An investigation of the relationship between listening anxiety and listening strategy use among non english major freshmen

Chapter introduction

In this chapter, the research gap in the mainstream of affective variables research in Vietnamese tertiary language education is highlighted within the dynamic integration Accordingly, the research aims, research questions and the scope of the study are presented to orient the development of this study This chapter also presents this study’s contributions to the field of second language acquisition and English language teaching and learning, especially in the context of Vietnam.

Background of study

In the dynamic globalization, it has been required an international language for people around the world to communicate regardless the native language In response to this central demand, English has progressively become an international language (McKay, 2012) as well as lingua franca (Hugo Bowles & Cogo, 2015; Jenkins et al.,

2018) It has long been widely used in the myriad of organizations and individuals as the practical means to communicate conveniently and effectively in various domains such as business, science, aviation, technology, diplomacy and tourism Gradually, the number of people around the world using English as the international medium of communication has drastically increased in recent decades That has made English into a leading position among the languages in the ranking in recent years According to Statista (2022) and Ethnologue (2022), this figure has soared in the late 1990s, then peaked at approximately 1.5 billion native and non-native people in over 70 countries and territories, and currently accounts for roughly 19% of the total world population in 2022 (World Population Review, 2022; Worldometers, 2022) That led English to be prominent, stayed far ahead of over 6,000 other languages and occupied firmly in the first position in the ranking since 2012 (Statistics & Data, 2021)

Realizing the importance of English in the dynamic global integration, the Vietnamese government has aspired to empower all future generations to acquire English effectively English language proficiency will be progressively become their competitive advantage for better global integration (Government News, 2010) Hence, the National

Foreign Languages Project 2020 (Prime Minister, 2008, 2017) has proactively fostered and made breakthroughs in the quality of foreign language teaching and learning The younger generations of Vietnamese have been encouraged to learn English at an early age (since kinder garden level) and systematically assessed through Six-level Foreign Language Competency Framework for Vietnam (MOET, 2014) Additionally, English was nominated by some policy-makers as the second (as opposed to foreign) language in Vietnam (MOET, 2019) By making great efforts, the aspiration of Vietnam government can come true in the near future Fruitfully, the ranking of national English language proficiency has been gradually improved (Education First, 2021) and the proficiency level of English language has been progressively become a competitive advantage of national human resources in the rapid global integration (Government News, 2010)

In general, all future generations are expected to be excellent at four language skills including reading, writing, listening and speaking skill Fully developing listening skill, however, seems challenging for most learners in their journey of second language acquisition (Goh, 2000; Nguyen & Thai, 2018; Tran & Duong, 2020; Vandergrift, 2012) Indeed, although learners intentionally listen to the acoustic inputs, actively process, analyze, interpret and infer the received information, most of them usually encounter a variety of listening comprehension difficulties such as unfamiliar themes or topics, strange lexical items, complex grammatical patterns, fast-speaking rate, speaker’s accent, long and/or complicated listening texts These problems were identified as the separated causes (Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011; Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016; Nguyen & Thai, 2018; Walker, 2014) or as the categorized reasons (Lotfi, 2012; Nushi & Orouji, 2020) or as the cognitive perception (Goh, 2000; Tran & Duong, 2020) As such, all those listening difficulties interfere information receiving and processing, which will make ‘invisible barrier’ for comprehension As a result, EFL/ ESL learners are more likely to get worse in listening comprehension because of confronting with listening difficulties

Hence, EFL/ ESL learners are explicitly instructed and strongly encouraged to utilize actively and properly various listening strategies (cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective strategies) for better listening comprehension (Bao & Guan, 2019; Field, 2008; Graham, 2018a; Richards, 2008) Particularly, they are facilitated to deploy different listening strategies for different listening tasks in order to get the general ideas, detailed or specific information from the aural text as well as get inferred ideas from

3 given information (Gu, 2018b) In other words, learners should know which listening strategies they need to deploy for which information they are required to obtain from the acoustic messages as well as they are expected to know how to employ different listening strategies skillfully and effectively for better listening comprehension In general, by deploying these strategies, they have more chances to thoroughly comprehend the denotative and connotative meanings of the acoustic texts, which empowers them to confidently outperform in listening achievement compared to without using listening strategies (Graham, 2018a; Sodachan & Chayanuvat, 2018)

Then, the researchers noticed that instructing learners to deploy listening strategies for better listening comprehension is still inadequate That is because of the affective variables of EFL/ ESL learners It means that listening achievement is acquired not only through the contributions of listening strategies [as one of the cognitive factors] but also through the effects of the affective variables of learners At first glance, it seems that the cognitive factors and affective variables are separated in the human mind Amazingly, the nexus of these complexities is closely intertwined Hence, as a human being, the cognitive factors and affective variables of EFL/ ESL learners are twisted together in the process of second language acquisition, which was clearly proclaimed:

“minds without emotions are not really minds at all” (LeDoux, 1996; as cited in Kębłowska, 2012, p 157) Accordingly, all individuals are characterized by the affective and cognitive features In general, the cognitive factors usually refer to the human intelligence such as the intelligence, aptitude and learning strategies, whereas the affective variables typically indicate the human emotion such as attitude, self-esteem and anxiety (Kębłowska, 2012)

Historically, compared to the cognitive factors, the sphere of emotion among language learners, especially the foreign language anxiety of learners seemed to be

“undermined or ignored” in the research in the previous time periods (Kębłowska, 2012, p 157) Then, this phenomenon has increasingly captivated much attention of psychologists, educators and SLA researchers in recent years (Kruk & Zawodniak, 2021) because of its negative impacts with various levels of intensity on learning performance or achievement among EFL/ ESL learners during the journey of second language acquisition (Aida, 1994; Cakıcı, 2016; Dikmen, 2021; Doğan & Tuncer, 2016; Horwitz, 2001; Horwitz et al., 1986; Teimouri et al., 2019)

Moreover, the researchers have shed further light on the effects of foreign language anxiety in the association with four language skills on the performance and achievement among language learners Accordingly, numerous evidences showed that speaking anxiety, listening anxiety, writing anxiety and reading anxiety of learners have a significantly negative impacts on language performance or achievement of their speaking skill (Karagửl & Başbay, 2018; Le & Tran, 2020), listening skill (Oteir, 2017; Zhao, 2022), writing skill (Asmari, 2013; Sabti et al., 2019) and reading skill (Le, 2020b; Mohd-Zin & Rafik-Galea, 2010) respectively It means that four skill-based anxieties significantly impede the learning performance or achievement of EFL/ ESL learners during their language skills development

Notably, when mentioning about four skill-based anxieties, it has been usually assumed that the foreign language anxiety is most closely associated with speaking skill among four language skills In common, it seems that most of language learners are mostly anxious about speaking skill, which leads the degree of speaking anxiety to peak at the highest level in four skill-based anxieties Surprisingly, speaking anxiety as ‘the top of the iceberg’ is deliberately recognized, whereas, it is challenging to find out listening anxiety as the vagueness of ‘the bottom of this iceberg’ This reality was evidenced through a grounded case below

In the quantitative study of Ran, Wang and Zhu (2022), the findings indicated that all freshmen were anxious about listening skill [more than speaking skill] notwithstanding their gender and English proficiency level Specifically, the researchers measured the anxiety of four language skills among approximately 300 Chinese medical freshmen through a battery of scale The instruments were deployed in this study by adopting different authentic scales including the Foreign Language Listening Anxiety Scale (Kim, 2000; as cited in Ran et al., 2022), the Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety Self-Schema Questionnaire (Wu, 2009; as cited in Ran et al., 2022), the English Reading Anxiety Scale (Saito et al., 1999) and the Second Language Writing Anxiety Inventory (Cheng, 2004) Interestingly, contrasted with the premise of most of people, the level of listening anxiety among first-year learners was at the highest mean score (M = 106.86), as compared to the figures of speaking anxiety (M = 91.98), writing anxiety (M = 74.15) and reading anxiety (M = 62.72) As a result, it was concluded that the foreign language listening anxiety should be more concerned than foreign language speaking anxiety

This result was consistent with the findings of the meta-analysis of Dikmen

(2021) Particularly, the researcher attempted to systematically provide the holistic and quantitative meta-analysis of the correlation between foreign language anxiety and learning performance with the moderators including the publication year (from 2010 to

2020), grade level (from middle school to higher education level), country and anxiety type (listening anxiety, speaking anxiety, writing anxiety, reading anxiety and test anxiety) The researcher accessed to valuable and relevant 3,022 studies by using relevant keywords for searching the studies in 10 prestige electronic research databases (such as Taylor & Francis Online, Science Direct, ERIC, Springer LINK, Wiley Online Library Full Collection, Google Scholar, ProQuest Dissertation and so on) Then, the eligible studies of 14 countries were determined through the inclusion and exclusion criteria Accordingly, a total of full-text 69 studies with adequate amount of statistical data written in either Turkish or English and published in peer-reviewed journals or Higher Education Thesis Center from 2010 to 2020 were considered as the eligible data source in this meta-analysis research After coding and analyzing the data, Dikmen

Problem statement

In fact, many issues related to listening anxiety have been investigated in various contexts Notably, there has been many studies showing many convincing evidences of the negative impacts of listening anxiety on listening performance or achievement in spite of that the level of listening anxiety varies from contexts to contexts (Hidayati et al., 2020; Liu & Thondhlana, 2015; Liu & Xu, 2021; Wang, 2010) Especially, the researchers have also shed more light on the correlation between listening anxiety learners experienced and listening strategies learners deployed in the language classroom (Dalman, 2016; Golchi, 2012; Gửnen, 2009; Liu, 2016)

However, in Vietnamese tertiary language education, the number of the studies concerning this critical correlation has seemed scarce until now More specifically, it seems that the other issues related foreign language anxiety has received more attentions such as foreign language classroom anxiety (Tran et al., 2012), speaking anxiety (Le & Tran, 2020), writing anxiety (Khau, 2019) and reading anxiety (Dang, 2022a, 2022b; Le, 2020a, 2020b) or the causes of foreign language listening anxiety (Diem & Le, 2020; Le, 2010) That has driven the relationship between the level of listening anxiety and the usage of listening strategy has been neglected so far Therefore, in an attempt to bridge this research gap, the author conducted a correlational study to shed light on this issue among non-English freshmen at a certain international institute in

Purpose statement

As mentioned above, this correlational study was conducted among first-year learners not majoring in English in the second semester of the academic year 2022-2023 at a certain international institute located in Ho Chi Minh city Specifically, the aims of this study were to (1) investigate the correlation between the listening anxiety of non-English major freshmen and the listening strategies they deployed in the process of improving their listening skill in the language classroom and (2) investigate whether there was any significant difference in deploying listening strategies between high- and low-anxiety learners in developing listening skill.

