FOREST PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS OF PEOPLE IN THE BUFFER ZONE OF CAT TIEN NATIONAL PARK, VIETNAM C A S E S T U D Y V I L L A G E 4 , T A L A I C O M M U N E , T A N P H U D I S T R I C T , D O N G N A I P R O V I N C E MR TRAN DUC LUAN, NONG

Forest Protection and Sustainable Livelihoods of People in the Buffer Zone of Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam Case study Village 4, Ta Lai Commune, Tan Phu District, Dong Nai Province Mr. Tran Duc Luan, Nong Lam University - Ho Chi Minh City (NLU), Vietnam Master Thesis No 33 Master Thesis in Rural Development with Specialization in Livelihood and Natural Resource Management Department of Urban and Rural Development Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences master thesis in rural development issn 1403-7998 Forest Protection and Sustainable Livelihoods of People in the Buffer Zone of Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam C a s e s t u d y V i l l a g e 4 , T a L a i C o m m u n e , T a n P h u D i s t r i c t , D o n g N a i P r o v i n c e Mr. Tran Duc Luan, Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City (NLU), Vietnam Master Thesis in Rural Development with Specialization in Livelihoods and Natural Resource Management Master Thesis No 33 | Hue City, Vietnam | September 2006 | ISSN: 1403 7998 Department of Urban and Rural Development | Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 2 ABSTRACT This study aims to understand the current situation of forest protection in Cat Tien National Park and the livelihoods of the people in village 4, Ta Lai commune, Tan Phu district, Dong Nai province. To achieve this objective, methods were drawn from Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), in-depth interview, and observation to collect data. This was complemented with a household survey covering a sample size of 150 households (50: Kinh; 50: Stieng; 50: Chau Ma) with the objective of identifying the relationship between Cat Tien National Park and the livelihoods of the people. Besides, discussions with stakeholders involved with the park were conducted to elicit their views and concerns on forest protection and conservation. The results of the study show that forest protection and conservation of Cat Tien National Park is indeed a difficult issue because of the poverty of people in the buffer zone. The balancing conservation and livelihoods remains an ardent process. It was found that there are major differences between people groups in the study site related to ethnicity. The indigenous people (Chau Ma and Stieng) were found to enter the park more often than the Kinh people as livelihood still largely depends on the natural resources of the park. The education level of indigenous people remains low, so the training on production technology to develop the agricultural sector is not effective. In addition, subsidies to indigenous people have created the psychological effect of “heavy reliance to others” behaviour, and this should be viewed as a big barrier for poverty reduction. This study also found that to maintain the value of biodiversity in Cat Tien National Park requires the co-operation of stakeholders, especially the co-operation between local people and staff of the park at all stages in the management process. In addition, the integrated conservation and development project aimed to improve local people’s livelihoods in the buffer zone is considered the way to share benefits and reduce the conflict of interests between stakeholders. Interestingly, local people would like to get involved in sustainable use of forest products in the park. Lastly, it was found that initially local communities need some external support to develop the internal factors, but later, that must be translated into strengths for them to find the best way out of poverty and to achieve sustainable livelihoods in the near future. 3 TÓM TǍT (Abstract in Vietnamese Language) Đề tài này tìm hiểu về thực trạng bảo vệ rừng ở vườn quốc gia Cát Tiên và sinh kế của ngườ i dân tại ấp 4, xã Tà Lài, huyện Tân Phú, tỉnh Đồng Nai. Để đạt được mục tiêu trên, các phươ ng pháp nghiên cứu được áp dụng để thu thập dữ liệu như: đánh giá nông thôn có sự tham gia (PRA), phỏng vấn sâu và quan sát thực địa. Dữ liệu còn được bổ sung bởi một cuộc điề u tra nông hộ với số mẫu là 150, (bao gồm 50 hộ người Kinh; 50 hộ người Stiêng; 50 hộ ngườ i Châu Mạ), tập trung vào việc xác định mối quan hệ giữa vườn quốc gia Cát Tiên và sinh kế của ngườ i dân. Bên cạnh đó, những buổi thảo luận với các tổ chức/nhóm liên quan với vườn quốc gia được thực hiện nhằm gợi ra những quan điểm và mối quan tâm của họ về vấn đề bảo tồ n và bảo vệ rừ ng. Kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy, công tác bảo tồn và bảo vệ rừng của Vườn quố c gia Cát Tiên thật sự là một vấn đề khó khăn do sự nghèo đói của người dân vùng đệm. Sự cân bằng về bả o tồn và sinh kế vẫn đang là một vấn đề nóng bỏng. Liên quan đến vấn đề dân tộc, đề tài đ ã phát hiện những khác biệt quan trọng giữa các nhóm người trên địa bàn nghiên cứu. Người dân tộ c bản địa (Châu Mạ và Stiêng) vào rừng thường xuyên hơn so với người Kinh vì sinh kế của họ phụ thuộc nhiều vào tài nguyên thiên nhiên trong vườn. Trình độ giáo dục của những gườ i dân bản địa còn thấp nên việc chuyển giao kỹ thuật sản xuất để phát triển khu vực nông nghiệ p không đạt được hiệu quả. Ngoài ra, các khoản trợ cấp và hỗ trợ cho đồng bào bản địa đã tạ o cho họ tâm lý trông chờ vào sự giúp đỡ, và điều này được xem như là rào cản lớn cho việc giả m nghèo. Nghiên cứu cũng đã nhận ra rằng, để duy trì giá trị đa dạng sinh học trong vườn quố c gia Cát Tiên, thì cần phải có sự hợp tác giữa các bên có liên quan, đặc biệt là sự phối hợp giữ a người dân địa phương và nhân viên của vườn ở tất cả các khâu hay giai đoạ n trong quá trình quản lý. Thêm vào đó, sự gắn kết giữa hoạt động bảo tồn và các dự án phát triển nhằ m nâng cao sinh kế của người dân địa phương ở vùng đệm được xem như là phương cách chia sẽ lợ i ích và giảm bớt mâu thuẫn về lợi ích giữa các bên liên quan. Điều lý thú của nghiên cứu này là việ c người dân địa phương muốn sử dụng một cách bền vững các lâm sản từ vườn quốc gia. Cuố i cùng, nghiên cứu nhận thấy, ở thời điểm ban đầu, cộng đồng địa phương cần sự hỗ trợ từ bên ngoài để phát triển các yếu tố nội lực, nhưng sau đó, những yếu tố cần phải được chuyể n thành sức mạnh để giúp cho họ tìm ra con đường thoát khỏi sự nghèo khổ và tiến đến sinh kế bề n vững trong tương lai. