the sentence to avoid pronouns For more

examples and information about pronouns, see Chapter 4.

About This Book

The goal of Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, is tohelp you improve your speaking and writing skills, not to add fancygrammar terms to your vocabulary For this reason, I explain what you

need to know in ordinary, nonteacher language If I can’t avoid a

technical term, I immediately define it and provide examples

With every grammar rule, I give you a few practice questions I alsoprovide the answers, so you can check whether you’ve understood theconcept If I mention an idea but do not explain it immediately, I directyou to a chapter that contains more information

How This Book Is Organized

When they hear the word grammar, many people imagine a teacher

wagging a finger while saying, “Don’t do this!” or “Always do that!” In

my mind, grammar is an umbrella covering all the things that factor into

the way people speak and write, from the form of words to the nature of

a complete sentence to punctuation and much, much more Becausegrammar is a broad subject, in this book I break it into manageable

Part 2: Parts of Speech

Each chapter in this part explains how to identify and use these buildingblocks of language: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,

prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections (You’ll love the last one.It’s nearly impossible to make a mistake with an interjection.)

Part 3: Creating Correct Sentences

Sentences are like hangers in your closet They organize ideas! This partsurveys the elements of a sentence (verbs, subjects, complements) andexplains how to write complete, grammatically correct sentences

Part 4: Punctuation and Capitalization

If you’ve ever asked yourself whether you need a capital letter or ifyou’ve ever puzzled over quotation marks and commas, Part 4 is foryou I discuss each punctuation mark: its meaning, usage, and

placement I also explain the most common situations requiring capitalletters

Part 5: Grammar in Action

This part takes grammar into the real world: first to texts and messagesand posts on the internet and then to the workplace and classroom.

Along the way, you learn how to format presentation slides and bulletedlists, both essential to modern writing

Part 6: Fine-Tuning Your Writing

Part 6 shows you how to avoid falling into tricky word traps and how tosidestep common grammar errors This part also covers some advanced

— okay, picky — points of the language, such as the mood and voice of

verbs and the difference between who and whom.

Part 7: The Part of Tens

Spelling checkers are good, but learning basic spelling rules is better.This part also explains when and how to consult a dictionary and listsfive “always” and five “never” rules of English

Foolish Assumptions

I don’t know who you are, but I have already spent some time with you

— the reader I imagine When I write, I keep you, the reader, in mymind This is how I see you:

You know the language, but you are open to learning more

You want a firmer grasp of the rules of Standard English, the formallanguage of educated people

You’re busy You don’t want to waste time memorizing facts youwill never need

You enjoy a little humor

Have I described you accurately? I hope so

Conventions Used in This Book

To help you navigate through this book, I use the following conventions:

Italic is used to emphasize and highlight new words or defined

Monofont is used for web addresses

Sidebars, which look like text enclosed in a shaded gray box, consist

of information that’s interesting to know but not necessarily critical

to your understanding of the chapter or section topic

Icons Used in This Book

Flip through Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition Small drawings appear in the margin Those pictures are called icons Icons

alert you in these ways:

This icon signals a shortcut or an extra bit of information A tip

is a whisper in your ear, helping you master a grammar rule

This icon tells you where errors often pop up, so you can avoidmistakes

For every topic, you find a few questions labeled with this icon.Answer them to see whether you have mastered the material

Key ideas appear with this icon.

Beyond the Book

Like me, you probably spend a lot of time on the internet I have placedextra material there, to add to what you find on the screen of your e-

reader or between the paper covers of Basic English Grammar For

Dummies, 2nd edition Here’s what you get, all for free:

Cheat Sheet: The Cheat Sheet lists important facts from this book.

Print it out and tape it to your desk or put it in your pocket Glance atthe Cheat Sheet at

http://www.dummies.com/cheatsheet/basicenglishgrammar

when you want to refresh your memory about key grammar rules

An extra Part of Tens: The last two chapters in this book are lists.

One explains five “always” and five “never” rules for proper

English The other reviews spelling rules For a chapter listing teneasy ways to improve your writing skills, go to

http://www.dummies.com/extras/basicenglishgrammar

Articles: I love language, and I have more to say about every topic

in this book For articles that tell you a little bit more about parts ofspeech, parts of a sentence, and other aspects of grammar, go to

www.dummies.com

If you want to study advanced grammar topics, you’ll find them in

another book I wrote, All-in-One English Grammar For Dummies That

book includes many quizzes and exercises on basic and advanced topics.You can practice until you’re perfect!