Research questions

In an attempt to achieve the goals above, the present study addresses following research questions:

Research question 1: What is the correlation between the listening anxiety of non-English major freshmen and their deployment of listening strategies in the language classroom?

Research question 2: Is there any significant difference in the deployment of listening strategies between high- and low-anxiety learners in developing listening skill?

Significance of the study

In the main stream of listening anxiety research and under the umbrella of process-based approach of listening skill, this paper is hoped to provide meaningful contributions to the skill-based anxiety research Specifically, there are theoretical and practical contributions in this paper as follows

Theoretically, the main findings of this paper contribute to the domain of foreign language teaching methodology and second language acquisition theories At the language skill level, listening anxiety is evident that it plays an affective role in listening skill development Thus, it should be taken full consideration in listening skill teaching and learning in order to empower all learners to acquire this critical skill better in the language classroom

Practically, the main findings provide the meaningful contributions for the stakeholders, especially the teachers It is noted that both cognitive factors and affective variables are involved in developing listening skill Hence, it is worth alleviating the

‘invisible barrier’ besides explicitly providing strategy-based instruction in order to fully support all learners acquire this skill cognitively and emotionally Teachers will also gain more insights into the significant differences between high and low anxious listeners in deploying various listening strategies As a result, they will have more chances to encompass and empower the high anxious ones to use these strategies more regularly and efficiently for better comprehension Fruitfully, those dedicated efforts will support all learners have joyful learning experience in the classroom in the short term and praise them to fully develop their listening skill confidently and effectively in the long term.

Scope of the study

In this correlational study, there are two variables including listening anxiety and listening strategy usage of non-English major freshmen As mentioned earlier, the main aims of this paper are to investigate the correlation of these variables and highlight the significant differences between high and low anxious listeners Accordingly, the cause- and-effect relationship of the variables is not determined in the study because it is a fact that the correlation does not imply the causality It means that the impacts of listening anxiety on listening performance and achievements of learners and vice versa are excluded in the scope of this paper

Additionally, the participants in this small-scale study were non-English major learners who speak Vietnamese as their native language and acquire English as the foreign language As the young learners, they had learnt English as the compulsory subject in the high school for roughly seven years The non-English major learners were selected because most of them often have not had more chances to acquire English better as compared to their English major peers Consequently, it seems that they have also encountered many challenges in learning English, especially in the transitional period from the high-school to the university environment where they have dealt with many changes in learning Therefore, the non-English major freshmen should be chosen in this correlational research.

Overview of thesis chapters

Chapter one depicts the background of study and introduces the research gap in skill-based anxiety research Vietnamese tertiary language education, which urges the author to conduct this paper In addition, the research aims and questions as well as the scope of the study are presented in this chapter The contributions of this correlational study are also given through the significance of the study

Chapter two defines the key terms and relevant literature as the theoretical foundation of this paper This chapter especially highlights the research gap in the main stream of affective variables research in Vietnamese by synthesizing notable previous studies in various contexts As such, the author can depict the holistic picture as well as highlight the ‘missing piece’ in Vietnamese context Besides, the conceptual frameworks adapted and adopted in this study are introduced in this chapter

Chapter three justifies the research design and research instruments in a way that they are so appropriate and efficient in this study The overall process of conducting this research is illustrated to present the ‘milestones’ of carrying out this small-scale study, especially how to collect the data The description of the research site and participants are also found in this chapter

Chapter four is the section of the findings and discussion The quantitative and qualitative data is statistically and thematically analyzed respectively to provide the holistic and detailed results The data interpretation is made in an attempt to provide the main findings of this study Accordingly, the discussion is meaningfully given to

9 spotlight the findings in the previously existent literature Fruitfully, the author can address the research questions and accomplish the research aims claimed in chapter one

Chapter five as the final chapter gives the implications, limitations and further research to sum up this paper Accordingly, the theoretical and practical implications are provided meaningfully and appropriately for the stakeholders in a hope to empower all learners to enhance and develop listening skill joyfully In addition, the limitations of this study are critically given Moreover, the further research is presented to pave the potential ways for the other researchers, practitioners and educators to shed further light on this issue Finally, the author draws the conclusion to sum up this paper.

Chapter summary

Overall, the first chapter introduced the overview of this study The ‘departure’ of this journey was clearly described by highlighting the research gap as the inspiration of conducting this paper within the aspiration of elevating the prestige and status of the S- shaped country in the international arena Accordingly, the research aims and research questions as well as the significance and scope of this study were presented Next, the following chapter reviews key literature and provides the conceptual frameworks as well as synthesizes and analyzes previous notable studies to vividly depict the holistic picture of listening strategies usage in relation to listening anxiety among learners

Chapter introduction

This chapter presents key literature on listening anxiety and listening strategy The types of listening anxiety and listening strategies are clearly conceptualized in this chapter The previous studies are chronologically synthesized to highlight the research gap in the skill-based anxiety research in Vietnamese tertiary language education Last but not least, the appropriate and efficient conceptual frameworks applied in this study are presented to collect the rich data.

Foreign language learning anxiety

Definition of foreign language learning anxiety

In fact, the concept of foreign language learning anxiety has long captivated many educators, researchers and scholars to conduct theoretical, exploratory and experimental studies for in-depth understanding of this critical issue Consequently, this issue was analyzed, discussed, conceptualized and classified to shed more lights on its characteristics and effects in relation to foreign language learning This concept generally indicates the emotional state in which second language learners feel anxious, nervous and apprehensive during second language learning activities (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994).

Types of foreign language learning anxiety

Generally, foreign language learning anxiety can be classified into three different categories, namely state, trait and situation-specific anxiety (Zhang, 2018) State anxiety refers to the transient and momentary feeling actually arise at a certain time such as unpleasant or apprehension, meanwhile trait anxiety refers to the characteristic or trait which indicates the relatively permanent and frequent tendency of anxiety arousal (Spielberger, 1983; as cited in Zhang, 2018) Both normal individuals and high-trait- anxiety individuals experienced the state anxiety and trait anxiety; however, people with high-level trait anxiety are more likely to become apprehensive in various circumstances as compared to normal individuals Although trait anxiety can be measured, it is too

11 general to be applied in foreign language contexts That is the reason why it comes to foreign language anxiety It is usually implicitly conceptualized as situation-specific anxiety referring to anxiety that frequently surfaces in a specific circumstance Besides describing this affective construct psychologically, emotionally and behaviorally, the scholars attempted to measure the level of learners’ anxiety in learning foreign language One of the popular scale is the classical Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) proposed by Horwitz et al (1986) Applying 5-point Likert scale, this 33-item questionnaire was designed to measure the degree of foreign language learning anxiety among learners through three categories: reflective of communication apprehension, test- anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation in the language classroom.

Foreign language listening anxiety

Definition of foreign language listening anxiety

Under the umbrella of the foreign language learning anxiety, the concept of foreign language listening anxiety (or listener anxiety) focuses more details on the complexity of anxiety related to listening skill, which has also attracted more and more attention of practitioners and researchers in language education Because listening skill is considered as a very challenging skill (Graham & Macaro, 2008; Nunan, 2002), most second language learners frequently encounter a variety of listening comprehension difficulties One of those problems is that learners [as listeners] can not control or manage the variables of aural inputs, which makes them not understand and/ or misunderstand the acoustic meanings Consequently, poor performance negatively affects their emotion, behavior and psychology, which causes them to suffer state anxiety such as anxiety, tension and frustration When learners experience repeatedly the state anxiety in listening activities, which progressively develop to the situation-specific form Consequently, learners frequently endure high level of anxiety in various learning activities related to listening skill, which in turn crucially hampers their listening skill development

Effects of the foreign language listening anxiety on listening skill development of EFL/ ESL learners

In fact, listening anxiety critically impedes learners’ language learning process cognitively, especially low-proficiency listeners In terms of learning process, there are three stages of language learning including input, processing and output (Tobias, 1986) According to Tobias (1986), listening anxiety was likely to interfere with the input stage and the processing stage of language learning At the input stage, listening anxiety can crucially hamper second language learners to process the information cognitively In other words, the cognitive ability of learners can be slowed down by the interference of listening anxiety, which causes learners to concern about task-irrelevant information Notably, the higher level of listening anxiety learners experience in language learning, the less attention they will pay on the given tasks As a result, the intake of information during listening activities is frequently less than the information requirements of the listening tasks, especially among low-proficiency listeners who receive less details as compared to high-proficiency ones Consequentially, less information will be processed in the processing stage During the stage of processing, the interference of listening anxiety can decelerate once again, even undermine the lexicons retrieval and/ or recognition Due to affective barrier of listening anxiety at the first two stages of language learning process, the final stage – the outcome stage will be consequentially impacted in terms of task achievements Those negative impacts of anxiety were convincingly proven through the empirical evidence in the notable study of MacIntyre and Gardner (1994) Based on the model of Tobias (1986), MacIntyre and Gardner

