Washback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teaching

Washback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teachingWashback effects of highstakes English tests on Vietnamese EFL high school teachers’ teaching

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

In Vietnam, the educational system operates under a centralized structure, where national-level educational policies are formulated by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) The Ministry is tasked with setting standards, compiling, editing, and determining official textbooks used across general education nationwide. Moreover, the Ministry exercises supervision on teaching content and methodologies for each subject within the educational program This supervision is facilitated through the issuance of a secondary educational program (referred to as "chương trình giáo dục phổ thông" in Vietnamese) for each subject, with the current program established in

2018 (MOET, 2018) These programs outline educational objectives, content (themes, topics), teaching methods, and assessment criteria to be adhered to by schools nationwide.

Within the general education program, particular emphasis has been placed on foreign languages among the various subjects that students are required to learn. Ministry regulations stipulate five foreign languages—English, French, Chinese, Russian, and Japanese—are officially introduced to Vietnamese students, beginning from grade 3 (or grade 1 under specific conditions) Additionally, in 2021, two more foreign languages, Korean and German, were incorporated into the options for students, allowing for a more diverse range of choices This inclusion was experimentally implemented in accordance with Decision no 712/ BGD&ĐT, issued on February 9, 2021, by the Ministry of Education and Training.

Despite the Ministry's endeavors to introduce a variety of foreign languages at the general education level, English remains the predominant foreign language taught and learned in Vietnamese schools Several factors contribute to the widespread interest in English, notably its role as a language for global integration and business transactions However, it is apparent that the English proficiency of Vietnamese individuals, particularly the younger demographic, falls short of the expectations and requirements of the labor market, in contrast to neighboring countries such as Thailand or the Philippines As outlined by Nguyen (2013), the experts involved in Project 2020 identified that 98% of Vietnamese students, having undergone seven years of English education (from grade 6 to grade 12, aged 11–18), were unable to utilize the language for basic communication These findings served as the impetus for the issuance of the Vietnamese Prime Minister’s Decision No 1400/QĐ-TTg, titled "Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education System, Period 2008 to 2020" (commonly referred to as the National Foreign Language Project 2020 by the public).

The objectives of the National Foreign Language Project were as follows: by the year 2015, to achieve significant progress in professional skills and language proficiency among human resources, particularly in prioritized sectors; by 2020, to ensure that the majority of Vietnamese students graduating from secondary, vocational schools, colleges, and universities can confidently use a foreign language in their daily communication, studies, and work within an integrated, multicultural, and multilingual environment This aim is intended to establish foreign language proficiency as a comparative advantage for the development of the Vietnamese people in the pursuit of the country's industrialization and modernization goals.

Although the Project did not meet its ambitious goals within the expected period as admitted by 2016 Minister of Education and Training, i.e., Mr Phung Xuan Nha (Nguyen, 2017), it has brought about changes in teaching foreign languages in general and English in particular, to students of all the three levels in general education. Significant positive transformations have occurred in the teaching and assessment of English for Vietnamese learners, particularly in secondary education The secondary educational program, guided by Decree no.32/TT-BGD ĐT, underscores the Ministry's emphasis on student-centered teaching methodologies and the cultivation of communicative skills Under this framework, students undergo a series of assessments throughout the academic year, including ongoing, mid-term, and term-end English tests, culminating in a final accumulative mark for the subject Additionally, since

2015, Vietnamese grade 12 students have been mandated to sit for the National high school graduation exam (NHSGE), alongside tests in Literature, Mathematics, Foreign languages and either Social Science or Natural Science Notably, these high-stakes assessments, except for the Literature test, adhere to standardized testing principles,ensuring uniformity in question administration and scoring methodologies (GreatSchool Partnership [GSP], 2015) The implementation of these NHSGE tests has attracted considerable attention from various stakeholders, particularly given that the test results are primarily utilized to make critical decisions regarding students' graduation from secondary education, their admission to universities in Vietnam.

Rationale for the study

In the domain of language education, testing and assessment play multifaceted roles beyond mere evaluation, shaping teaching methodologies, learning outcomes,decision-making processes, and employment prospects (Bachman and Palmer, 1996;Shohamy, 1998) Particularly, high-stakes tests wield significant influence in educational settings worldwide, including Vietnam, where they are pivotal in shaping critical decisions concerning students and other stakeholders The concept of washback effects, delineating the influences—be it positive or negative—of tests on various aspects of teaching and learning (Brown, 1997; Cheng, 1997; McKinley & Thompson, 2018; Nguyen, 2017; Pizarro, 2010), has emerged as a central theme in language testing discourse Extensive research worldwide has explored the washback effects of various high-stakes English tests on stakeholders like teachers and students However, there is a notable absence of research focusing on these effects within the Vietnamese context, especially in secondary education While scholars such as Dinh (2020), Nguyen (2017), and Nguyen and Gu (2020) have examined these effects in higher education, there is a scarcity of research in secondary education settings One possible reason for this absence may stem from the centralized supervision of the MOET on teaching and learning for secondary education The Ministry's focus on curriculum implementation and adherence to standardized testing procedures may prioritize administrative concerns over research initiatives Consequently, there may be limited resources and incentives available for educators and researchers to explore the nuances of washback effects in secondary education Additionally, the hierarchical structure of educational governance in Vietnam could contribute to a top-down approach that emphasizes compliance with policies rather than fostering a culture of research and inquiry at the secondary level These factors collectively contribute to the gap in literature and highlight the importance of addressing this research deficit to better understand the implications of high stakes testing in secondary education settings This research gap serves as the impetus for investigating the washback effects of a prominent high-stakes English test, namely the NHSGE English test, on Vietnamese high school teachers' teaching practices.

Moreover, the study aims to identify washback factors to develop a conceptual framework that elucidates the mechanisms or interactions among these factors withinVietnam's centralized educational system By undertaking this investigation, the study not only addresses theoretical gaps in the literature but also offers practical implications by understanding and mitigating potential negative washback effects.

Ultimately, the findings of this research endeavor are anticipated to provide valuable insights for stakeholders aiming to enhance EFL teaching practices in Vietnamese high schools.

Research questions

This study aims to examine the washback effects of the English tests administered as part of the NHSGE on the teaching practices of Vietnamese EFL high school teachers Initially, the research aims to identify teacher-related factors as mediators of the NHSGE English test factors and contextual factors After exploring these teacher-related factors, including demographic details, perceptions of contextual elements, attitudes towards the NHSGE English test, and perspectives on effective teaching and test preparation, the study shifts its focus to understanding the tangible effects of test-induced washback across various domains of EFL teaching Specifically, the study seeks to address the following questions:

Question 1: What teacher factors are affected by the NHSGE English tests and related contextual factors?

Question 2: In what ways do the NHSGE English tests influence various aspects of EFL teaching?

The research questions implicitly underscore the research design's focus on identifying teacher factors which are affected by the NHSGE English tests and contextual factors prior to exploring the washback effects on EFL teaching Washback models commonly incorporate three factors - context, test, and teacher factors - emphasizing the necessity of first identifying factors for the washback phenomenon to manifest This initial emphasis on teacher factors permits a thorough examination of specific factors unique to the study participants, which may not be discernible from existing literature, and their interaction with other washback components to generate washback effects Such an approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of washback dynamics and its implications for EFL teaching within the research context.

Scope of the study

The current study delineates its scope based on the tests under examination, the participants involved, and the research objectives Firstly, it narrows its focus to the English tests within the NHSGE framework, specifically excluding other high-stakes English tests These standardized multiple-choice tests are mandatory for Vietnamese grade 12 students, serving as a requirement for secondary education qualification and university admission.

Furthermore, the study is confined to investigating the washback effects of these tests on the EFL teaching practices of 58 Vietnamese high school teachers in Buon Ma Thuot city, Dak Lak province, Vietnam It specifically targets teachers working with grade 12 students, omitting grades 10 and 11, within the high schools they are employed in The investigation centers on three key aspects of EFL teaching influenced by the NHSGE English tests: the content covered by teachers, their instructional methods, and their in-class assessment practices This includes examining variables such as textbook coverage, i.e textbook teaching content, test-aligned content with a view to time allocation, and additional content in supplementary materials. Additionally, attention is given to EFL teachers' selection of instructional activities and strategies for content presentation and test preparation, along with their decisions regarding the type, format, and content of in-class assessment methods, which may encompass projects, presentations, and testing conducted during regular class sessions to evaluate students' comprehension of the material covered.

Moreover, the research was conducted in Buon Ma Thuot city, situated in DakLak province in the Central Highlands of Vietnam While the Vietnamese education system operates under centralized guidelines set by the Ministry of Education andTraining (MOET), the selected research site possesses distinct ethnographic characteristics Consequently, the teaching practices observed among the research participants may not be reflective of those in other locations with differing ethnographic contexts.

Lastly, the chosen research design employs a mixed-methods approach involving the voluntary participation of fifty-eight EFL teachers from high schools in Buon Ma Thuot city Due to the inherently personalized and contextualized nature of washback effects, the findings of this study may offer insights relevant to EFL teachers in similar ethnographic settings However, caution must be exercised in generalizing these results to all EFL teachers across Vietnam or other educational contexts Instead,they contribute to an understanding of diverse washback mechanisms within specific test-use contexts Essentially, the aim of this study, akin to many washback studies, is not to propose a single washback mechanism universally applicable but to enrich the literature by exploring various washback phenomena across different testing contexts.

Significance of the study

The study holds both theoretical and practical significance Theoretically, it contributes by reviewing established washback models and constructing a comprehensive framework This framework delineates the factors triggering washback, particularly focusing on the intricate interplay of teacher-related factors within the washback mechanism Moreover, it identifies specific components within each factor group and their impact on various aspects of EFL teaching Consequently, the study enriches existing knowledge and offers insights transferable to similar educational contexts.

Practically, the findings raise EFL teachers' awareness of how high-stakes tests can influence their teaching practices By understanding these effects, teachers can adapt their approaches to maximize student learning outcomes Furthermore, the study's implications are expected to stimulate significant interest and discussion regarding the use of high-stakes English tests in Vietnamese educational settings.Insights into the influences of NHSGE English tests on teaching practices can prompt critical reflections among EFL teachers, fostering improvements in pedagogical strategies.

Additionally, the study results have the potential to initiate dialogue and action among stakeholders They highlight the importance of considering the NHSGE English test design and test use Policy makers, curriculum developers, teacher trainers, test designers and school authorities can utilize these findings to mitigate negative washback effects and promote effective teaching practices.

Moreover, this study serves as a foundation for future research endeavors. Subsequent studies could explore washback effects on teachers with diverse ethnographic backgrounds or investigate additional factors contributing to the washback mechanism Additionally, there is an opportunity to examine the broader impact of these tests on various stakeholders beyond teachers, including students, administrators, test designers, and curriculum developers This collective body of research can provide comprehensive insights into the implications of high-stakes testing in Vietnaemse educational contexts.

The study comprises five primary chapters, each serving a distinct purpose within the research framework.

Chapter 1 serves as the introductory section, providing an overview of the study's background, objectives, scope, and organizational structure.

Chapter 2 thoroughly explores the extant literature concerning the washback effects of high-stakes tests, providing a critical examination of key concepts,definitions, and interchangeable terms associated with washback effects Moreover,this chapter reviews diverse washback models from prior studies and introduces a conceptual framework customized to the unique context of the current research.Additionally, it discusses the definition of EFL teaching, different teaching approaches, activities, and various instructional domains Furthermore, this chapter presents findings from previous empirical research on the washback effects of tests across various educational settings, culminating in the proposal of a conceptual framework specifically designed for analyzing the NHSGE English tests.

Chapter 3 delineates the research methodology employed to investigate the two research questions It provides comprehensive details regarding the research participants, the research setting, data collection instruments, research approach, and study design Furthermore, this chapter examines aspects of validity, reliability, and ethical considerations to ensure the rigor and integrity of the study.

