NANOWIRES - IMPLEMENTATIONS AND APPLICATIONS Edited by Abbass Hashim Nanowires - Implementations and Applications Edited by Abbass Hashim Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Viktorija Zgela Technical Editor Dusan Randjelovic Cover Designer Jan Hyrat Image Copyright 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published June, 2011 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Nanowires - Implementations and Applications, Edited by Abbass Hashim p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-318-7 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Part 1 Semiconductor Nanowires 1 Chapter 1 Surface Optical Mode in Semiconductor Nanowires 3 S. Dhara, Prasana Sahoo, A. K. Tyagi and Baldev Raj Chapter 2 Large-Scale Synthesis of Semiconductor Nanowires by Thermal Plasma 27 Peng Hu, Fangli Yuan and Yajun Tian Chapter 3 Template-Assisted Electrochemical Synthesis of Semiconductor Nanowires 41 İlkay Şişman Chapter 4 Semiconducting Oxide Nanowires: Growth, Doping and Device Applications 59 Qing Wan, Jia Sun and Huixuan Liu Part 2 Oxide Nanowires 99 Chapter 5 Application of the Kirkendall Effect to Morphology Control of Nanowires: Morphology Change from Metal Nanowires to Oxide Nanotubes 101 Ryusuke Nakamura and Hideo Nakajima Chapter 6 Formation of Oxide Nanowires by Thermal Evaporation and Their Application to Gas Sensors 117 Toshinari Yamazaki Chapter 7 Electrodeposited Copper Oxide and Zinc Oxide Core-Shell Nanowire Photovoltaic Cells 141 Dante DeMeo, Samuel MacNaughton, Sameer Sonkusale and Thomas E. Vandervelde VI Contents Chapter 8 ZnO Nanowires and Their Application for Solar Cells 157 Qiang Peng and Yuancheng Qin Part 3 Nanowire Devices 179 Chapter 9 Ultrafast Photoluminescence in Nanowires 181 Zhao FL, Wang XF, Chen HJ and Luo JY Chapter 10 Numerical Simulation of Transient Response in 3-D Multi-Channel Nanowire MOSFETs Submitted to Heavy Ion Irradiation 201 Daniela Munteanu, Jean-Luc Autran and Sébastien Martinie Chapter 11 Co/Cu Nanowire Systems for GMR Sensing Applications 223 Daniele Pullini, David Busquets Mataix and Alessio Tommasi Chapter 12 Surface-Directed Growth of Nanowires: A Scalable Platform for Nanodevice Fabrication 245 Babak Nikoobakht Chapter 13 Organic Surface Modification of Silicon Nanowire-Based Sensor Devices 267 Louis C.P.M. de Smet, Daniela Ullien, Marleen Mescher and Ernst J.R. Sudhölter Chapter 14 Characterization and Application of Thermoelectric Nanowires 289 D. Huzel, H. Reith, M.C. Schmitt, O. Picht, S. Müller, M.E. Toimil-Molares and F. Völklein Chapter 15 Silicon-¹ased Nanowire MOSFETs: From Process and Device Physics to Simulation and Modeling 317 Jin He, Haijun Lou, Lining Zhang and Mansun Chan Part 4 Nanowire Fabrication 355 Chapter 16 Obtaining Nanowires under Conditions of Electrodischarge Treatment 357 Dikusar Alexandr Chapter 17 The Selective Growth of Silicon Nanowires and Their Optical Activation 375 Lingling Ren, Hongmei Li and Liandi Ma Chapter 18 Nano-Scale Measurements of Dopants in Individual Silicon Nanowires Using Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 417 Elad Koren, Jonathan E. Allen, Uri Givan, Noel Berkovitch, Eric R. Hemesath, Lincoln J. Lauhon and Yossi Rosenwaks Contents VII Chapter 19 Fabrication of Conducting Polymer Nanowires 439 WooSeok Choi, Taechang An and Geunbae Lim Chapter 20 Fabrication and Characterization of Copper Nanowires 455 Hardev Singh Virk Chapter 21 Laser Interference Lithography for Fabricating Nanowires and Nanoribbons 471 Joong-Mok Park, Wai Leung, Kristen Constant, Sumit Chaudhary, Tae-Geun Kim and Kai-Ming Ho Part 5 Nanowire Characterization 485 Chapter 22 Growth and Characterisation of Ge Nanowires by Chemical Vapour Deposition 487 Chuanbo Li, Hiroshi Mizuta and Shunri Oda Chapter 23 Niobates Nanowires: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications 509 Rachel Grange, Fabrizia Dutto and Aleksandra Radenovic Chapter 24 Field Emission from Nanowires 525 Dilip S. Joag, Mahendra A. More and Farid Jamali Sheini Preface This potentially unique work offers various approaches on the implementation of nanowires. As it is widely known, nanotechnology presents the control of matter at the nanoscale and nanodimensions within few nanometers, whereas this exclusive phenomenon enables us to determine novel applications. Nanowire technology has considerably improved and developed many technologies and industry sectors in the field of IT, communications, computer technology, medicine devices, sensors applications and many others. The main advantage of using nanowire is the possiblity of