Ptdn t

1 The difference between two approaches to text The first approach views text as the product of communication This means that text is seen as a finished entity that is created through the process of communication It emphasizes the end result of the communication process, focusing on the final text as a complete and meaningful unit This approach often considers the context, intention, and purpose of the communication in order to understand the text The second approach sees text as a semantic unit and a communicative occurrence This means that text is not only a finished product but also an ongoing and dynamic process of communication It emphasizes the meaning and function of the text in its specific context of use This approach considers the interaction between the text and its audience, looking at how the text is interpreted, understood, and responded to by the participants in the communication 1 2 The difference between transactional and interactional function of language The transactional function of language is primarily concerned with the exchange of information and the accomplishment of tasks -In this function, language is used to convey facts, give instructions, make requests, and generally achieve practical goals -The focus is on the content of the message and the efficient transfer of information -This function is often associated with formal or professional contexts, such as business meetings, academic lectures, or technical instructions On the other hand, the interactional function of language is more focused on establishing and maintaining social relationships and expressing personal attitudes and feelings -In this function, language is used to create social bonds, show politeness, express emotions, and engage in small talk -The emphasis is on building rapport, expressing solidarity, and managing social interactions -This function is often associated with informal or casual contexts, such as conversations among friends, family members, or acquaintances For example, a business meeting may have a predominantly transactional function, with participants primarily focused on conveying information and making decisions In contrast, a casual conversation among friends may have a more interactional function, with participants engaging in social bonding and expressing personal opinions and experiences 2 3 Present your understanding of the informativity in discourse Informativity in discourse refers to the degree to which a discourse conveys new information or knowledge to the recipient - Informativity can be achieved through various linguistic and pragmatic means, including: Explicit information: This involves directly stating new facts, concepts, or ideas For example, a teacher might provide students with a list of historical dates or a scientist might present the results of a new experiment Implicit information: This involves conveying information indirectly through inference or presupposition For example, a news report might state that "the stock market rose sharply today," which implies that the market had been declining previously Background knowledge: This involves relying on the recipient's existing knowledge and understanding to convey new information For example, a professor might refer to a concept from a previous lecture without explicitly defining it again Non-linguistic cues: This involves using non-verbal communication, such as facial expressions, gestures, and intonation, to convey additional information For example, a speaker might raise their voice to emphasize an important point or make eye contact to ensure that the recipient is paying attention The informativity of a discourse is not solely determined by the amount of new information it contains It also depends on the recipient's prior knowledge and expectations A discourse that is highly informative for one person may be redundant or even confusing for another By understanding the principles of informativity, communicators can improve their ability to share 3 information effectively and build meaningful connections with others 4 Context and an example of the role of context in the interpretation of a discourse Context refers to the circumstances, background, or environment in which a particular event, situation, or communication takes place It plays a crucial role in the interpretation of discourse because it provides additional information and helps to give meaning to the words or actions being communicated Without context, it can be challenging to understand the intended message or purpose behind a discourse For example, imagine a conversation between two friends: Friend A: "I can't believe it!" Friend B: "What's wrong?" Friend A: "I just got a promotion!" In this scenario, the context is essential for understanding the meaning behind Friend A's statement Without knowing the context or background information, Friend B might interpret the statement as something negative or upsetting However, with the context of a promotion, Friend B would understand that Friend A's exclamation is one of excitement and joy 4 5 The difference between context and cotext Context refers to the broader circumstances, environment, or situation in which a discourse takes place Context is non-linguistic factors that constrain the interpretation of a discourse It includes factors such as the physical setting, the participants involved, their relationship, the time and place of the communication, and any relevant cultural or social aspects Context provides the necessary background information to