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to acknowledge Dr. Neil Powell (SLU) and Dr. Tran Dac Dan (NLU) for their valuable comments and useful recommendations in shaping the structure of this study. Thank you very much! Further gratitude is extended to Dr. Britta Ogle (SLU), Asso. Prof. Le Duc Ngoan (HUAF), Ms Huynh Anh Phuong (HUAF), Dr. Pham Thanh Binh (NLU), and Dr. Le Quang Thong (NLU) for helping me complete the Master Course on Rural development in Hue City, Vietnam. Special mention is accorded to Dr Tran Thi Ut (The former dean of the department of rural development-NLU) for her encouragement to study in Hue City and whose mentoring efforts made research work possible for me. For the fieldwork activities, I acknowledge the efforts of Mr. Nguyen Huynh Thuat (Cat Tien National Park Staff), Ms. Pham Thi Nhien (NLU), Ms. Do Minh Hoang, (NLU), Mr. Duong Xuan Dung (Former Student of NLU), and 16 students of NLU who helped me carry out the field study. Additional gratitude and sincere appreciation goes to the Cat Tien National Park Management Board, the authorities of Ta Lai commune, and the village 4, for the support of my data collection. Endless gratitude is accorded to my ever-supportive father Tran Van Lich, my loving mother Huynh Thi Hai, and my equally gentle young brother - for their love and encouragement all throughout the struggles I went through to complete the MSc program in Rural Development and this thesis study, most specially. Finally, I am very grateful to all my classmates in the MSc course who generously shared their knowledge and experience with me in my study and stay in Hue City, a cultural heritage city in the world. Tran Duc Luan Vietnam, 2006 5 LIST OF CONTENT ABSTRACT TÓM TẮ T ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................................8 1.1 Why research.......................................................................................................................................................................................8 1.2 Structure of the study...................................................................................................................................................................8 1.3 Scope and limitation of the study........................................................................................................................................8 2 BACKGROUND..................................................................................................................................................................10 2.1 Country background information.....................................................................................................................................10 2.2 Buffer zones approach vs. Co-management approach ...............................................................................10 2.3 Overview national parks in the world............................................................................................................................13 2.4 Overview on National Parks in Vietnam.....................................................................................................................14 2.4.1 Political background ......................................................................................................................................................14 2.4.2 The profile of National Parks..................................................................................................................................14 2.4.3 People in the buffer zone ..........................................................................................................................................15 2.5 Problem statement......................................................................................................................................................................15 2.6 Objective and Research Questions ...............................................................................................................................16 2.6.1 Objectives...............................................................................................................................................................................16 2.6.2 Research questions........................................................................................................................................................16 3 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE..............................................................................................................17 3.1 Basic Concepts and Theories............................................................................................................................................17 3.1.1 Livelihood and sustainable livelihood...............................................................................................................17 3.1.2 Vulnerability...........................................................................................................................................................................17 3.1.3 Protected areas .................................................................................................................................................................17 3.2 Conservation vs. economic development..................................................................................................................18 3.3 Protected area management approaches in the world.................................................................................18 3.4 Forest and poverty in Vietnam...........................................................................................................................................20 3.5 Livelihoods of people in buffer zones of national parks in Vietnam ...................................................20 4 METHODOLOGY............................................................................................................................................................. 22 4.1 Methodological approach ......................................................................................................................................................22 4.2 Conceptual Framework...........................................................................................................................................................22 4.3 Site selection ...................................................................................................................................................................................23 4.4 Data collection method ...........................................................................................................................................................23 4.4.1 Secondary data..................................................................................................................................................................24 4.4.2 Primary data..........................................................................................................................................................................24 4.4.3 Household survey ............................................................................................................................................................24 4.4.4 In-depth interviewing.....................................................................................................................................................25 4.5 Data analysis method ...............................................................................................................................................................25 5 EVIDENCE AND INTERPRETATION.............................................................................................................. 