adaptation of the essential structures of materials at the nanoscale to achieve the required properties while, at the same time, contributing to diversification of toolkits used in material science. Currently, nanowires are already in use in many computing, communication, and other electronics applications to provide faster, smaller, and more portable systems that can download and store even considerably large amounts of information. The superiority of nanoscale wires lies in the fact that they create interesting solid state systems with extremely individual geometry, that offer great opportunity for further development in optoelectronic devices, computer chip and nanosensors application developments, along with several possibilities for studying exciting physical phenomena arising from carrier confinement and large surface/volume ratio. This book presents an overview of recent and current nanowire application and implementation research worldwide. We examine methods of nanowire synthesis, types of materials used, and applications associated with nanowire research. Wide surveys of global activities in nanowire research are presented, as well. The book is divided into five sections and the authors contributed to this book with 24 chapters. The semiconductor nanowires (NWs) explore the nanoscale wire and are to play the critical role in future electronic and optoelectronic devices. In section one we reviewed recent and advanced research in growth, characterization, assembly and integration of synthesized, atomic scale semiconductor NWs. Four different chapters are enclosed in this section. Subsequently, the chapters are framed to discuss surface optical mode, novel properties associated with one-dimensional (1D) structures, methods of X Preface semiconductor NWs production via electrochemical synthesis and the last chapter is about the growth, doping and device applications. Oxide nanowire is one of the most important types of nanowire application. There is a high demand in recent years to advance the reesearch of this type of nanowire. Section two is concerned with applications of oxide nanowire. The section contains four diverse chapters that are focused on application of the Kirkendall effect on morphology control of nanowires, gas sensors oxide nanowire formed by thermal evaporation, copper oxide and zinc oxide nanowire photovoltaic cells, and investigatation of ZnO nanowires and their application for solar cells. Electronic, optoelectronic and other devices interfere in many areas of industry, from simple household piece of equipments and multimedia systems to communications, computing, control, medical instruments and engineering test instrumentations. The progress of technology demands more powerful systems to enable new functions and enhance the performance of instruments. Semiconductor nanowires are, therefore, becoming a privileged class of materials that can control the growth of nanoscale and open up substantial opportunities for novel nanoscale photonic and electronic devices. The third section discusses a range of the most recent research of nanowire devices in seven chapters. An important aspect of nanowires fabrication is to study the ability of preparing wires of an individual material on substrate with a tiny thickness. In particular, to use various substrates which are highly desirable and to study the optional methods. To achieve this goal we suggest section four, the section that discusses the fabrication of nanowire in six chapters. The authors employed a variety of nanocharacterization techniques to understand and ultimately improve the nanowire properties. The techniques that have been adapted to study the nanostructures by using Scanning Microscopy, Raman Spectroscopy, Single Beam Optical Tweezers and Electron Multiplying Charges Coupled Device (EMCCD), have revealed magnificent details of nanowire structures. These details can be viewed in section five which contains three outstanding chapters. We reviewed a broad range of nanowire application and implementation research and finally we think that we managed to implement the most valuable and useful chapters on nanowires. Furthermore, by building blocks of research papers available in this book, we have made the valuable knowledge accessible to researchers and discussed a range of electronic and optoelectronic nanodevices, as well as integrated device arrays that could allow diverse and exciting applications in the future. Dr. Abbass Hashim Material and Engineering Research Institute Sheffield Hallam University UK [...]