Where to Go From Here

You don’t have to read Basic English Grammar For Dummies in order.

Nor do you have to read the entire book You can, of course If you do,you will be my favorite reader

I realize, however, that you’re busy You probably want to select justwhat you need To get started, read the Table of Contents Mark off

topics that interest or puzzle you You should also take a look at the table

at the end of Chapter 2, which presents common grammar issues andtells you which chapters explain them Read the chapters you’ve

selected

Another way to personalize your approach to grammar starts with thequestion sets in each chapter Try some If you get everything right, feelfree to skip that section (Also, take a moment to pat yourself on theback for a job well done.) If something stumps you, spend some time inthat section of the book Read the explanations, and glance at relatedmaterial in other chapters

If you’re facing a specific task — a school report or a work presentation,perhaps — turn to Part 5 There, you find information about commonwriting formats Check out the online material, too

No matter which path you choose to follow through Basic English

Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, you will arrive at the same place.You will be a stronger, more confident writer and speaker

Part 1

Getting Started with Basic

English Grammar

IN THIS PART …

Surveying the elements of grammar

Adjusting levels of formality to suit your audience and purpose

Chapter 1

Getting a Grip on Grammar

IN THIS CHAPTER

Surveying the basic elements of grammar

Sorting out style

Coping with everyday writing tasks

Afriend recently told me that studying grammar was a waste of time

“Who cares whether somebody says had gone or went?” he added “The

world has more important problems!” My response was that grammar

does matter People may judge your intelligence and ability based on the

way you speak and write Standard English, the term given to language

that follows commonly accepted rules, can lead to better jobs and highergrades In this chapter, you survey key elements of Standard English

Getting to Know the Ingredients of Standard English

When you bake a cake, you need all the right ingredients If you forgetone, the cake is tasteless English has a number of ingredients, too Youcan’t ignore any if you wish to express yourself properly in StandardEnglish Here are the ingredients:

Parts of speech: Words are like people Both base a portion of their

identity on the work they do Words that name people or things, for

example, are nouns English teachers call the identity of a word the

part of speech Understanding how to select the appropriate part of

speech is an important aspect of grammar

Parts of a sentence: Words seldom like to be alone (This is another

quality that words and people have in common.) When words join

together, they form sentences Complete sentences are essential in

formal writing

Mechanics: Surprised? Usually, mechanics repair cars and other

machines In language, the term mechanics refers to the little things

that help readers understand what you mean Spelling and

capitalization are included in mechanics, as well as punctuation, the

placement of periods, commas, question marks, and other symbols.Without proper mechanics, your writing suffers

Word order: In English, location partly determines meaning The

dog bit John is different from John bit the dog In the first version,

the dog is in trouble In the second, John has a problem You shouldknow the rules that govern the placement of words

Word choice: Some words sound alike (eye and I, for example).

Others are nearly twins (for instance, affect and effect) Selecting the

wrong word can wreck your writing

Word forms: Today, I walk Yesterday, I walked The form of the

word walk changes to reveal the time period of the action Knowing

the correct form is essential

The rules for word forms and word order have changed only a few times

in the last 500 years Style — the preferred capitalization, punctuation,

and word choice — shifts more frequently That’s why a 19th-centurybook seems odd to modern readers Style changes with geography, too

In a list of three or more items, American writers usually place a comma

before the word and British writers generally omit that comma Style

also depends on context Science journals and literary magazines

capitalize titles differently, for example

In Basic English Grammar For Dummies, 2nd edition, I explaincurrent style points that most authorities agree on For important

projects, you can ask your teachers or supervisors to explain their

preferred style You can also consult a manual Many schools and

companies publish their own manuals of style, explaining everydetail of what you must or must not write A few popular manualsare available in bookstores and libraries Select one that covers your

field of interest Some popular manuals are the Modern Language

Association Handbook (literature, history, arts), The Chicago

Manual of Style (general writing), the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (science), and the MIT Guide

to Science and Engineering Communication (science, math,

technology) If you’re keeping score at home, this book follows The

Chicago Manual of Style.