27 5.1 Cat Tien National Park.............................................................................................................................................................27 5.1.1 History of Cat Tien National Park.......................................................................................................................27 5.1.2 Characteristic of Cat Tien National Park ......................................................................................................27 5.1.3 Forest protection activities in Cat Tien National Park........................................................................28 5.1.4 The trend of forest law violation in Cat Tien National Park ...........................................................28 5.1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of forest protection and conservation management29 5.2 Study site............................................................................................................................................................................................30 5.2.1 Natural context...................................................................................................................................................................30 5.2.2 Socio-economic aspect...............................................................................................................................................31 5.3 The people in the buffer zone............................................................................................................................................32 6 5.3.1 History of people groups............................................................................................................................................32 5.3.2 General information of surveyed household ..............................................................................................33 5.3.3 Five assets of households.........................................................................................................................................34 5.3.4 People’s livelihood activities ....................................................................................................................................36 5.3.5 Relationship between households and Cat Tien National Park.................................................40 5.3.6 Household’s view about forest protection activities in Cat Tien National Park. ............47 5.3.7 Advantages and disadvantages of people’s livelihoods....................................................................50 5.4 Stakeholders of Cat Tien National Park....................................................................................................................51 5.5 Solutions for forest protection...........................................................................................................................................54 6 GENERAL DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................................................... 56 6.1 Sustainable livelihoods.............................................................................................................................................................56 6.2 Forest protection, conservation and people’s livelihoods ............................................................................56 7 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................. 59 7.1 Summary of findings..................................................................................................................................................................59 7.2 Lessons learnt when conducting the study............................................................................................................60 7.3 Further research ...........................................................................................................................................................................60 8 REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................................................................61 9 APPENDICES..................................................................................................................................................................... 65 7 LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND BOXES TABLES Table 1: Forest law violation in Cat Tien National Park from 2000 to 2005 .............................29 Table 2: General Information of households in 2005................................................................33 Table 3: Asset value and cultivated area of surveyed households ...............................................35 Table 4: Occupation of surveyed households ...........................................................................37 Table 5: Income per capita per month of the surveyed household in 2005................................39 Table 6: Forest law violation of people in village 4 from 1999 to 2004 .....................................40 Table 7. The proportion of surveyed households collected and used forest products .................45 Table 8. Perception of households on Cat Tien National Park forest protection activity ...........48 FIGURES Figure 1: Scenarios of protected areas (Source: Martino, 2001).................................................11 Figure 2: Stakeholder categories and co-management (Source: The World Bank, 1999) ...........12 Figure 3: Location of study site ................................................................................................23 Figure 4: Data analysis framework............................................................................................25 Figure 5: Resource Map in Village 4, Ta Lai commune ...........................................................31 Figure 6: The proportion of surveyed households entering to the park for forest product collection.............................................................................................................41 Figure 7: Relationship between households and forest products before 2000 ............................43 Figure 8: Relationship between households and forest products in 2005...................................43 Figure 9: Relationship