In Chapter 4, the findings of the study are comprehensively reported and interpreted based on the data collected Findings are organized into two main themes corresponding to the research questions, allowing for a thorough analysis and discussion of the results.

Finally, Chapter 5 offers a synthesis of the entire study, summarizing key findings and their implications Additionally, this chapter provides recommendations for utilizing the research results in practice and suggests avenues for future research endeavors, contributing to ongoing scholarly discourse in the field.

Organization of the study

This chapter adopts a dual approach, synthesizing both theoretical and integrative literature (Dudovskiy, 2022), to establish a comprehensive foundation for the current research Comprising four main sections, the chapter commences by an in- depth examination of test washback effects, including definitions, dimensions, factors, and models within diverse research contexts Following this, the exploration extends to defining EFL teaching and aspects of EFL teaching, preceding The third section presents a review of empirical research on the washback effects of high-stakes tests on EFL In conclusion, the fourth part introduces a conceptual framework tailored for the present study, aimed at understanding the washback effects of NHSGE English high- stakes tests on teaching.

2.1 Washback effects: definitions, dimensions, factors, and models

This section explores washback effects, encompassing definitions, dimensions, and factors by different researchers The study then explores various test washback models derived from prior research, laying the groundwork for the conceptual framework in the current study.

In this part, various terms used interchangeably with "washback effects," such as impact, washback, backwash, and consequences or consequential validity are introduced Before delving into these terms, a brief explanation is provided regarding different test qualities, including impact Given the pivotal role of tests in numerous educational contexts, there has been a significant focus on quality control in the design and development of tests to ensure their usefulness According to Bachman and Palmer

(1996), test usefulness is defined as a combination of six distinct test qualities:reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact, and practicality, all intricately interconnected.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Washback effects: definitions, dimensions, factors, and models

This section explores washback effects, encompassing definitions, dimensions, and factors by different researchers The study then explores various test washback models derived from prior research, laying the groundwork for the conceptual framework in the current study.

In this part, various terms used interchangeably with "washback effects," such as impact, washback, backwash, and consequences or consequential validity are introduced Before delving into these terms, a brief explanation is provided regarding different test qualities, including impact Given the pivotal role of tests in numerous educational contexts, there has been a significant focus on quality control in the design and development of tests to ensure their usefulness According to Bachman and Palmer

(1996), test usefulness is defined as a combination of six distinct test qualities:reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact, and practicality, all intricately interconnected.

These six qualities collectively contribute to test usefulness and should not be assessed independently First, construct validity, as elucidated by Bachman and Palmer

(1996), pertains to the appropriateness of test score interpretations—the extent to which interpretations reflect the measured abilities or constructs Justifications for score interpretation involve evidence, including content relevance, coverage, relatedness of concurrent criterion, and predictive utility In language learning, Coombe et al (2017) describe construct validity as the alignment between language learning theories, methodology, and assessment types An example is the use of communicative language tests when employing a communicative language learning approach Second, reliability, defined as "consistency of measurement" (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, p.19) or consistency of test scores (Coombe et al., 2017), represents the similarity of results obtained from a test administered to the same group of test takers across different times and settings Reliability can be influenced by test factors, administrative factors, and affective factors such as test anxiety and learning styles Together with construct validity, reliability justifies the use of test scores for inferences or decisions Third, authenticity, according to Bachman and Palmer (1996), is "the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a TLU task" (p.23) Authenticity connects test performance to target language use tasks, influencing generalization and test takers' perception of task authenticity, thus linking to construct validity Interactiveness, another test quality, describes the degree of involvement of test- takers' individual characteristics in fulfilling a test task (Bachman

& Palmer, 1996) It considers individual characteristics like language ability, topical knowledge, and affective schemata, differing from authenticity by emphasizing the interaction between the individual and the task Practicality is the relationship between available and required resources (human, material, and time) for test implementation,development, or usage Although not directly tied to the use of test scores, practicality influences every stage of test design and development Finally, impact is defined as the influence of test use on individuals, the education system, and society at large(Bachman & Palmer, 1996) In language testing, impact is used interchangeably with terms such as washback, consequences, backwash, and washback effects by researchers referring to varying scales and scopes of test effects.

In this study, the term "washback effects” is utilized as the primary terminology. However, an analysis of empirical studies on the same topic reveals the interchangeable use of this term with several others by different researchers, including

"consequences" (Shepard, 1993), "impact" (Hamp-Lyons, 1977), "backwash" (Alderson & Wall, 1993; Biggs, 2003; Spolsky, 1994 in Pan, 2009), and "washback" (Cheng, 1997; Messick, 1996; Shohamy et al.,1996).

Initially, "consequences" or “consequential validity”, proposed by Messick

(1989) in Shepard (1993, refer to the positive or negative social consequences of a specific test The term was later broadened by Shepard (1993) this concept to encompass the social consequences of tests both within and beyond the classroom, covering aspects such as test uses, impacts on test takers and teachers, result interpretation by decision- makers, and potential misuse, abuse, and unintended usage of tests.

Cheng (1997) used “washback” and defined it as "an intended or unintended (accidental) direction and function of intended curriculum change on aspects of teaching and learning by means of the change of public examinations" (p.8) In Cheng's perspective, testing was seen as a catalyst for changes solely in the curriculum. Shohamy et al (1996), also using the term “washback,” generalized it as the connection between testing and learning Bailey (1999) further divided the term into

"washback to the learners," referring to test effects on students, and "washback to the program," denoting effects on teachers, administrators, curriculum developers, and counselors According to Bachman & Palmer (1996), "washback" fell within the scope of "impact," occurring at the micro level of participants (mainly teachers and learners),while "impact" encompassed macro influences on society Similarly, Wall (1997) suggested that "impact" refers to any effects tests may have on individuals, policies, or practices across various levels, from the classroom to the societal level In contrast, "washback" is narrower, focusing solely on the effects of tests on teaching and learning Messick

(1996) viewed washback as a component of a test's validity and asserted that it influences validity only when it can be distinctly demonstrated to be an effect of the test itself and not of other educational factors at play on the scene (p.242) To clarify, Messick emphasized that only effects directly and unequivocally linked to the test should be considered as washback, excluding other test effects from this category. Hamp-Lyons (2000) also distinguished "washback" as influences on teaching, teachers, and learning (including curriculum and materials), while "impact" is the term for broader influences of tests.

"Backwash" is considered a subset of "impact" or can be best understood within the scope of "impact" (Bachman & Palmer, 1996) Defined by Alderson & Wall (1993) as testing influences on teaching in general, and by Biggs (1995) as influences on both curriculum and teachers' methods and students' learning approaches, "backwash" has been interpreted as unintended effects and intended influences of tests on teaching and learning.

The term "washback effects" has been employed by Brown (1997), Cheng

(1997), McKinley and Thompson (2018), Nguyen (2017), Pizarro (2010), and Xu and Liu (2018) Cheng (1997) defined it as "the influence of testing on teaching and learning," while McKinley and Thompson (2018) elaborated on it as the impact of language testing on curriculum design, teaching practices, and learning behaviors.

The diverse definitions above indicate that 'backwash,' 'washback,' and 'washback effects' refer to the same phenomenon with shared features, making them interchangeable However, the other terms are not entirely synonymous in terms of scope and scale In this study, "washback effects" are operationally defined as the influences, either positive or negative, of tests on different aspects of teaching and learning on a micro scale limited to the classroom In certain sections of Chapter

2, 'washback' may be used instead of 'washback effects' when serving the working definitions Other terms are employed in Chapter 2 when cited by other researchers to present their empirical studies.

The perception of washback effects in testing is highly contingent upon the nature of specific tests and the chosen scope and scale of investigation by researchers into their influences This variability has led to the emergence of various approaches aimed at characterizing the dimensions of washback effects.

Wall and Anderson (1993), cited in Bachman & Palmer (1996), argued against a broad exploration of test washback studies solely in terms of their impact on teaching and learning Instead, they advocated for a more targeted focus on areas such as the content of teaching, teaching methodology, modes of assessment, and the presumed direction and extent of the impact (p.31) Going further from this, Cheng and Watanabe

(2004) and Xu & Liu (2018) delineated six sub-dimensions within the concept of washback, namely specificity, intentionality, length, extent, intensity, and direction.

Washback specificity distinguishes between general effects applicable to any test (e.g., learning motivation, feedback provision) and specific effects unique to a particular test or test type For instance, a general effect observed across various tests might be an increase in students' motivation to study due to the pressure of upcoming assessments On the other hand, a specific effect unique to a language proficiency test could be the adoption of certain teaching strategies tailored to the format and content of that specific test, such as intensive grammar instruction to prepare students for a grammar-focused language exam.

EFL teaching: definition and aspects of teaching

This section begins with a comprehensive examination, starting with a broad overview of the concept of teaching, followed by an exploration of specific definitions related to English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Subsequently, the discussion shifts to an analysis of the distinctive aspects inherent in the teaching process, acknowledging its dynamic and intricate evolution over time The narrative then transitions seamlessly to different domains within EFL teaching, offering a comprehensive understanding of its varied facets.

The term "teaching" is elucidated as "the process of attending to people's needs, experiences, and feelings, and intervening so that they learn particular things, and go beyond the given" (Smith, 2018, p.28) From this multifaceted definition, it is evident that teaching is a nuanced and intricate process Moreover, literature introduces the concept of "teaching practices" as an alternative term for teaching (Ahmed, 2015; Cheng et al., 2004), underscoring the diverse and dynamic nature of educational methodologies.

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) delineates the acquisition and utilization of the English language by individuals in a non-English-speaking environment This classification arises from the fact that English is neither the native nor the official language of the country or region where it is being learned and employed (Crystal,

2003) The distinction between EFL and ESL (English as a Second Language) lies in the context of language acquisition ESL pertains to the learning and use of English by individuals whose primary language is not English but who reside in an English- speaking environment This demographic includes immigrants, international students, or individuals living in a country where English holds linguistic dominance (Richards

In the definitions provided by Cambridge and Collins dictionaries, EFL teaching is specifically characterized as instructing English to students whose first language is not English Within the Vietnamese educational landscape, the prevalence of EFL teaching is conspicuous, while ESL teaching is more prominent in countries such as Singapore, Canada, and New Zealand.

2.2.2 Common EFL teaching principles, methods, strategies, and aspects of EFL teaching

Teaching various subjects often necessitates tailored principles and methodologies to align with the distinct characteristics of each subject In EFL teaching, several prominent principles guide instructional practices Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emphasizes authentic communication and interaction (Richards & Rodgers, 2014) Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) focuses on completing meaningful tasks to promote language learning (Ellis, 2003) Student- Centered Learning prioritizes individualized instruction and learner autonomy, with teachers acting as facilitators (Nunan, 1999) Content-Based Instruction (CBI) integrates language learning with subject matter content, fostering language development through academic engagement (Brinton et al., 1989) Additionally, Multimodal Teaching Approaches utilize various communication modes to accommodate diverse learning styles and preferences (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2001). These principles, informed by research and theory, provide frameworks for effective EFL teaching practices.

Each principle entails methods which ảe characterized by specific techniques and activities, believed to serve diverse teaching goals, and emphasize distinct language areas The teaching-learning process, teacher-learner interaction, and achievement evaluation exhibit specific characteristics based on the goals and emphasized language areas For instance, methods such as the Grammar-TranslationMethod and Direct Method are employed when the primary teaching goal is learners' mastery of discrete elements like vocabulary and grammatical rules (Larsen-Freeman

Richard, 2006) The Grammar -Translation Method focuses on teaching grammar and vocabulary deductively through translating texts into the native language, while the Direct Method advocates direct exposure to the target language through teacher-student oral exchanges to enhance oral communication Conversely, the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) gains prominence when teaching goals extend beyond discrete language points CLT, widely utilized in EFL and ESL teaching contexts, focuses on both learning product and process Sreehari (2012) notes that CLT encourages increased interaction, both between teacher and student and among students, in the target language Noteworthy features of CLT include the use of authentic texts and the creation of links between classroom and real-world language use In short, as argued by Larsen- Freeman and Anderson (2011), there is no universally superior method Instead, teachers should select methods that align with their beliefs about the teaching-learning process, shaped by their experiences and professional training The choice of methodology is contingent on the specific goals and language areas targeted in the EFL instructional context.