understand the meaning and intention behind a discourse Example: Get out of here! Cotext, on the other hand, refers to the immediate linguistic or textual environment that surrounds a particular word or phrase within a discourse Cotext is linguistic factors that help to disambiguate a discourse item It includes the words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs that precede and follow the specific word or phrase in question Cotext helps to provide clues and additional meaning to the word or phrase by considering its immediate linguistic context Example: He was treated with the new medicine The old man treats his dog gently 5 6 Distinguish between the principle of local interpretation and analogy -The principle of local interpretation that the meaning of a word or phrase is determined primarily by the immediate context in which it appears It suggests that the surrounding words, phrases, and sentences provide crucial clues for understanding the intended meaning of a particular linguistic unit In other words, local interpretation allows people not to arrive at a larger extent of area to understand a discourse Example: It’s cold in here Can you close the window? (Hearer knows which window) -The principle of analogy refers to the process of drawing comparisons or finding similarities between different linguistic units or structures It involves identifying patterns or similarities between two or more elements and using those similarities to make inferences or understand the meaning of an unfamiliar or ambiguous linguistic unit Analogy allows people to base on their background experience to understand a discourse Example: A: I’m hungry B: I’m broke 6 7 The difference between anaphoric and cataphoric reference -Anaphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers back to a previously mentioned or introduced element It is a backward reference that helps to maintain cohesion and coherence in a discourse by connecting information and avoiding repetition For example, in the sentence "John went to the store He bought some groceries," the pronoun "he" is an anaphoric reference that refers back to John -Cataphoric reference, on the other hand, occurs when a word or phrase refers forward to a later element in the discourse It is a forward reference that introduces or anticipates information that will be provided later For example, in the sentence "After eating dinner, she realized she was still hungry," the pronoun "she" is a cataphoric reference that refers forward to the person who will be identified later in the sentence 7 8 The difference between presupposition and implicature Presupposition: refers to background assumptions that are considered to be shared knowledge between the speaker and the hearer + associated with linguistic forms + remains constant under the negation test + Is not subject to cancellation within one and the same utterance by one and the same person + can be identified with the help of presupposition Example of presupposition: "John stopped eating meat." This sentence presupposes that John used to eat meat previously Implicature, on the other hand, refers to information that is inferred or implied by a statement, beyond its literal meaning It involves understanding the speaker's intended meaning based on context, implicatures are not explicitly stated + associated with context and reference + is modifiable or changeable when the utterance is subject to negation test + Is likely to be canceled + Can be identified via inference only Example of implicature: "I have a lot of homework tonight." The implicature here is that the speaker is busy and may not be available for other activities 8 9 Topic of the sentence and of the discourse The topic of a sentence refers to the specific subject or theme that the sentence is about It is usually expressed by the subject of the sentence Example: "Dogs are loyal pets." The topic of this sentence is "dogs." The topic of the discourse, on the other hand, refers to the subject or theme that is being discussed or talked about in a conversation or text Example: In a conversation about travel destinations, the topic of the discourse could be "best places to visit in Europe." 10 Topic framework./22 What is Topic Framework? The Topic Framework is a linguistic approach that analyzes discourse structure by identifying the main topic or theme and its subtopics or supporting ideas -It provides a structure for understanding how topics are organized and how they contribute to the overall coherence of the discourse -It helps to organize and understand the flow of information in a text or conversation Example: If the topic is "climate change," a topic framework could include categories like causes of climate change, impacts of climate change, mitigation strategies, and adaptation measures Each category 9 within the framework will provide a specific focus for discussing different aspects of the topic 11 Theme and the types of theme -Theme: the left- most constituent of a clause, refers to what the speaker nominates as the subject (not necessarily the grammatical subject) of what he will speak about later in the rheme Example: This afternoon, Linh went out with her friends ● Types of theme -Unmarked Theme: Theme coincides with: + Subject in declarative clause Eg: She is rich + Auxiliary in Yes/No Questions Eg: Does she live here? + Wh_in Questions: Eg: Where do you live? + Verb infinitive in Imperative: Eg: Go out! -Marked Theme: Themes are not coincident with the above elements Eg: Now,he is rich 10