between household’s income and forest product categories in 2005 by three groups ........................................................................................................45 Figure 10: Depiction of the conservation activities in Cat Tien National Park ..........................52 BOXES Box 1. Why do Kinh people not enter the park for forest product collection? ..........................38 Box 2: Why do Stieng and Chau Ma people still enter the park?..............................................44 Box 3: A simple estimate on human pressure of the buffer zone upon the Park.........................46 Box 4: How can forest guards manage the park well? ...............................................................49 Box 5: The solutions for forest protection by key informants ...................................................54 Box 6. The failure of national park management in Uganda .....................................................57 Box 7. The success of protected area management in Sarawak..................................................58 8 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Why research Vietnam has about two-third of total natural areas as upland and mountains where there exists rich biodiversity in the remaining forests but natural resource degradation and poverty are still two main problems for rural development, especially in communities that depended on forest resources (Vo Quy & Le Thac Can, 1994). Forest, land, and water resources have been degrading and natural resources face threats from human pressure. A question is raised whether the poor are agents or victims of natural resource degradation. Kumar and Hotchkiss (1998) asserted that the degradation of natural resources can decrease agricultural productivity and affect human health. Even those people who are recorded to be in a healthy state, their labour productivity has remained low because they take much time to find fuel-wood in the degraded forest. Meanwhile, Duraiappah (1996) believes that poverty leads to environment and natural resource degradation hence the poor seems to be both agents and victims of natural resource degradation because of the interactive influence between people and the environment. The primary goal of protected areas is to conserve biological diversity and provide ecosystem services, and, currently the linkages between the protected area management and poverty issues have become a necessity (Sherl et al. , 2004). Although the inter- dependence of human welfare and the conservation of natural resources are highlighted on the Millennium Development Goals (Roe, No date), protected areas are continually denying local people’s access to natural resources (Vo Quy, 2002; Ghimire & Pimbert, 1997). Cat Tien National Park in Vietnam is one of them. This is the main reason why this research should be conducted in order to study how Cat Tien national park can contribute to local people’s livelihoods and achieve poverty reduction. At the same time building an understanding how local people in the buffer zone can support or influence Cat Tien national park in their conservation activities. These concerns will be discussed in this research. 1.2 Structure of the study This thesis is organized in six chapters. Chapter one explains the motivation of the research, the scope and limitation of the study. Chapter two highlights the country information background, the profile of national parks, the problem statement, the research objectives and research questions. Chapter three reviews the basic concepts includes a literature review. Chapter four presents the methodology of the study. Chapter five focuses on the evidence and interpretation in a results and discussion section. Chapter six sum up the general discussion. Finally, chapter seven marks the conclusions with the summary of findings, the lessons learnt in the conduct of the study, and the identification of areas for further studies. 1.3 Scope and limitation of the study At the onset, the researcher wanted to choose one village inside Cat Tien National Park and one village outside the park (buffer zone) to have a rich picture of local people’s 9 livelihoods and conservation activities. However, due to time constraints the research was conducted at only one village in the buffer zone, namely village 4, Ta Lai commune, Tan Phu district, and Dong Nai province. Another limitation relates to the background of the researcher who is an agricultural economist, thus the technical aspects such as forestry, biology and ecosystem will not be analyzed by the study. Some indigenous people can not speak Vietnamese language, especially old people, so it is difficult for the researcher to directly discuss with them. Besides, the issue of “illegal behaviour” related to forest product collection was found sensitive therefore data on income generated from Cat Tien national park forest product collection activities can not be gathered. 10 2 BACKGROUND 2.1 Country background information Vietnam is a relatively narrow strip running North-South along the eastern coast of the Indochinese Peninsula. The total land area of Vietnam is about 332,000 square km. Mountain ranges extend along Vietnam’s border with the People’s Republic of China in the north, and along the borders with the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and the Kingdom of Cambodia in the west. The total population in Vietnam (July 2005) is about 84 million with a unified nation comprising 54 ethnic communities in which the majority Vietnamese (the Kinh), making up 87 percent of the population, live mainly in the lowlands while 53 other minority groups commonly referred to as ethnic communities, live mainly in the mountainous areas and highlands. The ethnic communities often cohabit and there is no separate geographical area for any ethnic group. Vietnam is a densely populated country, 251 people per square kilometre on average, with a population growth rate of 1.35 percent per year. The rural population density is highest in the irrigated lowlands, especially the deltas of the Red River and the Mekong River. This pattern of distribution has had important implications for Protected Areas, especially national parks in Vietnam. After the American war, Vietnam was one of the most poverty-stricken countries in the world. In 1988, through “Doimoi” (Renovation) policies, the government ended collectivized agriculture and distributed farmland to individual households (Irvin, 1995). The reforms increased the relative prices of rice and other agricultural products and provided strong incentives for rural producers with land and agricultural knowledge. The success in the early period can be explained by the distribution of land to agriculture households and the creation of economic incentives for increased farm production. Moreover, the achievement can be also explained by increased employment in the private sector and increased integration of agriculture into the market economy. The poverty alleviation is commendable but much remains to be done. The forest area in Vietnam was estimated to be 55 percent of the total land area in the late 1960s and 17 percent of total in the late 1980s, (Collins et al. , 1991; De Koninck, 1999). From the 1990s until today, the Vietnamese government has attempted to reforest with increasing success. In terms of biodiversity of protected areas, Viet Nam has some 1,534 known species of amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles according to figures from the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Viet Nam is home to at least 10,500 species of vascular plants, of which 12 percent are endemic, 3.4 percent of Viet Nam is protected under IUCN categories. Most of the species exist and are conserved in forests, especially national parks. 