In practical teaching scenarios, educators implement teaching methods during individual lessons by incorporating specific teaching strategies A teaching strategy, defined as a deliberate approach or method employed by educators, serves to facilitate the attainment of instructional goals (Richards & Rodgers, 2001) This encompasses the methods, efforts, and procedures instructors employ to effectively convey knowledge to students Killen (2009) outlines nine effective teaching strategies for the context of teaching English These include direct instruction, where the teacher plays a central role in structured knowledge transfer; discussion, where students test their ideas in facilitated conversations; small-group work, focusing on student collaboration facilitated by the teacher; cooperative learning, where students work together,strategically paired for effective collaboration; problem-solving, requiring students to apply prior knowledge independently; research, promoting self-learning and allowing students to discover new information through investigations; role play, enabling students to apply knowledge in real-life situations; case study, combining research, small-group work, or cooperative learning to analyze real-life data; and writing, assessing students' knowledge and ability to communicate effectively through written expression These strategies encompass a variety of active learning methods, encouraging student engagement, critical thinking, and the application of knowledge Teachers are therefore advised to consider diverse needs of their students and learning objectives when choosing and implementing strategies in the English language teaching process.

Similarly, delving into the specifics of teaching activities reveals a diverse array that contributes to language acquisition Role-playing serves as a dynamic strategy wherein students assume different roles in simulated scenarios, facilitating contextual language practice (Maley & Duff, 1978) Engaging students in language games offers an interactive approach to reinforce vocabulary, grammar, and communication skills (Rinvolucri, 1984) Storytelling, as advocated by Wajnryb (1992), encourages students to create and share stories, fostering creativity, vocabulary development, and narrative skills Debates, a technique highlighted by Nation and Newton (2009), stimulate critical thinking and argumentation skills through discussions on various topics Jigsaw reading, according to Aronson (2000), involves group collaboration to become experts on different sections of a text, enhancing comprehension Peer teaching, as recommended by Ur (1996), promotes collaboration, and reinforces understanding as students take turns teaching each other Role-model dialogue, presented in model dialogues, serves as a basis for creating conversations (Brown, 2007) Finally,scavenger hunts, an approach outlined by Wright (2005), encourage language use in a contextualized manner as students search for specific items or information in the target language These activities, supported by various references, contribute to a comprehensive and effective EFL teaching methodology Regarding activities for preparing EFL students for tests, a multifaceted approach encompassing various instructional approaches and activities is essential Mock exams and practice tests,modeled after the actual examination format, offer students a simulated testing experience, fostering familiarity with question types and building confidence in their test-taking abilities (Brown, 1997) Workshops focused on effective test-taking strategies, including time management, skimming, and effective notetaking, provide students with valuable tools to approach different sections of the test strategically (Cohen, 1994) Vocabulary-building exercises, reading comprehension tasks, and listening exercises aim to enhance language proficiency, addressing key aspects tested in the examination (Schmitt, 2010; Nuttall, 2005; Field, 2008; Larsen- Freeman, 2003) Writing activities, such as peer review sessions and analysis of model essays, target the improvement of students' composition skills (Raimes, 1983; Straub, 1997) Group discussions on potential test topics not only enhance speaking skills but also foster critical thinking and effective communication (Nation & Newton, 2009) Additionally, integrating flashcards with key concepts aids in quick review and reinforcement of essential information before the examination (Cottrell, 2015) This comprehensive array of activities addresses diverse language skills and strategies, providing students with a well-rounded test preparation experience.

Regarding aspects of teaching, Alderson and Wall's (1993) washback hypothesis suggests that teaching encompasses "what teachers teach" and "how teachers teach." These components specifically pertain to the pace and sequence of instruction, as well as the extent, depth, and attitudes related to content, methodology, and other aspects of teaching Hsu (2009) proposes teaching practices that encompass "what teachers do in the classroom" (p.88), with a focus on teachers' instructional medium, teaching activities, teaching materials, lesson planning, and teacher talk Additional empirical studies highlight diverse teaching aspects, encompassing curriculum, materials, teaching methods, as well as teaching feelings and attitudes (Dinh, 2020; Nguyen &

Gu, 2020; Pizarro, 2010) Drawing upon earlier research, Shih (2009) identified four teaching domains that have been examined in the context of test influence,encompassing (1) content of teaching, (2) teaching methods, (3) assessment methods,and more expansively, (4) overall teaching style, classroom atmosphere, and teachers' emotions.

In her conceptual framework assessing the washback effect of the four-skill General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) on Taiwanese teachers' English instruction, Shih

(2009) delineated eight specific aspects within the teaching domains (see Figure 2.5), including: what teachers teach (teaching content) and how they teach (teaching methodology and teacher talk) as suggested by Alderson and Wall (1993), but also extends to test and assessment-related activities This includes assessments prepared by teachers and the time dedicated to preparing students for tests Additionally, Shih includes class atmosphere and the levels of anxiety experienced by both teachers and students as integral aspects of teaching.

In summary, drawing upon prior studies and the EFL teaching context inVietnam, this thesis investigated EFL teaching across three key domains: the teaching content (what teachers teach), the teaching activities (how teachers teach), and the tasks used for in-class assessment (how teachers conduct in-class assessment).

Empirical research on washback of high-stakes tests

Washback studies in the field of language education have a rich historical background, with Alderson and Wall's (1993) seminal research posing the fundamental question of the existence of washback This inquiry inspired a wave of empirical investigations as researchers sought evidence for washback's impact Notably, the focus of washback research has predominantly centered on teachers and their instructional practices, overshadowing studies involving students and other stakeholders (Cheng et al., 2015; Green, 2007; Messick, 1996; Shih, 2009) This emphasis can be attributed to the pivotal and active role teachers play in the educational process, directly influencing their students' learning experiences (Bailey,

1996) The subsequent sections of this narrative review will delve into two distinct sub- sections The first section presents empirical research findings on teacher factors,exploring the diverse contexts that shape teachers' roles The second section focuses on the washback effects of distinct tests on various aspects of EFL teaching across different countries.

2.3.1 Empirical insights into teacher factors contributing to washback effects

The acknowledgment of various factors influencing test washback is evident in empirical studies operating at both micro and macro levels, encompassing contexts, tests, teachers, students, and stakeholders Contextual and test factors are objective and universally applicable within the same educational contexts, while factors related to participants, especially teachers, are inherently subjective Teacher factors have garnered particular attention in washback research, recognizing the unique attributes of individual teachers should not be universally applied across diverse settings.

In the examination of teacher factors within the context of test washback, a significant aspect is teachers' perceptions, encompassing beliefs, feelings, and attitudes towards tests as defined by Onaiba (2013), or more broadly, beliefs about teaching and testing as suggested by Green (2013) As Green (2013) outlines, teachers' beliefs about teaching include their perspectives on effective teaching strategies aligned with test requirements, as well as their beliefs concerning test preparation Such scholars as Ahmed (2015), Cheng & Curtis (2012), and Onaiba (2013) jointly asserted that teachers' perceptions or beliefs significantly mold their teaching methods, choice of activities, and selection of syllabus content Yet, these perspectives are nuanced outcomes shaped by a combination of factors, including language proficiency, teaching experience, attitudes toward tests, and prior pedagogical training (Wang, 2010) It is evident that the various components of teacher factors intricately interact, mutually influencing one another.

On the other hand, beliefs about testing encompass teachers' familiarity with the test, their views on test use, and the perceived stakes involved Dinh (2020), after conducting a comprehensive review of studies exploring teachers' perceptions under the influence of tests, consolidates these perceptions into an amalgamation of how teachers feel, think, believe, and understand test objectives, format, and classroom teaching practices Notably, teachers' perceptions are shaped by other teacher factors and contextual factors (Cheng, 2002; Richard & Lockhart, 2007) Additionally, teachers may exhibit distinctive perceptions under the influence of different tests (Cholis & Rizqi, 2018; Liauh, 2011; Nguyen, 2017; Nguyen & Gu, 2020; Wall & Horak, 2006) For instance, considering the TOEFL exam, Wall and Horak (2006) identify teachers' perceptions of the difficulty level of test tasks and their awareness of the similarities between textbook test tasks and actual TOEFL test tasks The teachers' opinions on the difficulty level of the TOEFL are influenced by factors such as whether they have taken the test themselves and their familiarity with the test and language proficiency. These findings imply that language proficiency or abilities in the language that a teacher teaches, and their familiarity with the test, are integral components of teacher factors influencing teaching, aligning with Shih's (2009) proposed test washback framework.

Furthermore, teachers' perceived importance of the test to the student, as highlighted by Shih (2009), significantly influences teaching practices This impact is evident in the study conducted by Cholis and Rizqi (2018), where the high-stakes Entrance Exam of University (EEU) positively influenced Indonesian teachers' teaching activities These teachers engaged in additional work, invested more time in lesson preparation, and revised materials for the test This perception aligns with teachers' beliefs about effective teaching strategies, compatibility with test requirements, the need for test preparation, and existing practices of test preparation, as explored by Green (2013) Similarly, Nguyen's (2017) research investigates the Vietnamese EFL teaching context, specifically identifying teachers' beliefs in the advantages of incorporating VSTEP (Vietnamese Standardized Test of English Proficiency) materials to aid students in navigating various test types The study sheds light on how educators perceive the efficacy of VSTEP materials as valuable tools for equipping students with the necessary skills and knowledge to excel across a spectrum of English proficiency assessments Concerning teachers’ beliefs in providing in extracurricular materials, Liauh's (2011) study in the Taiwanese education setting reveals a different approach to addressing high- stakes testing In this context, teachers express a belief in the necessity of supplying additional teaching materials to prepare students for the challenges posed by the high stakes Exit English Examination This finding accentuates the nuanced strategies adopted by teachers in different educational environments to ensure effective test preparation Taiwanese educators, as reported by Liauh, acknowledge the significance of supplementing existing resources with tailored materials to cater to the specific demands of a high-stakes examination This insight suggests that, within the Taiwanese educational landscape, teachers recognize the importance of adapting instructional strategies and materials to align with the unique requirements and expectations associated with the Exit English Examination, highlighting the diverse ways in which educators navigate the complex interplay between testing and teaching in distinct cultural and educational contexts.

Teaching experience, a crucial factor in generating washback, has been extensively studied by scholars such as Alderson & Wall (1993), Cheng (1999),Hughes (2003), Onaiba (2013), and Shohamy (1993), providing a nuanced understanding of its multifaceted nature Beyond mere years of teaching, Cheng (2002) introduces additional dimensions, emphasizing factors such as gender and frequency of additional training, which contribute to the complexity of the relationship between teaching experience and test washback Research suggests that experienced teachers perceive test aspects and the teaching process differently from novices Seasoned educators, drawing on their wealth of experience, exhibit a greater depth of understanding regarding the intricate dynamics of testing and teaching Moreover, their nuanced perspectives often lead to a reduced inclination to solely teach to the test,demonstrating a more comprehensive and pedagogically diverse approach in the classroom This finding aligns with the notion that experienced teachers, having encountered various assessment scenarios and teaching challenges, tend to integrate a broader range of instructional strategies, fostering a more holistic educational experience for their students.