(1994) examined the effects of anxiety arousal caused by the establishment of video cameras [in the classroom] on learning performance of 72 French freshmen at the three learning stages of input, process and output stage The results clearly indicated that the interference of anxiety can cause learners’ cognitive deficits at the stage of input and process of language learning, which will consequently provoke learning performance significantly

Besides learning process, anxiety may adversely influence learners’ working memory which is critically important for their listening comprehension Particularly, MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) pointed out that higher-anxious learners achieved significantly lower scores as compared to less-anxious ones when participating in a

13 short-term memory test Since listening anxiety can decrease the total amount of information stored in the short-term memory, this affective factor will impair learners’ listening comprehension, which adversely impacts their listening performance

In addition, anxiety was noted to cause negative learning behaviors both inside and outside language classroom (Horwitz et al., 1986) Specifically, high-anxiety learners were likely not to be involved in learning tasks and assigned homework They tended to shrink from learning activities due to their high level of anxiety They were also shy in the class and unwilling to interact with the teacher and their peers Generally, learners with a high level of anxiety were more likely to be passive in individual and cooperative learning activities All those negative learning behaviors place anxious learners at a disadvantaged situation when it comes to language skills and language aspects specifically and language proficiency generally.

Foreign language listening strategy

Definition of foreign language listening strategy

Generally, listening strategies are defined as conscious plans comprising a set of practical techniques people deploy in pre-, while- and post-listening phase to purposefully and logically manage incoming aural information for better comprehension (Graham & Santos, 2015) As such, based on prior linguistic knowledge and non- linguistic knowledge (general, academic and socio-cultural knowledge), second language learners are frequently encouraged to efficiently and appropriately utilize various strategic plans to prepare, receive, process, decode, interpret and infer the acoustic inputs in an attempt to entirely comprehend connotative and detonative meanings conveyed by speakers Hence, EFL/ ESL teachers usually instruct learners to deploy various listening strategies for better comprehension Details of listening strategies synthesized by Lynch and Mendelsohn (2020, p 230) are given in appendix 3.

Types of foreign language listening strategy

In general, listening strategies are typically categorized into three main types, namely cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective listening strategies - a tripartite classification proposed by O’Malley et al (1985) Cognitive listening strategies indicate mental capabilities and processes of learners applying their knowledge for better

14 comprehension and interactions, meanwhile metacognitive listening strategies refer to learners’ thinking towards the methods for aural information assimilation, management evaluation for more and more effective comprehension and interactions (Bao & Guan, 2019; Vandergrift & Cross, 2018a) The final listening strategy is socio-affective listening strategies which are usually subcategorized into social strategies and affective strategies Affective listening strategies refer to managing learners’ affective factors such as anxiety, stress and tension in an attempt to concentrate on receiving and processing incoming aural information in the comfortable, relaxed and stable manner (Bao & Guan, 2019; Vandergrift & Cross, 2018b) In the meanwhile, social strategies as cooperative listening technique will support learners to comprehend aural text as well as reduce negative emotions through the assistance of interlocutors (Bao & Guan, 2019; Vandergrift & Cross, 2018b)

As a direct foreign language learning strategy, cognitive listening strategies include mental activities which directly and strongly support second language learners to comprehend and store aural inputs in their working memory or long-term memory for retrieving them later (Richards, 2008) Applying these strategies, learners will actively monitor and manage their mental process as well as associate their prior knowledge with listening content for better comprehension (Bao & Guan, 2019) by using a variety of techniques including predicting/ inferencing, elaboration, contextualization, imagery, summarization, translation, repetition, other languages transfer, deduction and fixation (Lynch & Mendelsohn, 2020) As such, EFL/ ESL teacher frequently instructs learners to use various cognitive techniques and involves them in many listening tasks and exercises to practice and apply those techniques more and more skillfully for task achievements In doing so, learners will have more opportunities to utilize a set of cognitive listening techniques appropriately and efficiently in order to become skillful listeners

Strongly associated with cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies play an important role of supervisor which directs, coordinates and evaluates the mental activities on the macro level so that listening process occurs continuously and smoothly (Vandergrift & Cross, 2018a) Specifically, these indirect listening strategies include a range of techniques, namely planning, comprehension monitoring, directed attention, selective attention and evaluation, which strongly empower learners to plan, monitor and

15 evaluate listening process as well as resolve all problems within listening procedure Under the direction of metacognitive listening strategies, specific cognitive listening strategies will be deployed appropriately and logically so that listening comprehension is enhanced and maximized It means that cognitive listening strategies instruction should be not separated from the instruction of metacognitive listening strategies in the classroom (Vandergrift & Cross, 2018a) Accordingly, teacher should explicitly instruct learners to step-by-step follow the sequence of pedagogical steps for better listening comprehension as well as gradually ‘nurture’ their development of metacognitive listening awareness (Cross & Vandergrift, 2018; Vandergrift & Cross, 2018a) Additionally, teacher should encourage learners to ‘blend’ metacognitive listening strategies with cognitive listening strategies efficiently to accomplish assigned listening tasks skillfully and succeed in the real-life communication (Bao & Guan, 2019; Cross & Vandergrift, 2018; Vandergrift & Cross, 2018a)

As indirect foreign language learning strategy, socio-affective listening strategies are usually deployed in social contexts for interactive listening, which indirectly supports learners to achieve better listening comprehension (Malley & Chamot, 1990; Vandergrift

& Cross, 2018b) During listening skill development and social communication, there are affective variables influencing not only listening comprehension but also listening process As such, second language learners should skillfully utilize socio-affective listening strategies to manage feelings, motivation and attitude for better comprehension and interactions When encountering comprehension problems in communication, second language listeners should clarify their understandings, ask for slow-down or repetition in addition to show non-verbal signals, body language and culturally-bound cues in order to better process the contents of aural information, comprehend detonative and connotative meanings and respond appropriately later.

The positive effects of listening strategies instruction on learners’ listening comprehension

In first and second language learning, the listening skill does not simply involve the auditory information reception and process for listening comprehension It greatly contributes to the development not only of communicative competence but also the other language skills (speaking, reading and writing) and language areas (vocabulary, grammar

16 and pronunciation) of learners Given the importance of this skill, there has been studies examined the effects of listening strategies instruction on listening comprehension of learners in various contexts with the hope of enhancing their listening skill Following were some influential experimental studies in the domain of English language teaching and learning

In the late of 20 th century, as the pioneers in the domain of second language learning strategies, O’Malley et al (1985) conducted an influential two-phase study In the first phase, the group of researchers carried out a descriptive study in an attempt to investigate the range and type of learning strategies in nine language learning activities utilized by beginning and intermediate ESL learners learning at high school As such, these learning activities included pronunciation, spoken grammar drills, vocabulary acquisition, directions following, social and operational communication in real-life contexts, listening comprehension and oral presentation By deploying 53 class observations done by pairs of researchers, 22 individual interviews with 22 teachers and

19 group interviews with 70 beginning and intermediate ESL learners in three high schools, the researchers specified that learners used twenty types of learning strategies which were classified into 7 metacognitive, 11 cognitive, and 2 socio-affective learning strategies The application of learning strategies also varied depending on the language learning activities Specifically, learners deployed learning strategies more frequently for discrete language tasks than integrative language tasks The results of the first phase also showed that language learning strategy instruction for task achievement might be helpful for higher complex activities, which was the initial step for conducting the second phase

In the second phase, the researchers conducted an experimental study to examine whether second language learning strategies (metacognitive, cognitive, and socio- affective learning strategies) could be instructed successfully to ESL high school learners for task achievement in the language classroom Particularly, the researchers attempted to examine the effects of language learning strategies on language learning activities of listening and speaking The participants of the second phase were different from those of the first phase In this phase, there are 75 intermediate ESL learners from three high schools and coming from Spanish speaking countries, Asian countries and the other countries They were randomly assigned to one of three groups (two experimental groups and one control group) including the metacognitive group, the cognitive group and the

17 control group The cognitive group received the learning strategies instruction [as the treatment] of the cognitive (note-taking) and socio-affective learning strategies (cooperation), whereas the metacognitive group was guided with the same strategies of the cognitive group in addition to the instruction of using the metacognitive strategies (selective attention and functional planning) The control group obviously did not receive any instructions of learning strategies Listening and speaking tasks were the same in three groups The amount of instruction time the experimental groups received is fifty minutes per day during eight days The findings of this notable study showed that all experimental groups significantly outperformed the control group in listening and speaking task achievements It indicated that the training of using second language learning strategies strongly contributed to learners’ listening and speaking task achievements

Similarly, the positive effects of listening strategies instruction on high school learners’ listening comprehension were also proven through the notable studies of Carrier (2003) After identifying the lack of listening strategies instruction in the curriculum in addition to the increasing demands of communicative competence improvement and English language proficiency development of learners, Carrier (2003) conducted a small-scale study to test the hypothesis in order to determine whether listening strategies training strongly improved second language learners’ listening comprehension Based on the cognitive theory and listening strategy research, the author followed the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) model developed by O’Malley and Chamot (1994; as cited in Gu, 2018a) to support learners to achieve academic tasks in ESL classroom by enhancing their learning strategies as well as followed the Interactive - Constructivist model of listening skill to provide the balanced instruction including bottom-up and top-down listening instruction After receiving 15 training sessions (20-30 minutes/ session with 2-minute video segment/ session) within a period of six weeks, seven intermediate ESL learners (three females and four males) in a midwestern U.S rural high school improved their listening comprehension by fostering their discrete listening and note-taking abilities as well as their video listening performance