2.2 Buffer zones approach vs. Co-management approach First of all, the research will explain the term “National parks” and “Buffer zone” in order to make clear the meaning of those. According to the wikipedia website, a national park is defined as a reserve of land, usually owned by a national government, protected from most human development and pollution. National parks are as a protected area of International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). In the Vietnam context, the term of national parks was defined through Decision No.62 -2005/QD-BNN (Ministry of agriculture and rural development), promulgating the regulation on criteria 11 for classification of special-use forests. The definition is “National parks are a natural area on the mainland or on the mainland with some submerged-lands, or sea areas. They are large enough for the conservation of one or more typical or representative ecosystems. It shall not be affected or be affected to the conservation of endemic or endangered species of present and future generations. National parks serve as a basis for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreation and eco-tourist activities which are controlled and have less negative impacts”. On the other hand, the definition of “Buffer zone” in the wikipedia website is: “A buffer zone is any area that serves the purpose of keeping two or more other areas distant from one another, for whatever reason”. However, related to national parks, this definition is unclear. According to Gilmour and Nguyen Van San (1999), a buffer zone is an area identified by a clear boundary and it is located outside the boundaries of the protected area. Decision No. 09/2001/QD-BNN-TCCB of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development of Vietnam found that a buffer zone is a forest area, land area, or wetland area located close/nearby to national parks or natural protected zone. Related to buffer zones, Martino (2001) had used a wide range of literature with fifty- three articles to study. He found that there is no agreement among conservationists regarding to the definitions of buffer zones. Although the objective of buffer zones is to protect the biodiversity of the park, this protection has to be harmonized with the creation of benefits to local people. Figure 1: Scenarios of protected areas (Source: Martino, 2001) Martino (2001) made three scenarios for a buffer zone approach. Scenario A represents the original protected area which requires the establishment of a buffer zone (Figure 1). So the solution proposed is to establish the buffer zone as scenario B shows. But if only the biological or ecological elements were considered, would not scenario C be the preferable scenario? It is evident that having an extended protected area will accomplish the biological goals set for the buffer zone. So why have buffer zones at all? Martino (2001) concluded that there has to be a difference between the management and goals of the buffer zone and the management of the protected area, if not, there would be no logical reason for buffer zones to exist. The reasoning behind the establishment of buffer zones is generally a need to protect the park from encroachment from local population and from the destructive activities that Protected Area Protected Area Protected Area (Core zone) A B C 12 take place outside the park but that affect conservation inside. However, there is recognition of the legitimate needs of the local population. Martino (2001) revealed that many authors of these articles believe providing benefits in the buffer zone will create an incentive for local people and provide for their needs, and the result will be that local people will not extract resources from the park anymore. In addition, Rustagi and Garcia (2005) asserted that creation of the buffer zone around protected areas assists in the optimization of the ecological, economic and socio-cultural values of protected area, through extension and social buffering of the protected area. Martino (2001) argued the inclusion of local people in development projects that take place either in the buffer zones or near the protected areas is aimed to protect those areas from local peoples'''' discontent rather than to integrate local peoples'''' need to access the protected area for resources. This is a crucial point that comes from the very definitions of buffer zones and that has many scientists convinced that buffer zones are failing and many others wondering what should be the role of buffer zones. This research will not discuss further on the definition of “national parks” and “buffer zone”, but its definition for the purpose of this research as reflected above. Beside a buffer zone approach, the co-management arrangements have also been considered due to the complicated interest of stakeholders on natural resource use. The World Bank (1999) has defined co-management as “ The sharing of responsibilities, rights and duties between the primary stakeholders, in particular, local communities and the nation state; a decentralized approach to decision-making that involves the local users in the decision-making process as equals with the nation-state”. Figure 2: Stakeholder categories and co-management (Source: The World Bank, 1999) In essence this is the same definition as the one adopted by the World Conservation Congress: “A partnership in which government agencies, local communities and resource users, non-governmental organizations and other stakeholders negotiate, as appropriate to Central Government Local Government Private Sector; Other stakeholders Local Communities Co-management 13 each context, the authority and responsibility for the management of a specific area or set of resources” (IUCN, 1996). Based on these definitions, this research will investigate the co-management among stakeholders to reflect on the evidence in the study site. 2.3 Overview national parks in the world Globally, there are many