In conclusion, this comprehensive narrative literature review on teacher factors reveals a multitude of elements influencing the complex relationship between testing and teaching practices Factors such as perceptions of effective teaching and test preparation, views on test importance, teaching experience, and beliefs about effective strategies all play pivotal roles in shaping the dynamics of test washback The synthesized understanding emphasizes the necessity for nuanced approaches that consider the diverse interplay between testing and teaching within varied educational landscapes The empirical studies reviewed further affirm the intricate nature of washback, demonstrating that different tests exert distinct impacts on participants in diverse educational contexts Given the individuality of teacher factors, it becomes evident that there is no universal test washback that universally applies to every teacher While certain groups of teachers may share contextual and test factors within a specific educational setting, the nuanced interplay remains highly personalized to individual teachers.

2.3.2 Empirical insights into aspects of EFL teaching under the washback of high stakes tests

Empirical studies exploring the washback effects of various test types, particularly high-stakes English tests, on teachers in different educational contexts serve as the focus in this section The narrative literature review intentionally emphasizes the impact of test washback on three primary teaching categories: teaching content, in-class assessment, and teaching methodology This emphasis aims to reveal the dynamic nature of washback, showcasing varied directions and intensities observed in these studies.

Evidence from academic research consistently illustrates significant impacts on teaching content and curriculum due to washback effects An illustrative instance is found in Li's study (1990), where the implementation of the MET test resulted in adjustments to the curriculum, placing emphasis on practical language skills like reading, listening, writing, and speaking The increased focus on reading, a pivotal aspect of the MET, was deemed positive washback, signifying a transition from formal linguistic knowledge to the practical use of language Likewise, the implementation of the new O- Level exam in Sri Lanka (Alderson & Wall, 1993) influenced the content of language lessons, with increased emphasis on writing and reading skills to align with exam criteria A focus on instructing exam sections with elevated marks, influencing the scheduling of school timetable periods designated for exam readiness was highlighted in Lam's research (1994) In a similar vein, Cheng's investigation (2005) identified changes in instructional content subsequent to the introduction of the revised HKCEE exam in public schools in Hong Kong This shift involved the substitution of activities like reading aloud with role-play and group discussions to conform to the updated exam content In a research investigation on 'assessment-driven reform' conducted by Stecher et al (2004), apprehensions regarding curriculum narrowing were raised Educators noticed shifts in time distribution and an emphasis on writing, yielding positive outcomes like the substitution of multiple-choice tests with more performance-oriented assessments, contributing to enhanced student writing. Nevertheless, concerns over curriculum narrowing surfaced, as survey findings suggested a concentration on the writing genres assessed in the Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) tests In the sphere of general education, investigations drawing on student surveys, such as those conducted by Paris et al.

(1991), disclosed that high-stakes standardized achievement tests in the United States led teachers and educational institutions to allocate precious class time based on measured outcomes, potentially sidelining objectives not assessed Shohamy et al.

(1996) offer a nuanced perspective, emphasizing that low- stakes Arabic examinations exerted minimal influence on teaching content, whereas high-stakes EFL examinations significantly impacted the curriculum Teachers focused exclusively on oral skills assessed in the exam, dedicating more time to exam preparation Nevertheless,variations were noted, underscoring the dynamic nature of washback effects on teaching content and curriculum In conclusion, the cumulative evidence suggests that washback has a substantial impact on teaching content and curriculum Instances include adjustments emphasizing practical language skills, changes in focus on exam-specific sections, and shifts in instructional content in response to revised exams While positive outcomes, such as enhanced writing skills, are evident, concerns about curriculum narrowing also emerge The dynamic nature of washback effects is evident, with variations observed across studies, emphasizing the nuanced influence on teaching content and curriculum.

Additionally, high-stakes tests have been found to wield a direct impact on the choice of teaching materials Lam (1994) criticizes teachers' reliance on exam preparation materials, particularly commercial textbooks, viewing it as negative washback He contends that teachers, believing in the efficacy of using past papers, prefer these resources over authentic materials Correspondingly, Andrews' (1994) research, based on questionnaires and focused on the exam working party and teachers, reveals a heavy dependence on exam textbooks for approximately two-thirds of class time This reliance centers on specific exam formats and required skills, potentially restricting the scope for both teachers and learners rather than broadening their perspectives In Sri Lanka, Aderson and Wall's (1993) classroom observations depicted teachers' frequent recourse to textbooks for teaching content Read and Hayes (2003) however reported, based on teachers' questionnaires in their New Zealand IELTS study, the prevalent use of exam preparation books in 90% of cases Wall and Horak's

(2006) extensive interviews with teachers in Central and Eastern Europe revealed the central role of TOEFL preparation textbooks in shaping the format and content of investigated courses, often acting as the de facto syllabus for teaching and influencing content and sequence Moreover, empirical studies highlight the common use of supplementary materials by teachers to meet exam preparation demands Wall (1999) observed teachers using supplementary material books to compensate for the lack of grammar coverage in coursebooks Watanabe (2000) reported teachers' employment of various organizational patterns and self-created materials, such as revised listening tasks from past exam papers and handouts providing cultural context for English words Pizarro (2010) when investigating washback effects of the English test in the Spanish University Entrance Examination on teachers’ teaching also identified that teachers adapted their teaching materials and activities to the requirements of the test and ignored the official prescribed curriculum In the same light, the case study by Barnes (2017) with four teachers teaching the TOEFL iBT found similar negative washback effects on teachers’ choices of classroom materials The teachers used textbooks which imitated the test and focused on teaching the end-goal tasks that reflected the test tasks on the TOEFL iBT From these empirical study findings, it can be concluded that high-stakes tests wield a substantial influence on teaching materials, leading to a considerable reliance on exam preparation resources, particularly textbooks Teachers, influenced by the specific requirements and formats of these exams, often structure their teaching content based on the content provided in these materials Moreover, supplementary materials are frequently employed to address specific exam-related needs, such as grammar and exam preparation, further emphasizing the pervasive washback effects on teaching content.

Concerning washback effects on teaching methodology, the impact varies across empirical studies Shohamy's (1993) comprehensive language test studies recognized the shift towards test-like teaching methods Subsequent research by Shohamy et al.

METHODOLOGY

Research design

Owing to the intricate and context-specific characteristics of test washback, studies in this area have employed a qualitative research approach, which conveys facts in a narration with words Simultaneously, quantitative methods, presenting statistical results with numbers, have been incorporated (McMillan & Schumacher,

1993, p.14) The integration of these two research methods, known as mixed research, is believed to leverage the strengths of capturing objective realities (quantitative research) while maintaining the feasibility of comprehending and describing multiple perspectives on the world based on participants' views (Patton, 2015).

In this current study, a mixed methods research approach with a two-phase explanatory design was employed to answer the two research questions:

Question 1: What teacher factors are affected by the NHSGE English tests and related contextual factors?

Question 2: In what ways do the NHSGE English tests influence various aspects of EFL teaching?

The selection of such a research design is motivated by several factors.Firstly, mixed methods research allows for a comprehensive examination of teacher factors, encompassing teachers' perceptions of contextual and test-related factors, as well as effective teaching and test preparation strategies This multifaceted approach enables a deeper exploration of the research questions, addressing complexities that cannot be fully elucidated through a singular methodological approach (Creswell &Clark, 2007) Additionally, by employing both a quantitative-based questionnaire and qualitative-based semi-structured interviews, along with the collection of teaching artifacts, the researcher can gather rich data on how EFL teaching is affected by the NHSGE English tests Comprehensive data obtained through a questionnaire in Phase 1 serves as the foundation for the development of the semi-structured interviews in Phase 2, the data from which are subsequently used to elucidate and enrich the earlier findings Moreover, the collection of teaching artifacts in Phase 2, willingly provided by the participants, further supplements the data A summary of the research design is presented in Grid 3.1 below.

Research Design of the Current Study

In summary, the mixed methods research approach was chosen for its efficiency in addressing the research questions by combining quantitative data from the questionnaire with qualitative insights from semi-structured interviews and teaching artifacts This approach ensures a comprehensive and valid understanding of the washback effects of NHSGE English tests on EFL teaching.

Research settings and participants

This section delineates the research settings and participants, structured into two sub-sections, offering a rationale for their inclusion.

Teaching practices need to be conducted in a certain educational setting This study aims to investigate the teaching of Vietnamese EFL high school teachers under the influences of the NHSGE English tests; therefore, high schools must be the research setting Simultaneously, since washback is highly context-bound owing to the involvement of various contextual factors as washback triggers, high-schools selected must share similar contextual factors In addition, a mixed methods design, as used for this study, requires a setting that allows the collection of not only representative and diversified but also deep and detailed data (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).

In this study, the research site selected is Buon Ma Thuot City, the researcher's hometown, situated in Dak Lak province in the Central Highlands of Vietnam As of 2022, the city is home to 12 public high schools, including Buon

Ma Thuot, Chu Van An, Tran Phu, No Trang Long, Hong Duc, Nguyen Du, Cao Ba Quat, Le Quy Don, Phu Xuan, Tay Nguyen Ethnic Boarding School, Cao Nguyen Practice High School, Le Duan, and three private high schools - Victory, Hoang Viet, and Dong Du These schools are dispersed across various parts of the city, all within a 12-kilometer radius from the city center English is the primary foreign language taught in these institutions, except for Nguyen Du Gifted High School, which also offers French to gifted classes and English to others.

Regarding facilities for EFL teaching, the schools in the research site, both private and public, were observed to possess ample resources These include a teacher podium equipped with projectors and smart TVs Private schools, however,have a library well-stocked with English materials, and a computer lab furnished with computers, Wi-Fi, and handheld devices for English learning The detailed descriptions affirm that all six schools boast sufficient facilities conducive to effective teaching and learning.

All schools rigorously adhere to the regulations outlined by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and comply with local guidelines provided by the Dak Lak Department of Education and Training The prescribed English 12 textbook, i.e., Hoang’s et al (2016) is universally employed across schools, with some opting to supplement it with additional materials based on individual preferences The documents issued by Dak Lak DOET, such as Instructions on implementation of teaching and learning on-site (no 127/SGDĐT-GDTrH-GDTX dated on January 28, 2022) and Instructions on implementing legal tasks in the AY 2021-2022 (no.1355

/SGDĐT-TTr dated September 13, 2021) are derived from the MOET’s Dispatch no 283/BGDĐT-GDTC dated on January 24, 2022, on implementation of teaching and learning on-site and dispatch no 3825/BGDĐT-PC dated on September 6 2021 on Guidelines on implementation of legal task in the AY 2021 – 2022, respectively. The consistent adherence to these guidelines by all 15 high schools in Buon Ma Thuot City, guided by both national and provincial contextual factors, provides a well- defined and uniform research setting conducive to obtaining comprehensive and valid data.

In the designated research site, purposeful sampling was employed to leverage its distinct advantages This approach was deemed appropriate for the current investigation into washback effects, as it facilitated the identification and selection of participants who could provide rich and in-depth information (Creswell

& Creswell, 2017; Palinkas et al., 2015; Tisdell, 2015; Van Manen, 2014) With the research objectives in mind, the researcher focused on recruiting teachers who met specific inclusion criteria for the study: (1) EFL instructors teaching 12th grade students in the high schools within the research site (Buon Ma Thuot city, Dak Lak province, Vietnam), and (2) teachers who consented to participate.

After informing potential participants about the research objectives via mobile phones, consent to participate was obtained from sixty-five teachers employed in various listed schools Among them, five agreed to pilot the questionnaire and interview questions Of the 60 teachers who ultimately took part in the study, 58 completed and returned the questionnaire, which was distributed to them in Google Form format The two teachers who did not complete the questionnaire later communicated that they were unable to participate due to personal reasons Consequently, the total number of study participants was 58 The demographic information of the participants who completed the questionnaire and volunteered to participate in the interview and piloting phase is summarized in Table 3.1 below To maintain anonymity and privacy, names and school names have been excluded.