... The lowest and highest frequency bands, respectively, are identified with the first-order modes of TO at 367 cm−1 and LO at 401 cm−1 A third Raman band lies midway between the TO and LO bands (Fig 2) This band is assigned to SO modes because of its sensitivity to the dielectric constant of an external medium (εm) e.g air, dichloromethane, and aniline in contact with the nanowire The SO band show red... modes; on the other hand, rough surface and interface may result in intense SO modes 14 Nanowires - Implementations and Applications Fig 11 a) Calculated SO phonon frequencies as a function of qr, full curve: SO (E1), dashed curve: SO(A1) Horizontal full and dashed lines are the TO and LO frequencies of E1 and A1 modes, respectively Symbols are measured SO frequencies, open symbol: nanowires, filled... parity Neglecting the damping and crystal anisotropy, the dielectric function εw(ω) can be expressed as, ( )= (10) and the Lyddane-Sachs-Teller (Yu and Cardona, 1999) relation gives = (11) where ε0 and ε∞ are low and high-frequency values of ε(ω), respectively We can solve for the S and AS mode SO phonon dispersions from equations 1-4: 18 Nanowires - Implementations and Applications tanh( tanh( (... to fit the SO and LO band (Gupta et al., 2003 Copyright © American Chemical Society; Applied for permission) 8 Nanowires - Implementations and Applications It is assumed that the LO and TO phonon branches are dispersion less as shown by horizontal lines The nanowire diameter is given by 2r, and the thin lines are the result of a Lorentzian line shape analysis The decomposition of the band into individual... Semiconductor Nanowires 1 Surface Optical Mode in Semiconductor Nanowires S Dhara, Prasana Sahoo, A K Tyagi and Baldev Raj Surface and Nanoscience Division, Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research, Kalapkkam, India 1 Introduction Semiconducting nanowires represent interesting solid state systems with unique geometry offering great possibility for further development of optoelectronic devices and sensors... provide a review of SO modes on nanowires using Raman spectroscopy depicting overview of the appearance of new modes and their effect on geometry of samples 2 Surface optical phonons from semiconductor nanowires There are geometry and size-related phonons appearing for several different kind of systems when dealing generally with nanowires and nanoparticles, such as the SO and breathing modes arising from... Physics.) The wavelength =2 /q, corresponding to the SO potential, can be estimated as ~135 nm for nanowires and ~110 nm for nanobelts using the dispersion relations in figure 11 with maximum qr=1.65 for nanowires and~ 1.4 for nanobelts Surface roughness with modulation of ~65 nm for nanowires (Fig 11b) and ~55 nm for nanobelts in figure 11b have been observed However, the intensity of SO modes found... Raman spectra of the optical phonons for GaP nanowires with diameter of 50 nm in air (εm = 1), dichloromethane (εm = 2), and aniline (εm =2.56) Fig 2 Raman spectra of GaP nanowires with diameter d= 50 nm recorded in three different media with different dielectric constant (εm) The low, middle and high frequency bands are identified respectively with the TO, SO, and LO phonons The solid lines represent... Nanowires 13 2.1.4 InN nanowires An optical mode of one-dimensional nanostructures of InN, such as nanowires and nanobelts grown by chemical vapor deposition, has been studied in our earliest report (Sahoo et al., 2008) Typical Raman spectra of nanowires and nanobelts are shown in figures 10(a) and (b), respectively and SO phonons modes have been reported taking into consideration of cylindrical geometry to... ε33(∞) vary from 8.25 to 8.76 As an isotropic approximation of ε0 = 8.3 and ε∞ = 5.11 from and ωLO = 346.5 cm−1 are made Fig 16 (a) Raman spectrum of ZnS nanowires collected in air ( m=1) Two insets show Lorentzian line shape analysis of LO (346 cm-1) and SO (335 cm-1) modes and TO doublet (269, 282 cm-1), (b) Variation of SO band peak positions as a function of the dielectric constants of the overlaying . NANOWIRES - IMPLEMENTATIONS AND APPLICATIONS Edited by Abbass Hashim Nanowires - Implementations and Applications Edited by Abbass. from Metal Nanowires to Oxide Nanotubes 10 1 Ryusuke Nakamura and Hideo Nakajima Chapter 6 Formation of Oxide Nanowires by Thermal Evaporation and Their Application to Gas Sensors 11 7 Toshinari. Solar Cells 15 7 Qiang Peng and Yuancheng Qin Part 3 Nanowire Devices 17 9 Chapter 9 Ultrafast Photoluminescence in Nanowires 18 1 Zhao FL, Wang XF, Chen HJ and Luo JY Chapter 10 Numerical