In the same century, besides high school learners, the researchers also examined the effects of listening instruction on listening comprehension among tertiary-level learners in the language classroom Of those studies, the research of Thompson and Rubin (1996) has importantly contributed to this domain until now Particularly, concerned about whether strategy-based instruction supported university learners to improve their listening skill, the researchers conducted an experimental study with total of 36 third-year students enrolled in a compulsory Russian language course at The George Washington University Learners of experimental group received 45 video segments (news reports, interviews and dramas) in equivalence to approximately

15 hours of strategy-based instruction, whereas the control group also received the same sequential videos in the same time periods, but without specific listening strategies training in their learning process More particularly, learners of experimental group were instructed to develop metacognitive listening strategies (planning, defining goals, monitoring and evaluating) and cognitive strategies (predicting content, listening to the known, listening for redundancies, listening to tone of voice and intonation and resourcing) The findings of this study pointed out the modest positive effects of listening strategies instruction in fostering listening comprehension of learners as well as in enhancing confidence of learners in listening to the authentic language (delivered through the native speakers through the authentic materials)

In fact, the success of EFL/ ESL learners in achieving listening comprehension in the language classroom as well as in the real-life contexts depends on many variables One of those factors is listening strategy usage of learners, which has been convincingly evidenced through the influential studies above Until recently, explicit instruction of listening strategies has been continuously proven to be a beneficial practice in enhancing listening comprehension specifically and in developing listening skill generally through the remarkable studies in the primary school (Goh & Taib, 2006), high school (Lee & Kang, 2021; Tsai, 2013) and university/ college (Cho, 2017; Fathi & Hamidizadeh, 2019; Ngo, 2019; Zhang, 2012) or in the English center/ institute (Bozorgian, 2012) Broadly, all learners (from beginning, intermediate to advanced level) will benefit from explicit listening strategies instruction, especially low-proficiency listeners (Milliner & Dimoski, 2021; Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010)

Hence, it is fundamental for learners to be aware of what listening strategies are, how to appropriately, flexibly and effectively utilize these strategies and why to deploy these strategies in the language classroom as well as in the real-life situations (Carrell, 1998; as cited in Graham, 2003, p 67) Notably, learners who received explicit listening strategies instruction frequently outperform (to varying extents) those who were not guided to employ various strategies for listening comprehension, which was usually measured through the results of pre- and post-test (frequently adopted listening session of high stakes tests such as TOEIC, TOEFL and IELTS)

Overall, depending on the learning needs and English proficiency level of learners as well as types of listening tasks and types of listening materials, EFL/ ESL teacher should systematically and explicitly instruct EFL/ ESL learners to deploy various listening strategies as well as give them more opportunities to practice and apply these strategies to simulated real-life contexts more frequently By actively involving in those activities, learners will be able to make great progress in enhancing their listening comprehension specifically and developing their listening skill generally

2.5 Previous studies on the correlation between listening anxiety and listening strategy use among EFL/ ESL learners

Similar to the foreign language classroom anxiety, the foreign language listening anxiety has also captivated the attention of the researchers and practitioners in English teaching and learning The level of listening anxiety among learners as well as the effectiveness and frequency of deploying various listening strategies for comprehension has been evaluated through many practical research instruments Additionally, the interrelationship of these variables has been investigated in many notable studies However, it seemed that the number of influential studies about these issues at the tertiary-level context seemed scarce until now Thus, the author would like to slightly extend the literature review to the senior high school context in order to enrich this section Accordingly, the notable findings of the influential quantitative and mixed- method studies in various contexts were discussed in details as follows

In the mixed-method study of Gửnen (2009), the relationship between listening anxiety and listening strategy usage among Turkish EFL learners in the School of Foreign Languages at Anadolu University was investigated in 2009 A total of sixty

20 tertiary participants with intermediate English proficiency level participated in responding two questionnaires simultaneously including twenty items of the FLLAS developed by Elkhafaifi (2005) and twenty items of the LCSI proposed by Gerỗek (2000, as cited in Gửnen, 2009) In doing so, Gửnen (2009) measured the level of listening anxiety and the frequency of listening strategies usage among learners Then, five low- anxiety learners and five high-anxiety ones were randomly selected to participate in the semi-structured interview for in-depth understanding of this matter In this interview, these learners were encouraged to answer the open-ended questions in order to share whether they were anxious during listening activities in the foreign language classroom, how they dealt with problems in listening to the acoustic inputs as well as whether they were aware of various listening strategies and how efficiently they deployed those strategies for their better comprehension

Conceptual framework of listening anxiety and listening strategies usage

Conceptual framework of listening anxiety

Besides describing listening anxiety of learners psychologically, cognitively, and behaviorally many researchers have attempted to measure the degree of learners’ listening anxiety in the language classroom One of the valid and reliable frameworks was the Foreign Language Listening Anxiety Scale (FLLAS) developed by Kim (2000, as cited in Kim, 2002, 2005; Kimura, 2008) The validity and reliability of this scale was persuasively proven in the work of Kim (2005) In this scale, Korean university learners’ listening anxiety was measured through a question pool of 33 items (Appendix 5) The process of constructing the scale was described as follows

According to Kim (2000; as cited in Kim, 2002; Kim, 2005), the validity (content and construct validity) and the reliability of this useful instrument was highly ensured for widely application (adaptation and adoption) because these issues were the priorities during the process of instrument development in this research First and foremost, this Korean researcher followed the instrument development and scale development guidelines advocated by the prominent pioneers in this field including Gable and Wolf

(1993) and DeVillis (2003) Before constructing a pool of question items, the researcher has already reviewed and synthesized previous literature related with listening comprehension, foreign language anxiety and listening anxiety Then, the researcher interviewed four Korean ESL learners who had four different levels of English proficiency in order to have the vivid descriptions of their listening anxiety and listening difficulties After that, the researcher supplemented the items pool by adapting the Receiver Apprehension Test proposed by Wheeless (1975) and the FLRAS developed by Saito et al (1999) Accordingly, the initial scale with the items pool of 41 questions was constructed based on the practical guidelines of the dominant scholars in this domain as well as the foundations of reviewing relevant literature, interview Korean ESL learners and adapting the Receiver Apprehension Test and the FLRAS In this initial scale, the question items were classified into four categories, namely Fear of spoken English, Process-related anxiety, Lack of self-confidence and Concern about insufficient prior knowledge After that, the author selected 5-point Likert Scale as a widely and useful scale for measuring the opinions, beliefs and attitudes of the responders

In the instrument development, it is obviously indispensable to implement the judgmental rating to get the insightful judgmental comments and feedbacks as the contributions of the other researchers and practitioners who are knowledgeable about this field That is the reason why Kim (2000; as cited in Kim, 2002; Kim, 2005) also deployed the judgmental rating in an attempt to maximize the content validity Specifically, five Ph.D students in Foreign Language Education who were erudite and cultivated about listening comprehension and second language anxiety participated in evaluating the clarity and conciseness of each question item and rating the appropriateness and relevance of the questions in the instrument Then, the preliminary question items were revised based on the insightful comments and practical recommendations provided by the panel members Next, this instrument was piloted with

30 a sample of thirty-six Korean ESL learners and their spouses who graduated from university or college After collecting the data, the scores of mean and variance were computed with assistance of the SPSS Accordingly, all items of the question items pool reaching either very high or very low means in addition to low variances were conscientiously reviewed and eradicated In the end, the final instrument measuring the level of listening anxiety of Korean university learners was enhanced and accomplished with a pool of 33 question items designed in 5-point Likert scale (reduced by 8 items as compared to the initial version) The Cronbach alpha coefficient of the final instrument reached at 93, which indicated that this scale gained the high level of the internal consistency reliability Besides the content validity, the construct validity of this instrument was cogently proven by examining the correlations between this instrument with the other ones including the Trait Anxiety Scale, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and the FLRAS

Overall, the validity and reliability of the FLLAS was persuasively proven in the article of Kim (2005) Hence, as the valid and reliable instrument, it has been widely adapted and adopted in many notable studies in various contexts such as in Japan (Kimura, 2008), in Korea (Kim, 2011), in China (Lili, 2015; Wang, 2010), in Iran (Golchi, 2012; Serraj & Noordin, 2013) and in Turkey (Kiliỗ, 2007) Therefore, the author adopted this practical scale into the current study to measure the level of listening anxiety among non-English major freshmen.

Conceptual framework of listening strategies usage

In fact, listening strategies has long been an intriguing issue that has captivated much attention of researchers and educators in English language teaching and learning Some key aspects they concerned are which strategies learners deploy and how often they utilize them for their comprehension One of noteworthy studies that shed light on these issues was the work of Kassem (2015) who proposed the Listening Strategy Usage Questionnaire (LSUQ) who investigated which strategies and the frequency of various strategies the tertiary level learners deployed for comprehension in the classroom

Rated in 5-point Likert scale, this conceptual framework was constructed based on the relevant questionnaires of influential scholars Particularly, the questionnaire of Kassem (2015, p 166) comprised a pool of 39 items categorized into three parts

31 including listening cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective strategies (Appendix 4) that was aligned with the listening strategies categories synthesized by Lynch and Mendelsohn (2020, p 230) In addition, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of this scale was calculated at 92 (Kassem, 2015, p 157), which indicated that the reliability of this scale reached at the high level of consistency Generally, this questionnaire should be considered as a good framework that could be applied in various contexts

Overall, the validity and reliability of the LSUQ was convincingly proven Hence, the author adapted this framework to investigate the listening strategies usage among non-English major freshmen The only change in this adapted questionnaire was the order of the question items, which were rearranged and classified into three parts (instead of unarranged items in the original version) Meanwhile, the contents of these items were definitely unchanged.