Demographic Information of the Participants (nX)

Part 1: Personal information Details Pilot (n=5) Questionnaire

3 Types of schools public 3 32 3 private 2 26 3

As depicted in Table 3.1 above, the participants exhibited a broad age range, spanning from over 22 to under 50 years old Gender distribution was uneven, with a higher representation of female EFL teachers compared to their male counterparts, a common trend in the EFL teaching context of Vietnam Among the participants, the majority (28 out of 58) were senior teachers with more than ten years of experience teaching EFL at high schools Twenty participants were junior teachers with less than ten years of experience, and the remaining ten were novices. Throughout their years of teaching EFL at high schools, their experiences in teaching 12 th graders varied The data reveals a varied distribution among EFL teachers among the 58 participants With 17 teachers possessing less than 5 years of experience, 26 falling within the 5- 10 years bracket, and 15 having over 10 years of experience, the majority of teachers belong to the mid-range category of 5 to 10 years of experience, representing approximately 45% of the total participants This distribution provides insights into the composition of the teaching staff and potential implications for teaching approaches and outcomes Recognizing the distribution of teaching experience among EFL teachers in this study holds significant importance, particularly considering its role as a key variable in triggering washback effects, as indicated by scholars such as Alderson and Wall (1993), Cheng (1999), Hughes

Regarding qualifications, all participants underwent training to become EFL teachers, with 42 holding BA degrees and 16 possessing MA degrees in English language teaching Concerning English proficiency levels, 50 participants asserted that they met the Ministry of Education and Training's (MOET) requirements to teach EFL at Vietnamese high schools, attested by possessing C1 certificates. Conversely, only eight participants indicated that they held B2 level proficiency.

The personal details outlined above encapsulate a diverse array of specific teacher factors exhibited by the research participants Discrepancies among these teacher factors have the potential to generate various washback effects, particularly impacting teaching practices This aspect will be subject to thorough examination inChapter 4 of this study.

The researcher’s roles

Identifying the researcher's roles in research, particularly within qualitative research contexts, holds significant importance due to the researcher's instrumental role as a primary data collection tool, aimed at mitigating subjectivity in the research approach (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Duff, 2008; Le, 2011) As underscored by Creswell and Poth (2017), researchers assume the responsibility of not only interpreting the findings derived from their analyses but also contextualizing them within existing literature, theories, and frameworks Concurrently, researchers strive to comprehend the broader implications of their findings for the field of study. Additionally, researchers engage in reflexivity, a critical self-examination process aimed at recognizing and addressing personal biases, assumptions, and perspectives that may influence the research process and outcomes, thus upholding rigor and transparency in qualitative inquiry Consequently, qualitative data inherently undergo filtration through various lenses, encompassing language, gender, social class, race, ethnicity, and the nuanced dynamics of the researcher-participant relationship, thereby impacting the interpretation process (Duff, 2008).

As the researcher for this study, I have served as an English lecturer at a university in Buon Ma Thuot city for over 20 years During my tenure, I actively participated in the university's English teacher training program, which exposed me to numerous former students who have since become EFL teachers in local high schools This role provided me with insights into the methodological knowledge that high school teachers possess, the English 12 textbooks utilized, as well as the format and content of lesson plans employed in Vietnamese high schools.Additionally, my involvement in guiding her fourth-year English teacher students during their internships and practicums further acquainted me with the educational contexts and characteristics of high schools in Buon Ma Thuot, the designated research site.

Furthermore, I have maintained a strong relationship with the teachers since their graduation On one hand, this rapport proved beneficial as it facilitated easy contact with potential research participants and enhanced their willingness to engage in the study Given the relevance of the topic to them and the potential for improving EFL practices, they expressed eagerness to gain insights from the research However, on the other hand, this close relationship could potentially hinder the participants' willingness to provide candid and straightforward responses There may be a tendency for them to be cautious in sharing their authentic EFL practices, fearing judgment from both myself and their former trainer, as well as their current school administrators To mitigate this risk, I emphasized the research's purpose, outlined the data collection procedures, and assured participants of the confidentiality of their identities, adhering to research ethics guidelines Additionally, I maintained awareness of my role as a researcher and adhered strictly to the procedures of data collection and analysis to uphold the validity and reliability of the study.

Research instruments

Empirical research on the washback effects of high-stakes tests has utilized a variety of instruments, incorporating both single and mixed research method designs In this section, the instruments used to gather data on teacher factors and their teaching practices under the influences of the NHSGE English tests encompassed a questionnaire and in-depth interviews Additionally, artifacts providing illustrations and supplementary information on teachers' teaching practices were collected.

In the study, a survey questionnaire served as the primary tool to ascertain key teacher factors and their EFL teaching practices within the sphere of theNHSGE English tests' influence These factors encompassed demographic information, perceptions regarding contextual and NHSGE English test factors, as well as perspectives on effective teaching and test preparation strategies.Additionally, the questionnaire identified three primary aspects of EFL teaching: the content taught, their instructional methods, and their approaches to in-class assessment.

The decision to utilize a survey questionnaire for this study stemmed from several compelling factors Surveys are well-regarded for their efficacy in delving into participants' knowledge, beliefs, opinions, and expectations, while also facilitating the efficient collection of data from a significant number of respondents within a relatively short timeframe Furthermore, by structuring the questionnaire into clusters and sub-clusters that directly align with the research questions, it facilitated the systematic categorization of the collected quantitative data into predetermined investigative categories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Creswell, 2006).

To address the two aforementioned research questions, the questionnaire (see Appendix 1) was divided into two main parts, employing both top-down and bottom-up approaches in designing the questionnaire items The content of these items was meticulously crafted following a comprehensive analysis of contextual factors, which included a review of prevailing policies and guidelines established by the Vietnamese MOET and Dak Lak DOET regarding EFL teaching and the NHSGE Additionally, insights derived from existing literature and the conceptual framework were carefully integrated into this process.

The first part of the questionnaire aimed to gather information on specific factors related to EFL teachers in the study (see Table 3.2) Comprising twenty times, this segment explored three themes: teachers' perceptions of contextual factors, perceptions of the NHSGE English test factors, and their views on effective teaching and test preparation Additionally, demographic information about the teachers was identified The research instrument for this section employed multiple- choice items, consisting of seventeen items that necessitated participants to select a single option aligning with their views Additionally, three items (8, 9, and 10) permitted the selection of more than one option This approach aimed to gain a nuanced understanding of participants' perspectives on various official documents issued by educational authorities, eliminating the assumption of a single "best" answer.

Clusters and themes Parts Items Research questions

1 Teacher factors that contribute to the washback effects of the

1.2 Teachers’ perceptions of the contextual factors:

The Dak Lak DOET’s guidelines

1.3 Teachers’ perceptions of the NHSGE

Perception of the test stakes

Perception of the test format and content

Perception of the alignment between the test and the textbook

1.4 Teachers’ perspective on effective teaching and test preparation

Reason for avoiding test preparation

2 Washback effects of the NHSGE

English tests on various EFL teaching aspects

2.1 Washback effects of the tests on “what teachers teach”

Time allotment for test- aligned content

2.2 Washback effects of the tests on how teachers teach (instructional strategies)

Choices of teaching activities for test preparation

2.3 Washback effects of the tests on how teachers conduct in-class assessment

In the second part of the questionnaire, eight items were employed to ascertain the washback effects of the NHSGE English tests on three dimensions of EFL teaching: content, methodology, and in-class assessment strategies Given the breadth of EFL instructional practices, encompassing diverse facets, the study focused on investigating eight specific aspects within this realm, as delineated in Table 3.2.

The thematic structure of the questionnaire was aligned with the conceptual framework employed in this study (Figure 2.6), while the specific content of the questionnaire items was primarily derived from document analysis and relevant literature discussed in the preceding chapter As depicted in Appendix 1, the questionnaire encompassed a variety of item types to gather data in alignment with the study objectives These included twenty multiple-choice items, where respondents select the single best answer, as well as seven multiple-choice items allowing for the selection of more than one answer Additionally, one item consisted of seven sub-items presented in the format of a Likert scale.

The questionnaire, drafted in English, underwent a piloting phase involving the participation of five EFL high school teachers who met the criteria for target participant selection but were not included in the final sample These teachers were tasked with trialing the questionnaire by completing it and providing feedback on any encountered problems or issues This piloting phase aimed to ensure that the items were comprehensible and interpreted consistently among different trial participants Additionally, it sought to gauge the time required for teachers to complete the questionnaire and gather their feedback regarding its format and content.

Following the analysis of pilot questionnaire data and discussions with the participants thereafter, several modifications were made Firstly, Vietnamese equivalents were added alongside certain English phrases describing official documents issued by the MOET, DOET, and schools This adaptation was prompted by requests from piloted teachers for translations of these documents from the researchers As a result, written Vietnamese translations were included following such phrases, as exemplified in the following instances: "school's program distribution plan (phân phối chương trình)” and “Regulations on annual emulation and rewards for teachers (Quy chế thi đua khen thưởng của trường).” Furthermore, another decision was made to adjust the scales used in items initially requiring the selection of one option from five scales to instead offer four options (items 13, 14, 15, and 16) This modification stemmed from observations during the pilot phase, where teachers frequently opted for the neutral response By offering four options, this adjustment aims to alleviate the cognitive burden on respondents and diminish the tendency to select neutral options, thereby potentially enhancing the informativeness of the data (Gall, et al., 2007) Additionally, in order to enhance the clarity of teaching activity connotations and differentiate between tests and quizzes, explanations in simple English were incorporated into options in items 25,

27 This amendment was made in direct response to feedback from teachers during post-pilot discussions Moreover, minor wording adjustments were implemented following these discussions, culminating in the final version of the questionnaire as presented in Appendix 1.

3.4.2 Follow-up semi-structured interviews

In this study, interviews were utilized during Phase 2 to thoroughly investigate the washback effects of the NHSGE English tests and other related factors on the EFL teaching practices of the research participants Semi-structured interviews were chosen for this purpose This selection was made due to the valuable characteristics of semi-structured interviews, which strike a balance between flexibility and structure, enabling researchers to delve into specific topics while allowing respondents to elaborate on their experiences and perspectives, as highlighted by Rubin and Rubin (2012) Moreover, these interviews facilitate rapport-building between the interviewer and respondents, fostering a comfortable environment conducive to open discussion, as emphasized by Kvale and Brinkmann (2009). Additionally, their adaptability enables researchers to refine questioning based on respondents' answers, thereby generating rich and nuanced data (Denzin and Lincoln, 2011).

Data for the in-depth interviews in this study were derived from the quantitative questionnaire responses The interview protocol, comprising the questions, served as a reference guide for researchers, ensuring adherence to the interview procedure and facilitating consistency among participants (see Appendix

3 for the official Vietnamese version of the interview protocol) Table 3.3 below outlines the pre-determined interview topics and corresponding themes, along with tentative interview questions These questions are designed to validate and further explore the participants' responses to the questionnaire.

Predetermined Interview Themes and Tentative Questions

Interview sub-themes Tentative questions

1 Teacher 1.1 Teachers’ perceptions of the 1.What are the requirements of the factors that contextual factors: MOET and the DOET on teaching are affected The MOET’s policies English to 12 th graders that you by the The Dak Lak DOET’s guidelines know?

NHSGE The school’s instructions 2 Do you strictly follow the program English tests The class-level factors distribution plan issued by your and related school? contextual factors 1.2 Teachers’ perceptions of the 1 What do you think about the

NHSGE English test factors alignment between the textbook and

Perception of the test stakes the NHSGE English tests?