Building Language, Block by Block: Parts of Speech

According to one survey, the English language includes more than onemillion words All those words can be sorted into one of eight boxes: the

parts of speech Take a look at the Big Eight:

Not every box has the same number of words in it The interjection

container is light The noun and verb containers are huge The other

boxes fall somewhere in between

To give you an idea of how the parts of speech look within a sentence,here are some examples The parts of speech are underlined and labeled:

Nora likes algebra (Nora and algebra are nouns.)

I told you the story already (I and you are pronouns.)

The baby shook the rattle (Shook is a verb.)

Great speeches require intense practice (Great and intense are

adjectives.)

Glen wrote his name carefully and correctly (Carefully and correctly

are adverbs.)

A play by that author received great reviews from the critics (By and

from are prepositions.)

Nora and Faisal like opera, but Sal prefers jazz (And and but are

conjunctions.)

Wow, those tickets are expensive! (Wow is an interjection.)

Most of the time, you think only about the meaning of a word, not itspart of speech However, some important grammar rules depend uponknowing the difference between one part of speech and another For

example, an adjective is a word that describes people, places, or things.

An adverb is also a description, but it can’t do an adjective’s job.

Take a look at these examples Pay close attention to the underlinedwords:

WRONG: Today the weather is beautifully

WHY IT’S WRONG: Beautifully is an adverb You need an

adjective here

RIGHT: Today the weather is beautiful

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The adjective beautiful works well here.

WRONG: Bill and Tina agenda the next meeting

WHY IT’S WRONG: Agenda is a noun You need an action word (a

verb)

RIGHT: Bill and Tina wrote the agenda for the next meeting.

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The verb wrote provides the action Agenda

correctly appears as a noun

WRONG: The puppy lifted it’s paw

WHY IT’S WRONG: You need a pronoun in this spot It’s means “it

is.”

RIGHT: The puppy lifted its paw

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Its is a pronoun.

In Part 2, you find in-depth information on every part of speech Well,

every part of speech except for interjections An interjection is a word that briefly comments on the rest of the sentence Ouch, wow, and oh are

interjections I don’t provide in-depth commentary on interjections Theyhave no depth! They simply add a little interest to your conversation

Every dictionary tells you the part of speech of the word, usuallyright in front of the definition Some words may have several labelsbecause they change their identity in different sentences For moreinformation on how to understand every part of a dictionary

definition, see Chapter 24

Making Sentences

A judge sentences criminals to prison There, criminals must followmany rules You may feel that English sentences are prisons, too So

many rules apply to them! However, English sentences are definitely not

prisons They are structures to hold your thoughts They help your readerpick apart one idea from another Take a peek at this paragraph:

going to the beach bad idea no pets allowed want take the dog hedoes not bite you know kind and friendly he is to the park instead

Oh, my! In that paragraph, all the ideas are jumbled together Now takeanother look at the same paragraph, this time with proper sentences:

Going to the beach is a bad idea No pets are allowed I want to

take the dog He does not bite You know how kind and friendly he

is We should go to the park instead

This one is easier to understand, isn’t it? The extra words, capital letters,and punctuation organize your thoughts into complete sentences

Complete and proper sentences are not always necessary Whenyou speak with your friends, for instance, you may use half-

sentences Read this conversation Imagine that Joe and Barbara arespeaking to or texting each other:

Joe: Want to go to the beach?

Barbara: Not without my dog

Joe: Okay, the park instead

These comments work well because Joe and Barbara are not in a formalsituation To find out when formal English is necessary and when

conversational English will do, turn to Chapter 2 For more about

grammar and texting, see Chapter 18

To create grammatically correct sentences, you must pay attention toseveral issues The following sections briefly show you these issues

Action or being words

Every sentence has at least one word that expresses action or being That

word is a verb In these sentences, the verbs are underlined:

Candice loves her ring (loves = action word)

Rex ate every dog biscuit in the box (ate = action word)

Alonzo will be pleased with your work (will be = being words)

Were the lights on? (Were = being word)

Selecting the right verb form is important Glance at these examples.Notice the underlined verbs:

WRONG: You was wrong

WHY IT’S WRONG: In Standard English, the verb form was

doesn’t pair properly with you.

RIGHT: You were wrong

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Were is the verb form that matches you (To

learn more about this topic, see Chapter 5.)

WRONG: The mayor speaked to voters yesterday

WHY IT’S WRONG: Speaked is not correct in Standard English.