national parks protecting tropical forests. Tropical forests provide a haven for flora and fauna. The biodiversity also increases from the two poles of earth towards the equator. It is clear that, flora and fauna can be found everywhere but biodiversity is not equally distributed. For example, biodiversity diminishes with increasing altitude. The same pattern also applies to decreasing rainfall. Further, the intense sunlight in tropical regions makes ecosystems in equatorial more productive. The tropical forests make up more than a half of the species in the world even if the area of tropical forests is only seven percent of earth surface area. For instance, the tropical and semi-waterless areas in Africa have about 30,000 species of flora; and similar to Madagascar (8,200 species), Asia tropical region including New Guinea and Australia (45,000 species). The world’s first national park, Yellowstone, was created by an act of Congress in 1872 and signed by the President of United State namely Ulysses Grant”. Yellowstone National Park had about 2.2 million acres of wilderness was "set apart as a public park or are the area reserved for the benefit and enjoyment of people". This national park is now very famous for ecotourism activities. In Tanzania, numerous national parks form the core of a much larger protected ecosystem, and have been set aside to preserve the country’s rich natural heritage, and to provide secure breeding grounds where its fauna and flora can thrive, safe from the conflicting interest of a growing human population. The existing park system protects a number of internationally recognized bastions of biodiversity and world heritage sites, thereby redressing the balance for those areas of the country affected by deforestation, agriculture and urbanization. In South Africa, most national parks are maintained by the government while the parks in KwaZulu-Natal are managed by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife (an amalgamation of the former Natal Parks Board and KwaZulu Directorate of Nature Conservation). A number of national parks have become Peace parks and changed their names. Private Parks are starting to have a huge impact on the conservation scene. In Southeast Asia, four countries including Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam have established among the largest protected area systems in the world as proportions of national territory. Many are national parks or national protected areas as they are called in Lao PDR, and nature and wildlife reserves in which no exploitative uses are permitted. These restrictive national policies are coming under increasing strain faced with growing populations, especially the needs of poor communities living in and around protected areas (ICEM, 2003). 14 2.4 Overview on National Parks in Vietnam 2.4.1 Political background In Vietnam, forestland is divided into three categories, namely production, protection and special-use forests. Production forests are earmarked for exploitation in compliance with approved management plans while protection forests are designated to protect land and water sources in critical areas (Nguyen Van San et al ., 1999) and their exploitation is restricted to mainly non-timber forest products in natural forests. Special-use forests are designated based on their importance for the conservation of Vietnam’s biodiversity, science, tourism or cultural and historical heritage. In January 2001, Decision No. 08/QD-TTg, classified special-use forests into the following categories: (1) National parks; (2) Nature reserves, this was further divided into two sub-categories: nature reserves and habitat/species management areas; and (3) Cultural, Historical and Environmental sites (Landscape conservation areas). The history of national parks in Vietnam is summarized as follows: In 1960, President Ho Chi Minh announced Ordinance No. 18/LCT: ‘Law on Organization of the Government Council of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam’. This ordinance included a proposal to establish the General Department of Forestry. Vietnam government had carried out the first actions to preserve natural resources through promulgating degree on forest protection. In 1962, Cuc Phuong Protected Forest established the first protected area, and up to year 1966, it became the first national park in Vietnam. In 1986, decision No. 194/CT decreed the establishment of a further 73 Special-use Forests nationwide. These Special-use Forests comprised two national parks, 46 nature reserves, and 25 cultural and historical sites. In 1994, the biodiversity action plan for Vietnam recommends the strengthening of the national parks and the protected areas system. In 1992, Prime Minister announced Decision No. 08/CT the establishment Cat Tien National Park. Up to now, there are 26 national parks extending in Vietnam. 2.4.2 The profile of National Parks In Vietnam, the natural conservation zones and national parks were established at the area where the natural resources were not much devastated (Vo Quy, 2002). The average size of a national park in Vietnam is about 34,832 ha; Yok Don national park has a largest area with 115,545 ha; and Xuan Thuy is a smallest park with 7,100 ha. The average size of national parks in the south is higher than the north approximately 9,200 ha; and the standard deviation in size of 26 national parks in Vietnam is about 29,467 ha. In general, the purpose of national parks in Viet Nam is the same. These are to conserve valuable and rare genes of flora and fauna; to protect the representative ecosystem of tropical forest; to maintain the protective forests; to provide a platform for environmental education and scientific research; to develop the ecotourism activities; and to create the jobs for people around the parks. Further, the national parks fall under a master plan to combine ecotourism and historical tourism in order to attract domestic and foreign tourists. In Vietnam, national parks also have the support from the donors and Non Government Organizations such as IUCN (The World Conservation Union), WWF (World Wildlife Fund), GEF (Global Environment Agency) and JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency) on natural resources management and conservation. 15 2.4.3 People in the buffer zone According to Vo Quy (2002), many people live in the buffer zones of the natural conservation zones and national parks. Most people are poor and low education. Their subsistence depends on forest products or the related ecosystem. They are generally indigenous peoples or resettled people. About 90 percent of cases hunting and collecting forest products are carried out by people in the buffer zone. Farming practices also tend to employ a low level of technology, have low agricultural productivity, and a high poverty rate (Nguyen Ba Thu, 2002). 