Perception of the test format and content

Perception of the alignment between the test and the textbook

1.3 Teachers’ perspective on effective teaching and test preparation

Perspective on effective teaching Perspective on test preparation Reasons for test preparation Reason for avoiding test preparation

1 What does effective teaching mean to you?

2 Do you prioritize preparing your students for the NHSGE English tests?

2 Washback effects of the NHSGE

2.1 Washback effects of the tests on “what teachers teach”

Textbook teaching content Test- aligned content with a view to time allocation Additional content in supplementary materials

1 Which sections of the textbook do you typically teach/ skip?

2 What additional content do you offer in supplementary materials?

3 Where do you obtain these materials?

2.2 Washback effects of the tests on “how teachers teach”

Choices of regular instructional activities

Choices of teaching activities for test preparation

1 How do you conduct regular teaching activities?

2 How do you implement test preparation activities?

2.3 Washback effects of the tests on how teachers conduct in-class assessment

Number of assessment tasks Format of assessment tasks Content of assessment tasks

1 What are your frequently used assessment tasks?

2 What are the format and content of the assessment tasks you administer to your students?

Validity and reliability

In this study, several strategies have been implemented to enhance its validity Firstly, triangulation was conducted using multiple data sources from questionnaires, interviews, and artifacts to corroborate findings and ensure consistency across different methods Additionally, data obtained from different instruments underwent member checking, with both research instruments being piloted and interview transcripts meticulously verified to enhance the credibility of the findings All instruments and initial findings were subjected to scrutiny by the supervisor, whose expertise provided invaluable insights into the research domain and mixed research methods Regarding data analysis, methodological integration was also employed, integrating quantitative and qualitative data during analysis to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research phenomenon These concerted efforts were undertaken to fortify the study's validity and ensure the integrity of its findings In addition to validity, this study ensures its reliability through several strategies aimed at maintaining consistency and dependability throughout the data collection and analysis processes Firstly, the procedures for data collection and analysis were clearly established well in advance of implementation (Grid 3.2) These procedures underwent scrutiny by the supervisor, were piloted, and were verbally communicated to participants, ensuring uniformity across all participants Besides, the items in the questionnaire were transformed and analyzed using SPSS, a software program assisting the researcher in achieving reliability The Cronbach alpha (α)) of the Likert scale items was computed to test their reliability As depicted below, the α) coefficient for the seven Likert scale items was 0.702, indicating reliability within a good range.

For other items, data was tabulated using SPSS, providing information on frequency, valid responses, percentage, and cumulative percentage Cross- tabulation, such as the one below, between items was utilized when necessary to ensure reliability in data interpretation.

Furthermore, all interviews were recorded and saved, enabling potential reanalysis and replication by an independent researcher to ensure internal reliability.Additionally, the study's location in Buon Ma Thuot city where social situations and working conditions were consistent for all participants, helped promote reliability.

Ethical concerns

When conducting research, it is crucial for researchers to prioritize ethical considerations that may impact individuals directly or indirectly Sieber (2009) outlines two fundamental aspects of ethical responsibility in research: voluntary informed consent and confidentiality Prior to obtaining consent from research participants, it is imperative for researchers to provide comprehensive information regarding the research objectives, rationale, time commitments, and the participants' roles in the study Additionally, participants should never be coerced into participating and must be made fully aware of their right to withdraw from the study without facing any repercussions (De Vaus, 2002).

In this study, the researcher initially contacted potential participants via telephone and obtained oral consent from 65 EFL teachers at the research site to participate in both the piloting and official phases of the study Each teacher was provided with detailed information about the research objectives and their role in the study before deciding to participate Subsequently, five teachers participated in piloting the questionnaire and interview questions, while 58 teachers provided responses to the official questionnaire Among these, six teachers agreed to participate in interviews.

The study diligently upheld the confidentiality and anonymity of all participants by withholding their personal identities, including their names and the schools where they worked Pseudonyms such as School X, Y, Z were allocated when schools appeared in collected artifacts These steps underscore the research's dedication to preserving the privacy of the participants.

Moreover, to maintain the integrity of the data gathered during the interviews, the transcripts were meticulously reviewed and cross-checked against the original recordings by the participants Any discrepancies or errors were promptly rectified to ensure the accuracy of the transcriptions Additionally, efforts were made to establish a rapport with the participants, fostering a trusting relationship that encouraged open and honest communication This approach not only facilitated the collection of rich and detailed data but also contributed to the participants' comfort and willingness to share their experiences and perspectives candidly By prioritizing the authenticity and reliability of the data, the study aimed to uphold the highest ethical standards and ensure the credibility of its findings.

Chapter summary

The chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the research design employed in the study, which utilizes an explanatory mixed research approach to investigate the teacher factors and washback effects of high-stakes English tests onVietnamese EFL high school teachers' teaching practices Central to the data collection process were two primary instruments: a questionnaire administered to fifty-eight participants and a subsequent semi-structured interview conducted with six participants Additionally, the collection of EFL artifacts served to augment and triangulate the gathered data, enriching the depth of analysis and interpretation.Following the data collection phase, the chapter delves into the procedures for data analysis and interpretation, outlining the steps taken to ensure reliability and validity in the research process Moreover, significant attention is given to the measures implemented to uphold the reliability of the findings, emphasizing the meticulous approach undertaken to maintain consistency and dependability in data analysis Furthermore, the chapter highlights the ethical considerations inherent in conducting the research, underscoring the researchers' commitment to upholding ethical standards and safeguarding the confidentiality of the participants throughout the study.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The teacher factors that are affected by the NHSGE English tests and

on the content taught, instructional approaches, and in-class assessment practices.

As outlined in the earlier data analysis procedure, the presentation of data from the questionnaire will precede its discussion, followed by the incorporation of relevant supplementary data from the interviews and artifacts.

4.1.The teacher factors that are affected by the NHSGE English tests and related contextual factors

Teacher factors have emerged as the most direct and influential contributors to washback effects on teaching practices, as noted by various researchers (Ahmed,2015; Cheng & Curtis, 2012; Onaiba, 2013; Wang, 2010) In contrast to relatively shared contextual factors, such as educational policies, teacher factors exhibit individual variations This section unveils the findings from 20 items in Part 1 of the questionnaire, aiming to explore specific teacher factors among the study participants that may influence their EFL teaching practices The overall results encompassing three teacher factors, including their perception of contextual factors, perception of

NHSGE English test factors, and viewpoints on effective teaching and test preparation will be presented and discussed in the following three subsections.

4.1.1 The teachers’ perceptions of contextual factors

The comprehensive findings regarding teachers' perceptions of contextual factors, encompassing their perspectives on various aspects such as MOET's policies (item 8), Dak Lak DOET's guidelines (item 9), school instructions (item 10) regarding the NHSGE English tests and EFL teaching, along with class-level factors (item 11), are summarized in Table 4.1 below to provide an overall understanding of the participants’ responses to the item cluster Detailed responses to each item, extracted from SPSS data analysis, are presented within the in-text discussions.

Summary of the Teachers’ Responses on Perception of Contextual Factors

Items Main themes Number of respondents selecting each option

10 Perception of the school’s instructions

11 Perception of the class level factors

0 (0%) n/a Choose one best answer Initially, data regarding the teachers' perceptions of key policy documents and guidelines (item 8) by the MOET related to NHSGE English tests and EFL teaching for 12th graders indicated unanimous awareness among all participants. Specifically, all participants acknowledged the regulation on the format and content of NHSGE English tests (option d).

N Percent a The 2018 educational program (Chương trình giáo 40 23.5% 69% dục phổ thông năm 2018) b The designated textbook

(English 12 textbook) 42 24.7% 72% c Guidelines on how to Item 8 organize the NHSG Exam

(hướng dẫn tổ chức kỳ thì 30 17.6% 51.1% trung học phổ thông quốc gia) d The regulation on the format and content of the English tests in the National High School 58 34.2% 100%

The other MOET policies related to the official textbook (option b) and the 2018 educational program (option a) were recognized by 42 and 40 out of 58 teachers (72% and 69% respectively) Remarkably, just over half of the teachers (30 out of

58) reported knowledge of the guidelines for organizing the NHSGE (option c), marking the lowest acknowledgment among the four MOET documents In terms of priority, the teachers demonstrated a higher focus on the test format and content, followed by the textbook, the 2018 educational program, and lastly, the organization of the NHSGE Interestingly, the 2018 educational program, which can be presumed 'compass' for all teaching and learning activities, was not universally perceived by all participants This can be attributed to the comprehensive nature of the 2018 educational program, encompassing teaching content, methods,educational achievement assessment, implementation guidelines, and various logistical aspects for each subject for a particular grade Extracts of the information from the 2018

83 educational program concerning the teaching content for English 12 can be found in Table 4.2 below.

Content Prescription for Teaching and Learning English 12 (MOET, 2018)

Themes Topics Linguistic skills Linguistic knowledge

Listening comprehension and identifying general and specific information in monologues and dialogues which are 230-250 words long on the topics specified for 12 th graders …

-Talk and interact with other people on familiar topics, express personal opinions and exchange information on the topics specified for 12 th graders …

- Reading comprehension of main ideas, specific ideas in reading passages which are

280 - 300 words long on current and familiar topics

Write a cohesive 180-200 words long paragraph; short reports with given cues; summarize information from different resources.

Diphthongs Words with stressed syllables (special cases) and non- stressed syllables

Vocabulary related to the topics and themes in grade

Present perfect tense (consolidation and extension) Past simple and past continuous

The Department of Education and Training (DOET) and individual schools then translate these broad prescriptions into plans for implementing academic year tasks and program distribution plans, respectively However, despite these nuances, the

84 overall perception rate of more than 74% for all four options suggests that teachers in the study possessed a strong awareness of key MOET policies and guidelines related to NHSGE English tests and EFL teaching for 12 th graders.

In relation to the guiding documents issued by the Dak Lak DOET (item 9), the participants demonstrated a lower perception rate compared to that of MOET’s policies, with an overall rate of 67.2% (refer to the specific data below).

The individual rates ranged from 50% to 74.1% for the four suggested documents.The documents most widely recognized by teachers were the timeline for an academic year (option a) with 43 responses, followed by the requirement on English textbook use (option c) and instructions on annual emulation and rewards for schools and

85 teachers (option d), each with 42 responses Conversely, the guidelines for implementing educational tasks throughout an academic year for high schools (option b) showed the least awareness among the four, garnering 29 responses This discrepancy in perception rates can be explicated by the role of the DOET, which collaborates with the provincial committee to provide more detailed instructions on how schools should implement MOET’s policies Consequently, the documents issued by the DOET have a more direct impact on schools, influencing school authorities more specifically than reaching teachers directly.

The teachers' perceptions of the school's instructions (item 10), the third contextual factor, demonstrated a high level of awareness, with an overall rate of85% of teachers claiming familiarity with all four instructions from their schools(see below).

All participants (58 out of 58) indicated complete awareness of the program distribution plan In Vietnamese high schools, program distribution plans for each subject are devised by the head of a subject teacher group, gaining approval from school authorities to prescribe all teaching, learning, and assessment activities on a fixed schedule Upon reviewing the program distribution plans for English 12 provided by the teachers in the study, it became evident that these documents were rooted in the MOET’s educational program and Dak Lak DOET’s instructions, officially issued at the beginning of each academic year A typical program distribution plan was presented below to encompass details such as the total number of class periods (each lasting 45 minutes), the overall number of weeks in a semester designated for teaching, the number of planned tests, and the specific teaching content to be covered in each class period The following is part of aEnglish 12 program distribution plan provided by a research participant,encompassing all the aforementioned information (see Table 4.3 and Appendix 5 for the full program distribution) As clearly depicted, this plan revealed that not all sections of the English 12 textbook were required for classroom instruction; certain portions were assigned as independent homework for students It was noticeable in this program distribution plan that the sections covering Listening, Speaking,Communication & Culture, Looking Back & Project, which do not appear in theNHSGE English tests, were designated as homework.

The English 12 Program Distribution Plan Used in School X

Cả năm/ Academic year: 105 tiết thực dạy (periods) /35 tuần theo biên chế năm học (teaching weeks).