RIGHT: The mayor spoke to voters yesterday

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Spoke is the irregular verb form you need in this

sentence (More information on irregular verb forms appears in

Chapter 10.)

WRONG: John studying for his exam

WHY IT’S WRONG: The verb form studying is not complete.

RIGHT: John is studying for his exam

WHY IT’S RIGHT: Now the verb is complete (See Chapter 9 formore about these verb forms.)

As you see, you can make many mistakes with verbs The chapters Imention in the preceding examples will help you avoid errors

Subjects

In a sentence, someone or something does the action or exists in the state

of being That word is the subject Notice the underlined subjects in

these sentences:

Cindy arrived at ten o’clock (Cindy = subject)

We had sandwiches for lunch (We = subject)

The sandwiches were delicious (sandwiches = subject)

Do you like peanut butter? (you = subject)

It is smooth and sticky (It = subject)

Jelly and jam go well with peanut butter (Jelly and jam = subjects)

Most times, you know who or what you want to write about The

subject, in other words, is usually easy to select When the subject is apronoun, errors often occur Examine these examples The underlinedwords are important:

WRONG: Him and John failed the Latin test

WHY IT’S WRONG: In Standard English, him can’t be a subject.

RIGHT: He and John failed the Latin test

WHY IT’S RIGHT: He is a proper subject.

WRONG: Are youse ready?

WHY IT’S WRONG: Youse is not the plural of you in Standard

English

RIGHT: Are you ready?

WHY IT’S RIGHT: You is Standard English You is both singular

(one) and plural (more than one)

WRONG: Us friends should stick together

WHY IT’S WRONG: Us is not a subject pronoun in StandardEnglish

RIGHT: We friends should stick together

WHY IT’S RIGHT: We is a subject pronoun in Standard English.

Chapter 4 explains which pronouns work as subjects

Pairing subjects with verbs can also cause trouble Check these

examples Pay attention to the underlined words:

WRONG: Mr Smith and Ms Jones has been promoted.

WHY IT’S WRONG: Has been promoted pairs up with one person.

In this sentence, you have two people, Mr Smith and Ms Jones.

RIGHT: Mr Smith and Ms Jones have been promoted

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The verb have been promoted matches well with

Mr Smith and Ms Jones Both are plural (more than one).

WRONG: The list of grammar rules are too long

WHY IT’S WRONG: The subject of the sentence is list, a singular word It cannot pair with are, a plural verb form Did you focus on

rules? Rules is not the subject of this sentence It’s part of a

description, of grammar rules.

RIGHT: The list of grammar rules is too long

WHY IT’S RIGHT: The singular verb form, is, pairs correctly with the singular subject, list.

To find out more about matching singular subjects to singular verb formsand plural subjects to plural verb forms, check out Chapter 11

Complements and descriptions

Your thoughts are rich and varied You want to say more than “Mary is”

or “I run.” Some elements, called complements, complete ideas In these

sentences, the complements are underlined:

Mary is happy

Deborah mailed the letter

Meera and Drew are always nervous in the dentist’s office

Give Jean her pizza

Did you tell Bob the secret?

Usually, complements fall into place correctly Pronouns can cause

problems when they act as complements (Have you noticed that

pronouns are troublemakers?) For more information on complements,check out Chapter 12 To sort out pronouns, see Chapter 4.

Your writing would be very boring without descriptions Notice the

underlined descriptions in these examples:

Every morning, I run through the park

Pink paint covered the bumpy wall

Silk thread is more expensive than cotton thread

Wind in that area blows the fallen leaves away

The book of speeches helped me prepare for graduation

Singing, the choir entered the church

As you see, descriptions come in many shapes and sizes Chapter 6

explains what type of description is best for every situation

Small but Important: Punctuating, Capitalizing, and Spelling

Punctuation marks, capital letters, and spelling may seem unimportant.Don’t overlook these little things, though They add more to your writingthan you may expect Take punctuation, for example Some years ago, adairy company had to pay $5 million to its drivers because of a missingcomma in a state law! This section gives you an overview of

punctuation, capitalization, and spelling

Punctuation

You can’t read without punctuation, the little marks that show the readerwhere to pause, when someone is speaking, and so on These are thebasic punctuation marks that you should know:

Apostrophe: This is a little curved hook above the line An

apostrophe, along with the letter s, shows possession:

Ellen’s car (Ellen owns the car.)

the boys’ locker room (The locker room belongs to the boys.)the Vice President’s staff (The staff belongs to the Vice

President.)

states’ rights (The rights belong to the states.)