Chapter summary

Briefly, this chapter synthesized the key literature and previous notable studies in various contexts, which meaningfully provided the relevant theories, conceptual frameworks and main findings from the notable studies In doing so, the comprehensive picture of listening anxiety in relation to listening strategies usage among learners was depicted globally and locally to highlight the ‘missing piece’ in Vietnamese tertiary language education Fruitfully, all updated valuable literature was the fundamental foundation of designing this research, which will be presented in the next chapter

Chapter introduction

This chapter describes the research site and participants of this study In addition, it presents the research design, data collection instruments and research procedure of this paper Then, the methods of improving the validity and reliability of the data collection instruments as well as the feasibility of these instruments examined through the pilot are also found in this chapter Besides, the methods of data analysis and results interpretation were provided as the foundation for presenting the main findings in the next chapter.

Research design

In this study, the mixed method was applied to collect the quantitative data and qualitative data According to Creswell (2012) and Cohen et al (2018), this method is a good option for the scholars to carry out in the educational research to gain the in-depth insights into the concerned issues Indeed, the mixed method as the combination of the quantitative method and qualitative method can counteract the weaknesses of separated method (Creswell, 2012, pp 534-537) Particularly, the quantitative method usefully assists the researcher to collect a great number of participants’ responses (as quantitative data), whereas the qualitative method helpfully supports the researcher to gain more insights of the research subjects (as qualitative data)

Additionally, this paper was designed as a correlational study with the explanatory design Compared to an experimental study in which the researcher manipulates (controls) the variable(s) through a certain treatment (intervention), a non- experimental study (descriptive and correlational research) allows the researcher to play a role of an investigator Accordingly, the researcher attempts to describe or investigate a crucial phenomenon in a certain context by identifying and observing the variables, collecting the relevant and rich data, analyzing collected data, interpreting the results and then providing the findings in the document (Cohen et al., 2018; Creswell, 2012) The correlational study as the non-experimental research is often applied correlational deigns which provides the researcher a chance to investigate at least two variables by describing and measuring the magnitude and tendency of the association between two variables (or

33 more) through the statistical analysis (Creswell, 2012) In the correlational designs, there are two types: the explanatory design and the prediction design According to Creswell

(2012) and Bhandari (2021b), the researcher applies an explanatory design in order to investigate how two variables (or more) co-vary through the correlation analysis Meanwhile, the researcher intends to anticipate (predict) the outcomes (changes) of the criterion variable through the changes (increase/ decrease) of the predictor variable(s) through the regression analysis by applying a prediction design in the correlational study.

Research site and participants

Research site

This study was conducted in the second semester of academic year 2022-2023 at a certain international institute located in Ho Chi Minh city Established since 2008, this institute has consistently aimed to achieve the regional and global academic standards and have a vision of becoming one of the leading international institutes in Vietnam by

2035 with five core values, namely the unity, integration, dynamism, intellect and responsibility Besides, the institute’s missions are to provide the international-standard learning experience including the effective pedagogical methodologies, innovative learning curriculum and modern facilities In an attempt to accomplish these missions, this institute has always made great efforts to empower all learners as the future generations to become the national high-quality human resources with excellent knowledge, outstanding competences and positive attitudes in the hope that they will make great contributions to national developments as well as quickly adapt to the rapid changing world in the near future.

Participants

At the time of research, there were over 600 freshmen (as the population) majoring at various majors, namely Business Administration, Economic Law, Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Accountant, Hospitality Management, Information Technology and Automotive Engineering Technology Accordingly, a total of 192 Vietnamese non-English major freshmen (as the participants), at the age of 18-19 and with various majors, were conveniently selected to participate in the present study, accounting 32% of the population (Table 3.1)

Then, based on the mean and standard deviation of listening anxiety, the participants were classified into low, moderate and high anxious listeners By using stratified random sampling, only high and low anxious listeners were homogeneously and randomly selected to participate in the focus group interview The number of the interviewees per group were five learners, according to the guidelines of Morgan (1998; as cited in Cohen et al., 2018, p 533) In accordance with the saturated point, the number of the interview groups were one group of low-anxiety listeners and one group of high- anxiety ones, which was equivalent to a total of ten interviewees, accounting 17% of total of high and low anxious listeners

Before getting involved in the major subjects, all freshmen enrolled in the general English programme placed in the first two years of all majors By taking the placement test at the beginning of the first semester (of the first year), all learners were appropriately placed into the six-level language classes that were suitable with their English language proficiency levels This language programme would be the incremental foundation for learning major subjects facilitated by English [as the medium of instruction] from the third year on The syllabus implemented in this programme was an international integrated course book named Empower (1 st edition) composed by Doff et al (2016) and broadly published by Cambridge University Press Aligned with CEFR assessment, this renowned course book provided a wide range of themes to empower learners to develop language areas (vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation) and language skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking) Accordingly, learners were exposed to contextualized language to clearly understand the meaning, form and use of language in real-life contexts They were also engaged and motivated to accomplish a wide variety of individual and cooperative tasks in order to joyfully practice and creatively apply new learnt knowledge and skills Overall, they were oriented to fully develop their English language proficiency in the rapid globalization

Characteristics No of participants Proportion Gender

Logistics and Supply Chain Management 16 8%

In educational and social research, it is crucial to determine the sample size of the study because it directly impacts the validity and reliability of study as well as the findings of the study Generally, depending many different factors, the sample size of the study is varied (Cohen et al., 2018; Creswell, 2012) Actually, it is difficult for the researcher to choose the perfect sample because the researcher can never be sure that the sample is “perfectly representative of the population” (Fraenkel et al., 2012, p 102) Hence, the discipline is that the more the sample is selected, the more the findings are persuasive Notably, the general accepted minimum size for quantitative data is thirty participants (Cohen et al., 2018, p 203), whereas the sample size for qualitative data can vary from one to twenty (Fraenkel et al., 2012, p 103) or until the researcher reaches at the saturated point (Cohen et al., 2018)

In this small-scale study, the sample size [for the quantitative data collection] was

192 learners, which fully met the criterion (at least 187 participants in accordance with the population of 600 learners with the confidence level of 90% and confidence interval of 5%) recommended by Cohen et al (2018, p 206) Meanwhile, the number of the interviewees [for the qualitative data collection] was ten learners Consequently, based on the guidelines above, the sample size in this paper was reasonable

Research procedure

In general, there were three main stages of conducting this mixed-methods study, in accordance with two phases of collecting the data (Appendix 2) The first stage was the preparation of carrying out the research Then, the second stage was related to the administration of the research instruments including the online questionnaire in the first phase and the face-to-face interview in the second phase Data analysis and interpretation was also included in this stage The final stage was the findings report and evaluation In this stage, the main findings were meaningfully discussed to provide the pedagogical implications, limitations and further research

In the preparation stage, the starting point was to identify the research gap in the mainstream of listening anxiety research in Vietnamese context Then, the construction of the research instruments as the fundamental issue was conscientiously developed because of its salient contributions to the richness of collected data Accordingly, the questionnaire collecting the quantitative data was constructed by adapting the LSUQ developed by Kassem (2015) and adopting the FLLAS proposed by Kim (Kim, 2000; as cited in Kim, 2005) Because these original scales were developed in English, the translation was carried out [by the author] to construct the Vietnamese questionnaire that would avoid any misunderstandings due to the language barrier The back-translation technique was also used to enhance the validity and reliability of the translated questionnaire as well as minimize the bias of the author with the supports of two lecturers (one PhD student and one Master lecturer) who were not involved in this study The bilingual questionnaire was then piloted online through Google Form and offline through the paper-and-pencil questionnaire to observe the behavioral patterns of the learners as well as evaluate the feasibility, validity and reliability of the questionnaire

Meanwhile, the interview protocols were designed in Vietnamese with open- ended questions to further explore the significant differences in various listening strategies usage between high and low anxious listeners The main points of the interview questions were the how-and-when issues which was uneasily designed in the close-ended questionnaire administered online in the first phase Then, the interview protocols were also piloted face-to-face to evaluate the feasibility and validity as well as reliability of the question items In doing so, the author had more chances to ensure the trustworthiness of the interview protocols

Besides, the classification of low, moderate and high anxious listeners was carried out with an assistance with SPSS 26 th version In descriptive analysis of the FLLAS, the important indicators including mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) were computed As such, high-anxiety learners were those having the figure of M higher than the figure of M adding SD (M + 1 SD) of the sample, whereas low-anxiety learners were those having the figure of M lower than the figure of M deducing SD (M – 1 SD) of the sample (Figure 3.1) After identifying the number of high- and low- anxiety learners, those learners were invited randomly in homogenous groups to participate in the focus group interview until the saturated points (no new learners’ insights are produced further even when adding new data) was reached (Cohen et al., 2018; Creswell, 2012)

In the next stage, on the acceptance of conducting this study at a certain institute, the quantitative data was collected through the online bilingual questionnaire in the first phase, whereas the qualitative data was then gathered in the second phase through the face-to-face semi-structured interview after the preliminary analysis which stratified all participants into low, moderate and high anxious listeners [as mentioned in the previous stage] The consent form was also delivered in this stage Then, the quantitative data was statistically analyzed with an assistance of SPSS Notably, the results of the correlational analysis was interpreted according to the guidance of Evans (1996, as cited in Institute for Statistics and Mathematics, nd) After that, the qualitative data was thematically analyzed to gain more insight into the significant differences in utilizing various listening strategies between high and low anxious listeners

Finally, the results of this correlational research were reported in APA 7 th style and master thesis format The main findings were then critically evaluated and discussed in order to provide theoretical and practical implications The limitations and further research were also presented in this final stage.