Học kỳ 1/ Term 1: 3 tiết (period) x 18 tuần thực dạy (teaching week) = 54 tiết (periods) (có 1 bài kiểm tra 45 phút /with a 45-minute test)

Học kỳ 2/ Term 2: 3 tiết x 17 tuần thực dạy = 51 tiết (có 1 bài kiểm tra 45’)

Bài/ Unit Tổng số tiết/

8 Instructions on how to do speaking task in unit 1

The first Term Test 2 53 The first Term test

54 Correct the first Term test

These findings align with statements made by teachers during interviews, reinforcing the consistency of the observed pattern (see excerpts below):

… The school’s program distribution plan list all the parts of all the units in the textbook /// but such parts as Culture, Project, Speaking, Listening are assigned as homework for students’ self-study … (Teacher 1)

… the parts on Listening, Speaking and Project are not being taught in class but reserved for self-study … (Teacher 2)

These interview excerpts confirmed the pedagogical practice where such textbook components as Culture, Project work, Speaking, and Listening, were designated as homework for students' self-study rather than being taught in class This suggested a deliberate strategy providing more time for the aspects of language are tested. Additionally, it was found that the complete awareness demonstrated by all teachers also extended to the targeted number of students passing the NHSGE (option c), aligning with their preference for the regulations on the format and content of the NHSGE English tests (option d) This robustly reflected the teachers' dedication to their students' test outcomes Additionally, perceptions of annual emulation and rewards for teachers (option b) and the plan for implementing academic year tasks in schools were recognized by a slightly smaller percentage of teachers, yet still constituted significant proportions of 72.4% and 69%, respectively.

Washback effects of the NHSGE English tests on EFL teaching aspects as

In this section, the washback effects of the NHSGE English tests are delineated across various dimensions of teaching: what teachers teach (4.2.1), how teachers teach (4.2.2), and how teachers conduct in-class assessments (4.2.3) Each section provides several sub-domains to elaborate instructional aspects, offering detailed presentation and discussion The insights into NHSGE English test washback effects primarily stem from survey questionnaire responses, supplemented by supporting data derived from interviews and collected artifacts It is crucial to acknowledge that the data concerning teacher factors, which were identified in the preceding section, served as a recurring reference point throughout the data discussion This recurring reference is attributed to the distinctive characteristics of teacher factors and their pivotal role as immediate triggers of washback within the dynamic interplay of the NHSGE English tests and contextual factors, as elucidated in the conceptual framework (Grid 2.5).

4.2.1 Washback effects of the NHSGE English tests on “what teachers teach”

Data related to three sub-domains within the "what teachers teach" aspect of EFL teaching, encompassing textbook coverage, time allocation for test-aligned teaching content, and provision of additional materials, were consolidated and presented in Table 4.7 based on the questionnaire responses.

Summary of the Participants’ Responses on “What to Teach”

Items Main themes Number of teachers selecting each option (nX)

22 Test- aligned content with a view to time allocation

23 Additional content in supplementary materials

0 (0%) none Choose all that apply

Firstly, the responses to item 21, which delves into the teachers' strategies for covering the English 12 textbook with their 12 th grade students, revealed a notable trend where none of the respondents indicated teaching every part of the textbook.

A plausible explanation for this practice is rooted in the contextual factors associated with Vietnam's unique educational landscape Despite prescribed textbooks, the actual content is regulated by the MOET's 2018 educational program at the central level and further tailored by individual schools' program distribution plans for English

12 Examination of a program distribution plan from a teacher in the study (Table4.3), which was presented in the previous section, highlighted that not all textbook content made its way into the plan due to time constraints within an academic semester Consequently, some sections in the textbook are officially excluded.

Item 21 Which parts in the English 12 textbook do you teach to 12 th grade students?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent b I teach every part in the textbook prescribed in the schools’ program distribution 28 48.3 48.3 48.3 plan (phân phối chương trình)

Valid c I teach some parts in the textbook prescribed in the schools’ program distribution 30 51.7 51.7 100.0 plan, but not ALL.

This explains why a substantial proportion of teachers (48.3%) strictly adhered to the school's program distribution plan, teaching every prescribed part, reflecting a robust institutional alignment and commitment to a structured curriculum In contrast, the remaining 51.7% of teachers, opting to cover specific parts outlined in the program distribution plan, may signal a sohpisticated approach where educators prioritize content based on perceived test relevance or student needs Importantly, the absence of teachers reporting zero reliance on the textbook underscores their acknowledgment of contextual factors, as discussed earlier Arguably, the NHSGE English tests drove the teachers into delivering instruction in grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and reading skills, which are essentially the skills and knowledge assessed in the NHSGE English tests This instructional approach, wherein the teaching content is narrowed down based on the teachers' perception of contextual factors (specifically, school- related factors) and the test specifications, serves as clear evidence of negative washback The high stakes associated with the NHSGE English tests have been identified as a limiting factor, influencing teachers to restrict their coverage of the textbook to align specifically with test content,potentially overlooking other valuable aspects not assessed in the tests This finding can be said to contribute to existing literature by offering a nuanced perspective.

While prior empirical studies, such as

104 those by Li (1990) and Alderson & Wall (1993), highlighted the direct impact of high-stakes tests on teaching content and curriculum, this study diverges in its findings Unlike these studies, which observed shifts towards specific language skills prompted by test implementation, this study did not depict direct influences of the NHSGE English tests on teachers' content selection Instead, the teachers' choices regarding teaching content were shaped by their perceptions of the tests and their understanding of the school's guidelines for EFL teaching though the program distribution plan.

Another aspect of "what teachers teach" involved their selection of test- aligned content in the English 12 textbook, with consideration given to time allocation, which proved to be a significant aspect (item 22).

Item 22 What test-aligned content in the English 12 textbook do you teach?

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent b I teach all the test-aligned content in the textbook but adjust the time for specific content to meet my students 10 17.2 17.2 17.2 nee c I spend less time on the test-aligned

Valid content in the textbook and more on 29 50 50 50 other test materials. d I spend more time on the test- aligned content in the textbook and 19 32.8 32.8 100.0 less on other test materials.

As seen in the data above, diverse approaches were employed by the 58 surveyed teachers regarding selection of test-aligned content in the English 12 textbook.Distinctively, none of the respondents strictly adhered to the program distribution plan, as indicated by zero endorsements for option (a) Option (b) was preferred by

106 modest 17.2% of the teachers, indicating a preference for comprehensive textbook coverage tailored to student needs, with flexibility in time allocation The majority (50%) leaned towards option (c), allocating less time to test-aligned content in the English 12 textbook and prioritizing other test materials Interestingly, 32.8% of the teachers preferred option (d), dedicating more time to test preparation materials than the actual test-aligned content in the textbook These findings revealed a departure from rigid adherence to prescribed plans, indicating the teachers' various strategies in balancing textbook content and broader test preparation materials.

Data from the follow-up interviews confirmed that teachers indeed selected textbook content to cover to meet their students' needs as described in the interview extracts below.

… The parts on grammar, reading or writing across different units may be too difficult or easy to students When I saw that my students couldn’t do a certain part, I would spend more time on it by explaining more or giving further practice and less on other parts… (Teacher 1)

… It is hard to follow the time allotment in the program distribution plan In the plan, a section is normally given 1 period or 2 periods, but it is not possible to teach exactly like that For the parts that students can do easily, I spend less time than being allotted and vice versa… (Teacher 2)

… I spent more time on the parts that my students were struggling with or those that are too long… (Teacher 3)

… Although grammar and reading parts are allocated 1 period for teaching in class, I found these two parts long so I would spend 1.5 to 2 periods for teaching these parts… (Teacher 4)

The interview extracts above revealed various approaches taken by teachers to manage the time allotted for teaching different components of the curriculum. While some teachers, like Teacher 4, extended the teaching duration for certain challenging parts such as grammar and reading, others, like Teacher 1 and Teacher

3, prioritized parts where students struggled or those perceived as too lengthy. Teacher 2 highlighted the challenge of adhering strictly to the time allocation specified in the program distribution plan, indicating that flexibility was necessary to accommodate varying student needs and difficulty levels Overall, these excerpts underscored the adaptive nature of teaching practices, where teachers adjusted instructional time based on student performance, perceived difficulty, and adherence to predetermined schedules.

These findings indicate that the EFL teachers in this study took into account various contextual factors beyond the tests when determining teaching content, consistent with similar observations from prior studies by Barnes (2017), and Herman & Golan (1991), Lam (1994) in which adjustments in school timetables to prioritize exam preparation was noted.

Chapter summary

This chapter presents the findings concerning the washback effects of the high- stakes NHSGE English tests on the teaching practices of 58 Vietnamese EFL teachers, taking into account teacher factors and contextual factors The washback effects were identified across three primary themes: the content taught by the teachers, the instructional methods employed, and the approaches used for in-class assessment In terms of the washback of the NHSGE English test on what teachers teach, three aspects of teaching, including textbook teaching content, test-aligned teaching content, and additional content in supplementary teaching materials were investigated Negative washback of the NHSGE English tests was found in all these three teaching aspects by the teachers They followed a program distribution plan by their schools, which in fact narrowed the teaching content to tested knowledge and skills in the tests The teachers made the test washback stronger by their allocation of time for test aligned content and additional content in supplementary materials which assemble the NHSGE English tests In terms of instructional methods, particularly in activities chosen for regular teaching and test preparation, the prevalence of direct instruction, grammar review, and language games suggested a trend among teachers to align their teaching practices with the format and content of the NHSGE English tests This alignment clearly demonstrated the negative washback effects of NHSGE English tests on EFL Vietnamese high school teachers in the present study Similar washback direction was observed in the teachers' implementation of in-class assessments Aligning with the NHSGE English test

134 format, the EFL teachers in the

135 study predominantly utilized quizzes as their assessment format and structured assessment tasks to focus on practicing and evaluating vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation knowledge Before delving into the observed washback effects, the study first identified the research participants’ teacher factors which are affected by the NHSGE English tests and related contextual factors These factors encompassed teachers' perceptions of contextual elements, comprehension of the NHSGE English tests, and perspectives on effective teaching strategies The findings revealed that the participating teachers demonstrated a heightened awareness of contextual factors related to EFL teaching and the NHSGE English tests Moreover, they exhibited a comprehensive understanding of various aspects of the English tests,including their stakes, format, and content, albeit with divergent views on the alignment between textbook material and test content While a majority of teachers leaned towards an outcome-oriented approach in defining effective teaching, they unanimously stressed the importance of test preparation These specific teacher factors were found to have close correlation with the teachers’ EFL teaching practices under the influences of the NHSGE English tests.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Summary of key findings

High stakes testing plays a significant role in the Vietnamese educational system, exerting considerable influence on various stakeholders While prior research has delved into the effects of high stakes tests, often referred to as "washback effects," such inquiries have predominantly focused on higher education contexts, leaving a notable void in understanding their impact on secondary education settings This study addresses this gap in the literature by closely examining the washback effects of the high stakes NHSGE English tests on the instructional practices of Vietnamese high school teachers To fulfill this objective, a mixed methods research approach employing a two-phase explanatory design was utilized The data collection and analysis process in this study were guided by a comprehensive conceptual framework derived from an extensive review and deliberate adaptation of previous washback models Employing a questionnaire as the primary research instrument, supplemented by follow-up in-depth interviews and the collection of teaching artifacts, the study initially aimed to identify specific teacher-related factors acting as 'mediators' of the NHSGE English tests among the participating teachers Subsequently, the investigation shifted towards exploring the washback effects of the NHSGE English tests, in conjunction with teacher and contextual factors Specifically, the study sought to address two key questions:

Question 1: What teacher factors are affected by the NHSGE English tests and related contextual factors?

Question 2: In what ways do the NHSGE English tests influence various aspects of EFL teaching?

The subsequent sections are, therefore, to provide a concise overview of the study's findings, focusing on two key aspects: firstly, the identification of three teacher factors as initial washback triggers among the participants, and secondly, the examination of the washback effects of high stakes English tests on three distinct domains of EFL teaching practices as perceived by the teachers.