2.5 Problem statement In global context, forests are the most important terrestrial reservoir of biological diversity, containing as much as two-thirds of all plant and animal species, and represent ecological, economic, cultural, spiritual and recreational values (WWF, 2002). However, the Millennium Development Goal Report of the United Nations in 2005 shows that plant and animal species are disappearing at record rate. One of the underlying causes of this problem is poverty. The poor are most immediately affected and their livelihoods more often depend on the natural resources of forests around them (UN, 2005). The conservation of natural and gene resources for the next generation is recognized as instruction of ethic and reality and it needs to find the way to implement this instruction (FAO, 1994). In Vietnam, Cat Tien National Park is part of a lowland rainforest complex, which is one of the last remaining in southern Vietnam. The Park has considerable biological value because it is one of the last refuges for a number of significant species and because of its rich biological diversity. The diversity of the Park has been recognized by its inclusion in both terrestrial and freshwater Global 200 Eco-regions selected by WWF for outstanding biodiversity of global significance (Cat Tien National Park, 2002:8). Nevertheless, after establishing it in 1992, the government has a policy to assign the management of national parks to state-run organizations. Strict protection has resulted in limited access for local people to forest products and limited opportunities for income generation. Thus, the Park has led to a loss of income source from forest, especially the poor (Ton Tu Anh, 2002:253). Furthermore, poverty and rapid population growth in the buffer zones threaten the objectives of conservation zones (Vo Quy, 2002:45). Conservationists believe that investment in the buffer zones to enhance people’s living condition and awareness will decrease the pressure in protected areas and help conservation activities be more effective (Nguyen Ba Thu, 2002:51). In practice, Vietnam has integration projects and conservation as support for people in the buffer zone with the initial results, but the complexity of buffer zones requires a flexible approach that can be adapted to specific contexts (Vo Quy, 2002:46). It is clear that conservation management is a great problem for all national parks in Vietnam and Cat Tien National Park is not an exception. Moreover, it is very important for conservationists and policy makers responsible for conservation to understand the needs and perceptions of the people’s buffer zones in order to achieve a sustainable conservation process (Vo Quy, 2002:48). However, there is lack of studies on forest protection approaches and insufficient understanding of people’s livelihood activities and the perceptions of people in buffer zones. The author considers this to pose a serious constraint to the Cat Tien National Park Management Board in achieving its conservation goals. 16 2.6 Objective and Research Questions 2.6.1 Objectives This study looks into the social economic aspects of forest protection, in particular to learn about people’s livelihood activities in the buffer zone and their relations to the Park. This study also examines the relevance of alternative forest protection approaches in Cat Tien, which may better meet the needs of people livelihoods and at the same time ensure the park maintains its high conservation status. 2.6.2 Research questions The main question: Has the forest protection/conservation approach in Cat Tien National Park led to more sustainable livelihoods? The following sub questions emerge from this: (a) What are the contextual characteristics of Cat Tien National Park? 1. Who are the stakeholders in Cat Tien National Park? 2. How is the forest in Cat Tien National Park presently protected? 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of forest protection? (b) What constitutes people’s livelihoods in the buffer zone of Cat Tien National Park? 1. What are people’s livelihoods in study site? 2. What do the projects/programs for local people implement in study site? 3. How do people’s activities relate to the use of forest resources? (c) What is the people’s perception of protection Cat Tien National Park? 1. What are people’s views of forest protection activities in Cat Tien National Park? 2. In relation to the forest, are there different perceptions between indigenous ethnic and migrant people groups? Why are their perceptions different? And how do they differ? 3. What are local inhabitant’s suggestions to protect sustainably the park? 17 3 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In this section, the study reviews basic concepts and related studies revolving around natural resource management (e.g. forest inside national park or protected areas) and sustainable livelihoods of people whom dependent on these resources. Comparing related studies, the research will clarify knowledge and ideas that have been established as well as the associated strengths and weaknesses found in each study. 3.1 Basic Concepts and Theories 3.1.1 Livelihood and sustainable livelihood There are many definitions of livelihood used for poverty and rural development research in which a popular definition is provided by Chambers and Conway (1992): livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses, and shocks, maintain or enhance its capacities and assets, while not undermining the natural resource base. The livelihood definition points at the links between assets and the options people possess in practice to pursue alternative activities that can generate the income level required for survival. According to Ellis (2000:7), several researchers such as Carswell (1997), Hussein and Nelson (1998), and Scoones (1998) have utilized this concept. Some case studies make use of the livelihoods approach which integrates natural resource management into a framework for analyzing how people use natural resources to make a living (Ashby, 2003) 3.1.2 Vulnerability The concept of poverty is often defined in economic terms, against indicators such as income or consumption. Poverty is identified as the following problems: (1) Lack of assets and income; (2) Lack of opportunities to engage in productive activities that can sustain livelihoods; (3) Lack of voice and empowerment; (4) Lack of capacity to promote and defend community interests; and (5) Vulnerability. Vulnerability as defined by DFID (1999), stems from the negative external environment in which people exist such as shocks (e.g. floods, droughts, storms), trends (e.g. population, economic, resources), and seasonal shifts (e.g. employment opportunities, prices, and production). This research operationalises vulnerability as a concept because it is considered to have a direct influence in poor people, and because poor people are often on the forest frontier where they come into conflict with biodiversity objectives (Scherl et al., 2004). 