Data collection instruments

Questionnaires

Survey research designs are widely deployed in the educational quantitative research (Creswell, 2012, p 376) In these designs, Creswell (2012, p 377) recommended that a cross-sectional study can examine the “current attitudes, beliefs, opinions or practices” at one point in the specific time Hence, by applying cross- sectional survey design, the author had more chances to collect the learners’ opinions towards listening anxiety they encounter in relation to their practices of deploying various listening strategies for comprehension Accordingly, the online bilingual questionnaire (Vietnamese and English) was carried out on Google form to collect quantitative data in an attempt to address the research question 1

Overall, there were three main sections in this questionnaire besides the introduction and instructions As the best practice, the introduction and instructions should be designed at the beginning of the survey They officially and clearly informed the purposes and necessities of this study to learners as well as clearly instructed learners to respond precisely and properly to the questionnaire After that, the following was the main sections including the question items of demographic information, listening strategy usage and listening anxiety

As usual, the first section named demographic information assisted the author to collect the personal information of learners such as full name (optional), age, gender, major and personal contacts As the best practice, the participants’ full names (identities) were confidential and encoded in the current study (for example, P1, P2, … Pn) instead of giving the true names of learners Personal contacts of the participants were used to make appointments for the interview in the second phase

Then, the second section named listening strategy usage allowed to investigate which kinds of listening strategy learners deployed for comprehension as well as the frequency of deploying those strategies Rated in the 5-point Likert scale from 1 (Never) to 5 (Always), listening strategies usage of learners was investigated through 39 question items which were categorized into three parts including listening cognitive (18 items), metacognitive (18 items) and socio-affective strategies (3 items) These question items were adapted the work of Kassem (2015) which was constructed by various researchers (Kassem, 2015, p 157) As mentioned earlier in the section of conceptual frameworks, the only change in this adapted questionnaire was the order of the question items In other words, compared to the original questionnaire, the order of 39 question items in the present study was conscientiously rearranged and classified into three parts (instead of unarranged items in the original version) This adaption helped the learners to quickly respond the question items in the logical order Meanwhile, the contents of these items were definitely unchanged

Finally, the third section named listening anxiety enabled the author to measure the degree of listening anxiety among learners in developing their listening skill in the language classroom through the FFLAS Applied the 5-point Likert scale, from

1 (Strongly disagree to 5 (Strongly agree), this section with 33 question items was adopted the FLLAS proposed in the study of Kim (2000; as cited in Kim, 2005)

Accordingly, the combination of simultaneously administering the FFLAS and LSUQ enabled the author to investigate the correlation between listening anxiety and listening strategy usage among learners The magnitude and direction of the correlation were revealed through the correlational analysis by calculating and interpreting the Pearson correlation coefficient, whereas the significant differences in deploying various listening strategies between high and low anxious listeners were also highlighted through Independent Sample t-test performed in the next chapter

Semi-structured interview

Focus group interview is a form of the interview in which a group of interviewees having similar characteristics (strata) are invited to share their perceptions, attitudes and/or experiences towards the research issue, meanwhile, the researcher plays a role of the moderator facilitating and eliciting the discussions and interactions (such as body language and gestures) within the interviewees with the planned interview schedules (question items) Then, the researcher emerges all received information (of a group) to draw to the consensus data and outcomes (Smithson, 2000; Hydén and Bülow, 2003; as cited in Cohen et al., 2018, p 532) The interview progress is repeatedly conducted with the other groups until the saturated point is reached By doing that, the researcher will be able to highlight the significant differences among the groups who have different strata Compared to one-to-one interview, focus group interview usefully supports the researcher to quickly identify the significances among the stratified interviewees as well as to collect rich data from a large number of the interviewees

In addition, the size of each group in focus group interviews should be considered because of its direct contribution to the success of the interview As such, the number of the interviewees per group should be not too small or too large (Cohen et al., 2018, p

533) In case it is too small, that will cause a disproportionate effect Conversely, if it is too large, that will cause a disproportionate effect in the interview Apparently, all two cases drive to collect poor data so that the insight of the issue will not be spotlighted Hence, the current study should follow the helpful recommendations of the prominent scholars in this field Accordingly, the size of each group [in the focus group interview] should be ranged from four to twelve interviewees (Morgan, 1998; as cited in Cohen et al., 2018, p 533), or from five to eight participants (Krueger & Casey, 2015)

In this study, after administering the online questionnaire in the first phase, the author carried out the semi-structured interviews with a set of open-ended questions in the second phase of this study In doing so, the author had more opportunities to gain more insight into the significant differences between high and low anxious listeners in deploying various strategies, which supportively addressed research question 2 As such, one group of high-anxiety listeners and one group of low-anxiety listeners with five interviewees per group were scheduled and moderated separately in the recorded face-to- face interviews (with the allowances of the interviewees) at a comfortable, friendly and

41 quiet place The progress of the focus group interviews was followed the practical interview protocols recommended by Krueger and Casey (2015) and demonstrated by Krueger (2015), which comprises of the important issues related to before, during and after the interview

In the interview, the interviewees should be clearly informed again the purposes and necessities of this study through the statements and consent form, and then engaged in the discussion with the interview schedule (Appendix 7a and 7b) Accordingly, based on the given questionnaire and conceptual framework of listening strategies, some key concerns concentrated more on how skillfully and effectively listeners deployed various listening strategies were explored further, which were challenging to investigate with the close-ended questions in the online questionnaire in the first phase In essence, the author tried to encourage all interviewees to openly share their insights and provide their reflections on the research issue through 11 question items By doing that, the author had more opportunities to collect the rich data in an attempt to highlight the significant differences between high- and low-anxiety listeners in using various listening strategies for better comprehension in the language classroom, which additionally contributed to address research question 2.

Validity and reliability of research instruments

Validity and reliability of the questionnaire

Generally, the questionnaire is frequently more economical than the interview in terms of money and time; however, the probability of the response rate may be low, that really affects the process of the study (Cohen et al., 2018, p 278) The other important things are the issues related to the responders (learners) such as they may not understand clearly or may misunderstand the question items or answer the questions dishonestly In order to resolve those difficulties, some practical techniques can be applied in the research Good technique for encouraging the respondents to ‘open up’ and answer their unique thoughts or statuses is making the field of full name optional (Cohen et al., 2018, p 278) Indeed, by answering anonymously, the shy or low-esteem learners can be engaged and encouraged to reflect their difficulties in listening comprehension during developing their listening skill

Additionally, the significance of the study should be emphasized so that the participants know that why they are encouraged to do this survey (Hudson & Miller,

1997, as cited in Cohen et al., 2018, p 278) As such, the purposes and necessities of the study should be clearly stated in the instruction section [located at the beginning of the questionnaire] so that learners are aware of the importance of their precise and honest responses at the first sight Also, they should be conscious that there are not true or false answers in the survey and all their responses will not affect their learning results The important thing they need to keep in mind is to reflect their current statuses (their listening anxiety and listening strategy usage) accurately, truly and completely

Besides, in an attempt to have the well-structure and attractive questionnaire with rich-and-relevant question items, practical steps in the process of constructing and developing the survey should be followed, then drafted and revised many times Besides that, the ideal strategy which is applied similarly in the interview for ensuring the validity and reliability is making the pilot so that all aspects of the questionnaire can be rectified better By considering aforementioned aspects, the face validity, content validity and construct validity of the questionnaire can be validated (Cohen et al., 2018; Creswell, 2012)

Moreover, the internal consistency should be calculated to examine the interrelation so that the reliability of the questionnaire can be warranted One useful way to consider this issue is to use Cronbach’s alpha which is referred as alpha coefficient of

43 reliability because it is a practical measure of the internal consistency among the items and frequently used for multi-item scales (Cohen et al., 2018, p 774; Creswell, 2012, pp 161-162; Fraenkel et al., 2012, pp 157-158) As such, the Cronbach’s alpha is easily calculated in assistance of SPSS 26 th version and if the alpha coefficient is yield at least 70, the reliability level is considered as acceptable (Cohen et al., 2018, p 774)

As mentioned earlier, the author adopted FFLAS proposed by Kim (2000; as cited in Kim, 2005; Kimura, 2008) and adapted LSUQ in the notable work of Kassem

(2015) into the current study In terms of the face validity, content validity and construct validity of the questionnaire, the author followed all the guidelines aforementioned to ensure both FFLAS and LSUQ were validated Regarding the internal consistency of the questionnaire, the Cronbach’s alpha of the FFLAS and LSUQ were examined and reached at 93 (Kim, 2005) and 92 (Kassem, 2015) respectively, which indicated that the original scales reached at the high level of consistency In this correlational study, the Cronbach’s alpha of the FFLAS and LSUQ were computed [in SPSS 26 th version] and stayed at 77 and 82 respectively, which demonstrated the scales reached at the acceptable level of consistency (Cohen et al., 2018; Creswell, 2012) Overall, the face validity, content validity and construct validity and internal consistency of the FFLAS and LSUQ were warranted, which hopefully enabled the author to collect rich-and- relevant data in this study.