5.1.1 Teacher factors contributing to the washback effects of the NHSGE English tests

In top-down educational systems such as Vietnam's, teachers hold pivotal positions as the architects of their teaching practices, hence serving as mediators between test and contextual factors within the washback mechanism of high stakes tests In this investigation, teacher factors were conceptualized to include teachers' perceptions of contextual elements, their understanding of the NHSGE English tests, and their viewpoints on effective teaching strategies These perceptions wield significant influence over the direction of washback effects, rendering them essential components for understanding the phenomenon.

Firstly, the study revealed that the 58 EFL high school teachers demonstrated a strong awareness of contextual factors, including the policies set forth by the MOET and the guidelines established by the Dak Lak DOET concerning EFL teaching and theNHSGE English tests Specifically, they exhibited a clearer understanding of the instructions provided by their schools, which constituted their immediate operational context, in comparison to the centralized policies of the MOET and the guidelines from the Daklak DOET The program distribution plan for an academic year emerged as a document unanimously acknowledged by all teachers in the study This is evidenced by the higher average overall percentages attributed to schools' instructions (85%) compared to those of the MOET's policy documents (74.1%) and the Dak Lak DOET's guidelines (67.2%) Moreover, the EFL teachers demonstrated a keen understanding of their students' interests in learning English and their level of competence In summary, it can be inferred that the participants possessed a heightened understanding of the contextual factors.

The perceptions of NHSGE English test factors, which represent the second teacher factor, were observed to vary among the participating teachers While many acknowledged the test's importance for their students, a majority expressed a high level of familiarity with its format and content However, opinions regarding its alignment with the English 12 textbook differed among teachers, with some perceiving moderate alignment and the mojority deeming it poor This disparity, contrasting with the findings from document reviews, underscores the intricate nature of teacher perceptions and their potential influence on instructional decisions.

Regarding their perspectives on effective teaching, 51.7% of teachers predominantly emphasized outcome-oriented perspectives, prioritizing high exam results as the yardstick for effective teaching Conversely, others underscored the significance of fostering a positive learning atmosphere and delivering engaging lessons, prioritized classroom management and catering to individual student needs, or stressed the importance of providing feedback and cultivating metacognitive skills.These divergent viewpoints underscore the multifaceted nature of effective teaching,influenced by individual outlooks and priorities, which subsequently inform their instructional approaches In addition, a majority of teachers (60.9%) expressed the importance of test preparation, underscoring its perceived significance in facilitating student readiness for assessments Overall, the teacher factors identified in this study encompassed awareness of contextual factors at both macro and micro levels, including those pertaining to EFL teaching and the NHSGE English tests.

In summary, the teachers participating in the study displayed a heightened awareness of contextual factors relevant to EFL teaching and the NHSGE English tests. They also demonstrated a comprehensive understanding of different aspects of the English tests, including their stakes, format, and content, although opinions varied regarding the alignment between textbook material and test content While a majority of the teachers favored an outcome-oriented approach to defining effective teaching, they unanimously emphasized the importance of test preparation These teacher factors hold the potential to impact teaching practices in diverse ways and degrees.

5.1.2 Washback effects of the NHSGE English tests on various EFL teaching aspects

The present study delves into the washback effects of NHSGE English tests on the teaching practices of Vietnamese EFL high school teachers It aims to comprehensively investigate three key dimensions of EFL teaching influenced by these tests: what teachers teach, how teachers teach, and how teachers conduct in-class assessment tasks This exploration seeks to illuminate the multifaceted impact of high stakes testing on instructional practices within the Vietnamese educational landscape.

In terms of ‘what teachers teach’, the study focused on identifying three primary teaching aspects, including textbook coverage, time allocation for test-aligned teaching content, and provision of extracurricular materials It was found in the study that significant negative washback effects emerged across these domains, illustrating how the teachers closely aligned their instructional content and practices with the specifications of the NHSGE English tests This alignment, driven by adherence to program distribution plans and the provision of test-oriented materials, underscores the pervasive influence of high stakes testing on the teachers’ instructional decision- making.

Furthermore, in terms of ‘how teachers teach’, the study uncovered a negative washback effect on the choices of teaching activities for instruction and test preparation among EFL Vietnamese high school teachers The prevalence of direct instruction and activities such as grammar review and language games suggest a tendency among the teachers to align their instructional practices with the format and content of the NHSGE English tests.

Furthermore, concerning teachers' approaches to in-class assessment tasks, the study revealed adverse washback effects of the NHSGE English tests on the EFL teachers' assessment practices The teachers tailored their assessment tasks to align with the content of the NHSGE English tests, prioritizing the practice and evaluation of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation skills Moreover, the variety of test types used was predominantly limited to multiple-choice quizzes and mini written tests.

In conclusion, the findings of this study provide valuable insights into the intricate dynamics of washback effects on EFL teaching practices in Vietnamese high schools By examining what teachers teach, how they teach, and how they conduct in- class assessment tasks, the research contributes to a deeper understanding of the multifaceted influence of high stakes testing on teaching practices of high school EFL teachers.

Implications

The findings of this study carry significant implications for various stakeholders involved in EFL education in Vietnam Firstly, the findings provide Vietnamese EFL teachers with valuable insights into how high stakes English tests, particularly the NHSGE exams, influence their teaching This awareness empowers teachers to strike a balance between test preparation and meeting the broader educational objectives outlined in the 2018 educational program established by the MOET Furthermore, teachers can leverage the research findings to engage in reflective practice, identifying areas for improvement and refining their instructional strategies so as to provide students with a more holistic and meaningful educational experience accordingly.

Furthermore, the implications of this research extend to test designers responsible for developing high stakes English tests in Vietnam By understanding the potential washback effects of their assessments on teaching practices, test designers can make informed decisions about test design and implementation For instance, they may consider incorporating more communicative language tasks or real-world language activities into the test format to better reflect the skills and competencies valued in EFL instruction.

Policy makers and school authorities also stand to benefit from the insights provided by this research By recognizing the influence of high stakes testing on teaching practices, policy makers can develop more effective policies and guidelines to support EFL education in Vietnamese high schools For example, they may consider implementing professional development programs or teacher training initiatives aimed at equipping educators with the skills and resources needed to effectively navigate the challenges of high stakes testing Additionally, policy makers can use the findings of this study to inform decisions about curriculum development and assessment practices, ensuring that educational policies align with the needs and priorities of EFL teachers and students.

Overall, the implications of this research highlight the importance of considering the washback effects of high stakes English tests on teaching practices inVietnamese high schools By addressing the needs and concerns of EFL teachers, test designers, policy makers, and school authorities, stakeholders can work together to promote effective EFL instruction and support student success in English language learning.

Research contributions

The contribution of this study can be articulated in terms of both theoretical and practical values Theoretically, this research enriches existing knowledge by critically reviewing established washback models and constructing a comprehensive framework that elucidates the intricate interplay of factors contributing to washback effects By identifying specific components within each factor group and their impact on various aspects of EFL teaching, this study advances theoretical discourse and offers insights applicable to similar educational contexts globally.

Practically, the findings of this study have important implications for EFL teachers in Vietnam By raising awareness of how high stakes tests, particularly the NHSGE English tests, can influence teaching practices, this research empowers teachers to adapt their teaching to enhance student learning outcomes More concretely, they may seek to optimize their instructional practices in alignment with the demands of high stakes testing By identifying areas where current instructional approaches may be falling short or where adjustments can be made to better prepare students for the NHSGE English tests, teachers can enhance the quality of EFL education delivery in Vietnamese high schools.

Furthermore, the study's implications are expected to stimulate significant interest and discussion among educational stakeholders regarding the use of high stakesEnglish tests in Vietnamese high schools The study results can also inform decision- making processes among policymakers, curriculum developers, teacher trainers, and test designers by highlighting the importance of considering the test design.Additionally, this research lays the groundwork for future studies to explore diverse aspects of washback effects, including their impact on stakeholders beyond teachers,such as students, administrators, test designers, and curriculum developers By contributing to a deeper understanding of the implications of high stakes testing in educational contexts, this study serves as a valuable resource for informing evidence- based practices and policy development in EFL education.

5.4 Limitations of the study and recommendations for further research

The study acknowledges several limitations inherent in its design and implementation Firstly, while the mixed methods approach offers the advantage of gathering data from diverse sources, integrating quantitative and qualitative components for result analysis presents challenges Moreover, the relatively small sample size, comprising 58 questionnaire respondents and six interview participants, may restrict the generalizability of the findings This limitation is exacerbated by the specificity of the research site, Buon Ma Thuot City, which may not fully represent the spectrum of educational contexts across Vietnam Additionally, ethical considerations, including maintaining participant confidentiality and ensuring informed consent, pose ongoing challenges in mixed methods research Furthermore, while data triangulation was conducted using questionnaire responses, follow-up interviews, and artifacts, the absence of classroom observations to directly observe EFL teaching practices represents a limitation of this study.

Based on the limitations identified in this study, several avenues for future research can be suggested Firstly, future studies may benefit from expanding the sample size and diversifying the participant pool to enhance the generalizability of findings Including a broader range of participants from various geographical regions and educational settings within Vietnam would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the washback effects of high stakes English tests Additionally, researchers could explore alternative methodologies or modifications to the mixed methods approach to address the challenges of integrating quantitative and qualitative data effectively This may involve refining data collection instruments, enhancing triangulation techniques, or incorporating additional data sources, such as classroom observations, to provide a more nuanced analysis.

Moreover, longitudinal studies could offer insights into the long-term effects of high stakes testing on EFL teaching practices By tracking changes in teaching approaches over time, researchers can better understand the evolving nature of washback effects and their implications for educational policy and practice. Furthermore, comparative studies across different educational systems or cultural contexts can provide valuable insights into the variability of washback effects By examining how high stakes testing influences teaching practices in diverse settings, researchers can identify contextual factors that mediate or moderate washback effects and inform the development of contextually relevant interventions.

Additionally, future research could incorporate in-depth classroom observations to directly observe teaching practices and student engagement in EFL classrooms This qualitative data would complement survey responses and interviews, providing a more holistic understanding of the complex interactions between high stakes testing and teaching practices By addressing these suggestions in future research endeavors,scholars can build upon the findings of this study and advance our understanding of the washback effects of high stakes English tests on EFL teaching practices in Vietnamese high schools.

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This questionnaire aims to collect data for the research on Washback

Effects of High-Stakes English Tests on Vietnamese EFL High School Teachers’ Teaching I would like to know your views on effects of the NHSGE English test on your teaching if any Your information will be kept confidential and only used for research purposes I highly appreciate your completion of the questionnaire.

Instructions: Please choose the options that best express your views

1 What is your age range? a 22- 30 b 31- 40 c 41- 50 d 50+

3.Types of the high school you are working for: a.Public b.Private

4.What is your highest English proficiency level? a.Level 5/ C1 b.Level 4/ B2 c.Level 3/ B1 d.Level 2/ A2

5.What is your highest qualification in EFL teaching?

6.How many years have you been working as an EFL teacher? a.Fewer than 5 years b.5 to 10 years c.More than 10 years

7.How many years have you been teaching English to 12 graders? a.Fewer than 5 years b.5 to 10 years c.More than 10 years

Theme 1.2: Teachers’ perception of the contextual factors relating to the NHSGE English tests

8 What are the MOET’s policy documents that you are aware of? Choose all that apply.

2018) a The 2018 educational program (Chương trình giáo dục phổ thông năm b The designated textbook (English 12 textbook) c Guidelines on how to organize the NHSG Exam (hướng dẫn tổ chức kỳ thì trung học phổ thông quốc gia) d The regulation on the format and content of the English tests in the

National High School Graduation Exam

9 What are the guidelines of the Dak Lak Department of Education and Training that you are aware of? Choose all that apply. a.Timeline for an academic year (Kế hoạch thời gian năm học) b.Guidelines for implementing educational tasks throughout an academic year for high schools (Hướng dẫn thực hiện nhiệm vụ năm học). c.Decision on which English textbooks to be used. d.Instructions on annual emulation and rewards for schools and teachers(Hướng dẫn về việc thi đua khen thưởng theo năm học của trường và giáo viên)