3.1.3 Protected areas IUCN defines protected areas as an area of land or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and management through legal or other effective means. According to Chape et al. (2003), protected areas include the six categories: (1) Strict Nature Reserve or Wilderness Area; (2) National Park managed mainly for ecosystem conservation and recreation; (3) Natural Monument managed mainly for conservation of specific features; (4) Habitat/Species Management Area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention; (5) 18 Protected Landscape or Seascape managed mainly for landscape or seascape conservation and recreation; and (6) Managed Resource Protected Area managed mainly for sustainable use of natural ecosystems. 3.2 Conservation vs. economic development Since the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the human environment, the importance of biodiversity conservation and its linkage to global development issues has been recognized. At that time, many developing countries expressed their concerns about increasing environmental degradation as a possible constraint to their economic growth. However, the result of the Stockholm Conference revealed that natural resources are essential assets on which economic growth must be based, and conservation and development are inseparable (Holdgate, 1999). The fifth International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Congress in 2003 affirmed that biological diversity should be conserved for not only national values but also global values. Conservation has contributed to human well-being by maintaining ecosystems but it has also contributed to local poverty by denying the poor people control over and access to the natural resources that underpin their livelihoods (Fisher, 2005). In terms of conservation and development issues, Cole and Neumayer (2005) also contributed their argument on the perception of “Economic development first”, whereby poverty alleviation should come first and then the environment or conservation should be addressed later. They think it seems a reasonable way for short-term but in long-term, the “Economic development first” is likely to be serious because it can not be achieved in isolation from achieving environmental stability and meeting social development goals. Moreover, the results of the first regional workshop of Protected Areas and Development (PAD) in the four countries of the Lower Mekong River Region including Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam (2002) emphasized that conservation of protected areas should be ensured as the first priority. In addition, it needs to have the link between conservation and economic benefits, especially intangible benefits should be recognized, for example, educational and cultural values more than only monetary value. Based on these results of studies and reports, this research suggests that although the objectives of conservation and economic development are still under discussion, the linkages between conservation and economic development should be interested. Fisher (2005) asserts the necessity of the integrated approaches to conservation and development and that approaches should be highlighted as significant conservation strategies in protected area. Related to the Vietnam context, this research corresponds with the perspective of Fisher (2005): poverty reduction and conservation should go hand in hand because there really is no other choice, neither ethically nor practically. 3.3 Protected area management approaches in the world In general, natural resources management takes place in a complex human context. The decisions of natural resource management can affect a number of different stakeholders and may affect them differently, especially where resources are scarce or of high value. Therefore, to move from theory to practice, Ashby (2003) suggests that the trade-offs between different groups or stakeholders have to be taken into account, and the conflict resolution or agreement about the use of natural resources must be democratized by 19 involving a broad set of stakeholders. This view is contrary the how the first national park in the world, Yellowstone, as established. Crow and Shoshone people were forced through coercion and violence to relocate their ancestral land. This pattern has been repeated in the establishment of many national parks. Previous inhabitants of these areas are prohibited from entering and accessing natural resources inside these parks. The consequence is the creation of a conflict of interest. Local communities in particular have their livelihoods undermined and the biodiversity management is threatening (Vo Quy, 1995). Other lesson learnt from the experiences with the population displacement strategy, Cernea and Schmidt-Soltau (No date) argue that this strategy has compromised the very cause of biodiversity and park conservation by inflicting aggravated poverty on countless people. In addition, they found that displacements should not and might not be counted upon any longer as a general and mainstream solution. However, the study of Barreto et al. (2006) emphasized that human pressure in protected areas is much smaller than un- protected areas. Therefore, since the 1980s, conservation organizations have been implementing approaches that aim to build support among local communities by sharing social and economic benefits from protected areas (Nguyen Ngoc Hoi, 2002). The goals of these initiatives include compensating local people for lack of access to protected areas and providing alternative income sources that would allow people to benefit economically from conservation while refraining from environmentally destructive practices. The study of Scherl et al. (2004) has summarized the poverty reduction approaches in protected areas, which has been implementing in the world. These approaches are namely: (1) Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs); (2) Inclusive Management Approaches; and (3) Community Conservation Areas. Sherl et al. (2004) explains that an ICDP approach aims at building support among local communities by sharing social and economic benefits from protected areas. The goals of these initiatives include compensating local people for lack of access to protected areas and providing alternative income sources that would allow people to benefit economically from conservation while refraining from environmentally destructive practices. Sherl et al. (2004) argued that, in practice, experience has shown that the equitable distribution of financial and social benefits from protected areas can be problematic, for instance, it is often not enough to assume that community leaders will assure that benefits w

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