Validity and reliability of the semi-structured interview

Some critical threats influencing the validity and reliability of the interview in the current study include the researcher’s bias, the leading questions and the structure and content of the interview (Cohen et al., 2018) In an attempt to minimize these threats as much as possible, the researcher should have positive attitude, opinion and appropriate expectations toward the results of the interview For instance, the researcher may have the tendency for finding the answers which will support the preconceived notions or theory Surely, this ‘wrong’ tendency will affect the validity of the study In terms of the leading questions, they should not make assumptions about the interviewees, otherwise all those questions will put words into the interviewees’ mouth It means that any hints of the responses should not be given Regarding the structure and content of the question items in the interview, these issues should be followed the practical steps, then drafted

44 and revised many times based on the helpful checklist so that the interview should be constructed with highly structure with the “same format and sequence words and questions for each respondent” (Silverman, 1993; as cited in Cohen et al., 2018, p 273)

Additionally, it is essential for all the interviewees (learners) to entirely understand all question items of the interview in the same way In other words, the questions should be clear and unambiguous Besides that, the interview should be designed with the open-ended questions so that the researcher can view the uniqueness of the respondents’ worldview Moreover, the spoken language in the interviews should be Vietnamese as the mother tongue to eliminate the language barrier Also, the interviews should be recorded in a quiet and comfortable place so that the learners can be willing to share their own ideas and thoughts as well as the interview can not be interrupted by the other people More importantly, as Silverman (1993, as cited in Cohen et al., 2018, p 273) recommended that the ideal way for increasing the validity and reliability of the interview is making the pilot for the question items of the interview

Indeed, the validity and reliability of the interview were fundamental issues in the research Hence, the author followed all the interview protocols recommended above to guarantee the validity and reliability of the semi-structured interviews carried out in the second phase of data collection In doing so, the author was able to enrich the qualitative data as the supplemental information in order to gain more insight into the significant differences in utilizing various strategies between high and low anxious listeners.

Pilots of the questionnaires and interview

Obviously, it is better to pilot the questionnaire and interview to collect rich, useful and relevant information as well as to avoid unexpected mistakes or errors before officially conducting the research (Cohen et al., 2018, p 496; Creswell, 2012, p 390) The pilot also enables the researcher to estimate the feasibility of the research instruments Besides, in an attempt to avoid the misunderstanding and ambiguity, all instructions and question items of the instruments should be equivalently translated into the first language of the learners The clarity and transparence of the question items must be ensured to collect rich and relevant data In other words, the poorly worded questions, unappropriated, irrelevant, redundant and/or ambiguous questions should be eliminated The questions which are too easy, too difficult and too complex should be removed The

45 question items with clear instructions should be categorized and displayed logically and friendly to motivate the participants engage in responding the questions Besides that, the pilot should examine the readability levels of participants so that the comprehension of the items is evaluated One more thing should be considered is the time for completing the questionnaires If the time taken to complete those question items is too long, the researcher should reconstruct the items In general, everything related to questionnaire and interview, especially the feasibility, response rate and the survey length in this study was piloted with learners who had similar characteristics of the participants, but not involved in this study so that all aspects of these instruments can be amended and reinforced effectively before official administration

In this study, the questionnaire was piloted online through Google Form with ten learners and piloted offline through the paper-and-pencil questionnaire with two learners Meanwhile, the interview was then piloted face-to-face with seven learners in the quiet and comfortable place As non-English major freshmen, all these learners with similar charateristics of the participants were not involved in this study In doing so, the validity, reliability, content, surface as well as appropriateness and comprehension of the question items, especially the feasibility, response rate (≈ 30%) and the survey length (20 minutes for the questionnaire and 45 minutes for the interview) were examined in the pilot The author also gained the helpful feedbacks of the learners in this pilot After the pilot, the contents of the question items were conscientiously amended (with assistance of the instructor) to be more succinct, precise and appropriate with Vietnamese writing style The number of the interviewees were also reduced by two learners for better moderation and shorter period of time (30 minutes) Overall, the key aspects of the research instruments were considered before the official administration.

Data analysis

Analysis of quantitative data

Overall, there were several steps in the process of data analysis At first, the raw quantitative data should be conscientiously filtered so that invalid responses were excluded from the database The valid data was inputted in SPSS 26 th version for the data grid construction and statistical analysis Next, some question items of the FLLAS and LSUQ were reservedly coded The full names of the participants were coded from

P1, P2, … P192 instead of using their true name (for participant confidentiality) and the majors were also coded from 1 to 7 rather than using the textual information After that, the quantitative data was statistically analyzed with the assistance of SPSS including descriptive, correlational and inferential analysis (Independent Sample t-test) in order to address research question 1 and partially research question 2

Accordingly, descriptive analysis enabled to depict the comprehensive picture of listening anxiety and listening strategies usage among learners through the central tendency through the mean score (M), the spread of the scores (the variability) through standard deviation (SD), the minimum score (Min) and maximum score (Max) The results were interpreted through the data interval of 5-point Likert scale (Table 3.3) Descriptive analysis also supported to stratify the learners into high and low anxious listeners who participated in the focus group interview in second phase (Figure 3.1) As such, low-anxiety listeners were those who have the score of listening anxiety ranging from the Minimum score (Min) to the point of deduction between the mean score and one unit of standard deviation (M – 1 SD), whereas high-anxiety ones were those who have the score of listening anxiety lying from the point of addition between mean score and one unit of standard deviation (M + 1 SD) to the maximum score (Max)

Classification of anxiety level among the participants

Low-anxiety listeners Moderate-anxiety listeners High-anxiety listeners

Data interpretation based on 5-point Likert scale interval

The frequency of listening strategies

The level of listening anxiety

Meanwhile, correlational analysis allowed to investigate the linear correlation of these two variables One of the most common correlational analysis is Pearson Product- Moment Correlation (shorter called Pearson correlation, represented with the symbol r)

(Cohen et al., 2018, p 765) As such, the correlation coefficient (r) revealed the magnitude and direction of the linear correlation between the variables The result of correlational analysis in this study was interpreted in the general guidelines noted by Cohen et al (2018) and specific interpretation suggested by Evans (1996, as cited in Institute for Statistics and Mathematics, nd)

Generally, ranging from -1 to +1, the correlation coefficient (r) indicates positive correlation between two variables (r > 0), or negative correlation between two variables (r < 0) or no correlation between two variables (r = 0) It means that there is perfect positive correlation, perfect negative correlation or perfect no correlation between two variables when the correlation coefficient (r) is equal to +1 or -1 or 0 respectively (Cohen et al., 2018, p 767) Importantly, positive correlation indicates that increasing one variable will lead to the increase of the other one, whereas negative correlation informs that raising one variable will drive to the decrease of the other one Thus, the correlation coefficient is considered as a predictable indicator which allows the researcher to anticipate the degree of change of one variable accompanied by the degree of change of the other variable Specifically, Table 3.4 as below illustrated the benchmark measuring the strength of the relationship through the value of absolute magnitude of correlation coefficient (│ r │) suggested by Evans (1996, as cited in Institute for Statistics and Mathematics, nd)

Benchmark of the strength of correlation

Range value of absolute magnitude of correlation coefficient

0 < │ r │ < 2 Very weak 2 ≤ │ r │ < 4 Weak 4 ≤ │ r │ < 6 Moderate 6 ≤ │ r │ < 8 Strong

Note: Adapted from “Automated interpretation of indices of effect size” by Institute for Statistics and Mathematics, accessed at https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/effectsize/vignettes/interpret.html

Additionally, Independent Sample t-test allowed to statistically examine whether there was significant difference in deploying various listening strategies between high and low anxious listeners The results of this analysis were interpreted according to the guidelines of Hoang and Chu (2008) Generally, there are two tests in this examination, namely Levene’ test for equality of variances and t-test for equality of means

At first, the Sig value in Levene’ test should be evaluated for equality of variances In case this value is less than 05 (Sig < 05), the results of Sig t-test in the row of ‘Equal variances not assumed’ were used However, in case this figure is more than or equal to 05 (Sig ≥ 05), the results of Sig t-test in the row of ‘Equal variances assumed’ were used

Next, the value of Sig t-test (p-value) should be compared with 05 Particularly, if p-value is less than 05 (p < 05), it can thus be concluded that there is statistically significant difference between these two groups (high and low anxious listeners) Conversely, in case p-value is equal or more than 05 (p ≥ 05), it can thus be drawn that there is not statistically significant difference between these two groups In case that there is statistically significant difference between high- and low-anxiety listeners, it is fundamental to figure out more details about which and how listening category (metacognitive, cognitive and socio-affective listening strategies) of this group is significantly different with the another one Thus, Independent Samples t-test should be

49 carried out once again in details to gain more insights of the detailed differences in deploying each listening category between high and low anxious listeners

Besides that, the figures illustration, as the best practice of educational research, should be displayed in the table [in APA format] and visually illustrated with the charts such as bar chart, line chart and scatterplot diagram Indeed, it was essential to visualize the data through table and chart because they effectively illustrated the central trends of the phenomenon, the relationship between the variables of the study as well as the value spread of certain variable of the study By doing so, the author hopefully supported the readers and stakeholders to comprehend the research issue more easily and efficiently.