Apostrophes also shorten words:

Annie doesn’t ice skate (Here, doesn’t is short for does not) I’m excited that vacation is finally here (I’m is short for I

am.)

Isn’t that lemonade too cold? (Isn’t is short for is not.)

To learn more about apostrophes, turn to Chapter 14

Period, question mark, exclamation point: These three

punctuation marks signal the end of a sentence A period is a little dot It follows a sentence that makes a statement A question mark is

made from a curve and a dot It follows a sentence that asks a

question An exclamation point is a vertical line and a dot It shows

emphasis — the punctuation mark that shouts Look at these

punctuation marks in action:

Mary’s socks are blue (The period ends the statement.)

Are Tim’s shoes blue also? (The question mark ends the

question.)

No, they are not! (The exclamation point adds emphasis.)

To learn more about these three important punctuation marks, see

Chapter 13

Comma: This little curved hook starts on the line and reaches below.

A comma tells the reader to pause Notice the commas in these

sentences:

Katie, my friend, is visiting from Chicago

Katie arrived yesterday, but she has to leave tomorrow

Chicago, which is in the state of Illinois, is a large city.

Tim, have you ever visited Chicago?

If you read these sentences aloud, you can hear the short silences thatappear at each comma If commas trouble you, check out Chapter 15

Quotation marks: Quotation marks are pairs of curved marks that

appear above the line Their most common job is to mark off theexact words that someone said or wrote Notice the quotation marks

in these examples:

“Be quiet,” said the librarian

The children cried, “We were not very loud.”

“In the library,” replied the librarian, “any noise is too loud.”

To use quotation marks properly, you must follow many rules Turn

to Chapter 16 for everything you need to know about quotation

marks

Capitalization

In an old piece of writing, capital letters show up in strange places

Standards for capitalization had not yet been set For example, the

Declaration of Independence is more than 200 years old In the middle

of one sentence is this famous phrase:

the pursuit of Happiness

These days, happiness would appear in lowercase (noncapitals) The

Founders of the country could place a capital wherever they wanted Youdon’t have the same freedom You must follow the rules Glance at thesesituations, which require capital letters:

Speaker or writer: The pronoun I always refers to the person who is

writing It is always capitalized:

When I am asleep, I do not snore

Do I have to pay extra for my suitcase?

First word in a sentence: A capital letter begins every sentence.

The letter serves as a signal that one sentence has ended and anotherhas begun Read these examples:

Nana sings to the baby She has a terrible voice! The babydoes not mind He loves her anyway

Palm trees grow in my yard Warm weather suits them Rainstorms water the trees They require little care

Are you curious about numbers? You can’t capitalize 22 or

15 or any numeral So, what happens when a number appears at the

beginning of a sentence? Good question! The answer is that youshould not begin a sentence with a numeral If you need a numberthere, use the word:

WRONG: 20 people live in that building.

RIGHT: Twenty people live in that building.

Names: I am Geraldine Woods, not geraldine woods Nearly all

names require capital letters (Some companies choose lowercase

letters for products The iPad is an example of a name that doesn’t

begin with a capital letter.)

Of course, these aren’t the only rules that govern capital letters Turn toChapter 17 for more information

Spelling

In silly television shows, spell is a magic word In grammar, spell is also

a magic word To spell correctly, placing every letter in the right spot, isimportant Take a close look at the following paragraph Can you

identify five misspelled words?

Jenny enjoys sewing She pushs the needle into the cloth with herthum Tina, who is makeing a new skirt, offen chats with Jenny

wen they sew

Before you check your answers, think for a moment The precedingparagraph contains proper sentences It clearly states the facts Yet, it isnot a good piece of writing The misspelled words turn a good paragraph

into a bad one Here are the correctly spelled words: pushes, thumb,

making, often, when.

In Chapter 24, you find some rules for English spelling

Unfortunately, many, many English words don’t follow those rules

To check your spelling, you may need help from the dictionary.Chapter 24 also explains how to understand and use the dictionary

Many words sound the same but have different spelling andmeaning Other words are nearly alike in appearance or sound, buttheir definitions are not alike Check Chapter 21 for help with theseconfusing words

Facing Everyday Writing Tasks

Do you spend a lot of time sitting at a desk? If you do, you probably facewriting tasks such as these:

School assignments: You write an essay on an exam or for

homework You answer questions based on a reading assignment.Perhaps you have to write a book review or a lab report Your teachermay ask for a research paper, a short story, or a slide presentation.All these writing jobs call for good grammar All follow patterns thatare easy to learn Knowing proper English and formatting will raiseyour grades

Work-related writing: You send a memo to your co-workers or to

your supervisor The boss wants a report or a presentation Perhaps it

is your responsibility to answer emails or letters from customers In

the business world, good writing is expected — and often rewarded.Grammar rules apply to every writing task in the working world.Knowing the best format for each type of writing is also important.

Personal writing: Outside of school and work, you may post a

comment on a website Perhaps you must send a letter to a landlord

or a government official You probably email or text friends andfamily members In many situations, informal language and

nonstandard grammar are fine In others, you need your best writingskills

When you face an everyday writing task, you should understand therules and traditions that apply to it Chapters 18, 19, and 20 tell youeverything you need to complete your writing work easily and

effectively

Sometimes, it’s fine to bend the rules of grammar and to useinformal language For example, would you send this text to afriend?

Would you accompany me to the cafeteria at your earliest

Chapter 2

Language in Action

IN THIS CHAPTER

Choosing the correct level of formality

Using grammar-checking software effectively

Identifying your grammar strengths and weaknesses

Some people speak of “good” and “bad” English I prefer the term

Standard English for speech and writing that follows every rule Of

course, no one obeys every rule all the time No one should! When

you’re chatting with friends, you relax Your language should relax, too

In this chapter, I show you how to move up and down the ladder offormality, depending on situation, audience, and purpose I also explainhow to use computer programs and apps to improve your command ofEnglish Finally, I give you a checklist to help you make a personalgrammar-improvement plan

Adjusting Language to Suit Your

Audience

For convenience, I sort English into three levels of formality Take alook at this message, sent three different ways:

Gotta go.Wanna come?

I have to go Do you feel like coming with me?

I must leave Would you like to accompany me?

The first statement is the sort of language people use when they’re

chatting with friends I call this level friendspeak (This is not an official

term I made it up.) The second level is also friendly, but the sentences

follow more rules than those in the first I call this level conversational

English The third example hits the highest level of formality, Standard English Language on this level conforms to every standard, or rule, of

English In this section, you look at each of these three “Englishes.”

Friendspeak

Friendspeak is my term for the language you use when you’re most

relaxed It works well when you’re dealing with peers The power level

is balanced Look at these two conversations Both actually took place in

my classroom:

Conversation 1:

Student to Teacher: He and I went to the gym He did 60 push-ups.

I can’t do as many push-ups as he can

Teacher to Student: He exercises regularly That’s why he’s strong Conversation 2:

Same Student to Another Student: Me and him went to the gym.

He did 60 push-ups, and I’m like, no way

Other Student: Dude, he like, lives in the gym.

These two conversations say the same thing, but not in the same way.When speaking with a teacher, the student knows to follow the rules.The teacher also follows grammar rules Why? The teacher–studentrelationship is a formal one In the second conversation, breaking therules is the point The students have nothing to prove to each other Theymake mistakes on purpose to show that they have a personal, friendlyrelationship

Excellent grammar usually gives you an advantage in life Whenyou speak with friends, though, perfectly proper sentences may

sound snobby For this reason, more casual language (either

friendspeak or conversational English, which I cover in the next

section) is sometimes more suitable than Standard English

I don’t deal with friendspeak in this book Chances are, you already

know it This level of language is fine in these situations:

Talking with friends

Chatting with close family members, especially those who are thesame age

Writing to friends in emails and texts

Employ friendspeak only when you are sure that the people

you’re addressing are comfortable with this type of language

Conversational English

Conversational English is the language just about everyone uses for —surprise! — conversations This level of language breaks some of therules of Standard English, but it’s not as loose as friendspeak

I use conversational English in this book As I write, I imagine that I’mspeaking with you, the reader I pretend that I know you and that we’respending some free time together I don’t see myself as a teacher in aformal classroom situation

Conversational English is suitable for these situations:

Chats with friends and family

Conversations with neighbors and other acquaintances

Notes, emails, instant messages, letters, and texts to friends andfamily

Comments posted on social media

Informal conversations with teachers