Analysis of qualitative data

Overall, the qualitative data collected through the interviews was organized, transcribed, categorized, synthesized and thematically analyzed to additionally address research question 2 Particularly, the interview recordings were transcribed (convert from aural data to textual data) and then organized into the database Later, the transcriptions were conscientiously translated from Vietnamese into English in Microsoft Office Word, which was then double-checked by the colleague of the author before data analysis to ensure the accuracy of transcriptions, minimize the research bias as well as to validate the main findings of the study

The themes of the qualitative data analysis were cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective listening strategies, which were coded (Table 3.5) and aligned with the LSUQ proposed by Kassem (2015) and the categories of listening strategies synthesized by Lynch and Mendelsohn (2020) After that, the qualitative data was thematically analyzed with the support of QDA Miner Lite 2 nd version In doing so, the significant differences in deploying various listening strategies between high and low anxious listeners were highlighted, which additionally address research question 2

Themes and sub-themes in qualitative data analysis

Translation Incoming information prediction Metacognitive strategies Advance planning

Selective attention Comprehension confirmation Socio-affective strategies Cooperation

Chapter summary

Overall, according to the conceptual frameworks given in the previous chapter, the research design and research instruments were presented in this chapter so that they enabled to collect the rich data appropriately and efficiently As such, the approaches of collecting quantitative and qualitative data were systematically described to explain how to gather the data The methods of improving the validity and reliability of the research instruments were given as well as the feasibility of administering these instruments was examined in the pilot The process of data analysis was described vividly to illustrate how to process, analyzed and interpreted the collected data In general, this chapter was fundamental to present the results, findings and discussion in next chapter

CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Chapter introduction

In this chapter, the results of data analysis were displayed comprehensively and in detail Systematically, the quantitative data collected through the online questionnaire is statistically computed, whereas the qualitative data gathered through the face-to-face interview is thematically analyzed As a result, the findings of this correlational study are suggested to address the research questions The discussion is then provided to ‘put the missing piece’ into the holistic picture to gain more insights into this phenomenon.

The holistic picture of listening anxiety and listening strategies usage among non-English major freshmen

Firstly, it was fundamental to depict the holistic picture of listening strategies usage and listening anxiety level among non-English major freshmen for general understanding Thus, the indicators of descriptive analysis including the values of mean (M), standard deviation (SD), minimum and maximum should be calculated As can be seen from Table 4.1, the mean value of learners’ listening strategies usage (M = 3.27) was lightly lower than their listening anxiety (M = 3.41) Likewise, the minimum and maximum value of listening strategies was also less than the figures of listening anxiety The results also indicated that learners sometimes deployed listening strategies and their degree of listening anxiety was at the high level (Table 3.3)

Descriptive statistic of listening strategy usage and listening anxiety among learners

Then, it was necessary to consider the patterns of listening strategies usage and listening anxiety level classified by the characteristics of the learners including their genders and majors Exploring these patterns played the contributive roles in completing the holistic picture of the concerned issues Accordingly, Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2 displayed the comparison of male and female learners and of those majoring in different majors respectively in terms of their listening strategies usage in correspondence with their listening anxiety levels Overall, male and female learners sometimes deployed listening strategies usage (Figure 4.1 and Table 3.3) Notably, the usage of listening strategies and the level of listening anxiety among male learners was less than female ones (Figure 4.1) More particularly, the level of listening anxiety male freshmen experienced (M = 3.41) slightly less than the female figure (M = 3.43), whereas, the clearer difference in using listening strategies among male learners (M = 3.23) was found as compared to female peers (M = 3.31)

Meanwhile, the differences in listening strategies usage and listening anxiety level were found much clearer among the majors (Figure 4.2) Specifically, freshmen majoring at Logistics and Supply Chain Management used listening strategies the most (M = 3.49) and experienced listening anxiety the least (M = 3.25), whereas Automotive Engineering Technology peers deployed various strategies the least (M = 3.05) and struggled with listening anxiety the most (M = 3.52) among the seven majors The results also yielded that learners of Logistics and Supply Chain Management were those deploying listening strategies (quite) frequently (M = 3.49), as compared to the others sometimes utilizing these strategies for comprehension (Figure 4.2 and Table 3.3) With respect to the level of listening anxiety, learners majoring at Economic Law (M = 3.45), Accounting (M = 3.47) and Automotive Engineering Technology (M = 3.52) were those experienced this affective factor at the (mildly) high level In the meantime, the rest of the seven majors encountered anxiety at the moderate level (Figure 4.2 and Table 3.3)

Patterns of listening strategy usage and listening anxiety by gender

Patterns of listening strategy usage and listening anxiety by major

Last but not least, it is essential to classify all learners into different levels of listening anxiety as the premise for addressing research question 2 As such, listeners should be categorized into high-, moderate- and low-anxiety listeners Table 4.2 displayed the number and proportion of learners in accordance with each listening anxiety level Accordingly, the majority of learners were moderate-anxiety listeners, accounting for 69% of total learners The percentage of low-anxiety listeners was 17%, corresponding with 32 learners, which was slightly higher than the proportion of high- anxiety ones staying at 14%, in equivalence with 26 learners

Classification of listeners in terms of listening anxiety level

The correlation between listening strategies usage and listening anxiety among non-English major freshmen

As mentioned earlier, the first aim of the current study was to investigate whether there was any correlation between listening strategies usage and listening anxiety among non-English major freshmen In alignment with this aim, research question 1 was given [in chapter one] and the online questionnaire as the research instrument was constructed [in chapter three] to collect the rich data Consequently, listening strategy usage and listening anxiety level among non-English major freshmen were gathered as the quantitative data The correlation between these two variables was computed with the assistance of SPSS 26 th version to compute the Pearson correlation coefficient r [as mentioned in chapter three] The results of this correlational analysis were displayed in Table 4.3 as below

The correlation between listening strategies and listening anxiety

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Statistically, the figures in Table 4.3 yielded that these two variables were significantly negatively correlated with each other (r = -.46, p < 01) at the moderate level It indicated that listening strategies usage of learners was negatively correlated with their listening anxiety at the moderate level (Table 3.4) As a result, when the level of listening anxiety among learners increased, their listening strategies usage would decrease and vice versa For better understanding, the correlation between these two variables was illustrated visually in the scatterplot in Figure 4.3 as below

The correlation between listening strategies and listening anxiety among learners

Visually, there was a linear correlation between listening strategies usage (on X- axis) and listening anxiety (on Y-axis) among learners (Figure 4.3) As such, there were two key information as illustrated through the dots on the scatterplot: the strength and direction of the association between these variables At first, looking at the direction of the correlation, the trend line drawn straightly from top left to bottom right on the scatterplot displayed the negative relationship of these two variables It means that this result confirmed the figures in Table 4.3, which showed that listening strategies usage of learners was negatively correlated with their listening anxiety Then, the magnitude of the correlation was figured out through the distribution of the dots and the figure noted on the top right of the diagram It was clear that many dots were scattered quite densely nearby and along the trend line, whereas, some dots were distributed sparsely further and few dots stayed far away along the trend line The distribution density of all dots illustrated the moderate correlation of these variables Another way to calculate the strength of the association was to take the square root of the value of r square (R 2 ) as displayed on the top right of the scatterplot, which was obviously similar to the value of r in Table 4.3 In general, the overall results of Table 4.3 and Figure 4.3 statistically yielded that listening strategies deployment and listening anxiety among learners were significantly negatively correlated at the moderate level

Besides holistically investigating the correlation between learners’ listening anxiety and their listening strategies usage, it was essential to explore in detail the relationships between listening anxiety and the components (or subgroups) of listening strategies including listening cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective strategies By taking closer look at these associations, there were chances to gain more insights into the current concerned issues Table 4.4 below displayed the details of these correlations

Similarly, the correlation between all subgroups of listening strategies and listening anxiety were statistically investigated by computing the Pearson Product- moment correlation coefficient r [with the assistance of SPSS 26 th version] Table 4.4 clearly demonstrated that all subgroups of listening strategies were negatively correlated with listening anxiety at different degrees More particularly, the subgroup associated with listening anxiety the most at the significance level was listening cognitive strategies (r = - 45, p < 01) and the least was listening socio-affective strategies (r = -.31, p < 01) Additionally, the results yielded that listening metacognitive and socio-affective

57 strategies were the two subgroups negatively correlated with listening anxiety at the weak level Meanwhile, listening cognitive strategies was negatively associated with listening anxiety at the moderate level In general, the results suggested that when the level of learners’ listening anxiety increased, all their subgroups of listening strategies (listening cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective strategies) would decrease and vice versa It indicated that the more listening anxiety learners experienced in the language classroom, the less various listening strategies they would deploy for listening comprehension

The correlation between the listening anxiety and the subgroups of listening strategies among learners

Socio- affective strategies Listening anxiety

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

The significant differences between high- and low-anxiety listeners in utilizing their listening strategies

Results of inferential analysis

In order to determine if there was a statistically significant difference in the mean scores between two homogeneous groups, an Independent Sample t-test was performed with 95% confidence interval for the statistical mean value difference (Table 4.5 and Table 4.6) As shown in Table 4.6, because the significance value of Levene’s test of listening strategies is higher than the predetermined significance level (Sig = 74 > 05), the results in the row ‘equal variances assumed’ were used for the statistical decision Likewise, considering the significance value of Levene’s test of listening strategies subcategories, the results in the row ‘equal variances assumed’ of cognitive strategies (Sig = 07 > 05) and socio-affective strategies (Sig = 68 > 05) were utilized for the analytical decision Meanwhile, the results in the row ‘equal variances not assumed’ of metacognitive strategies (Sig = 02 < 05) were used for the statistical decision

Accordingly, the figures in Table 4.6 below yielded that there was a statistically significant difference in deploying listening strategies between these two groups of listeners (t (56) = 7.78, p = 000 < 05) Particularly, low-anxiety listeners (M = 3.48,

SD = 26) had statistically significantly higher than their high-anxiety peers (M = 2.95,

SD = 24) in terms of utilizing listening strategies (Table 4.5) More particularly, low anxious listeners deployed various strategies including cognitive strategies (M = 3.49) and metacognitive strategies (M = 3.55) as well as socio-affective strategies (M = 3.05) more frequently as compared to their peers who experienced higher level of listening

59 anxiety (2.70 ≤ M ≤ 3.08) (Table 4.5) Overall, the finding suggested that there were statistically significant differences in various listening strategies usage (cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective strategies) between high and low anxious listeners in the language classroom

Low-anxiety listener 32 3.48 26 046 High-anxiety listener 26 2.95 24 048 Cognitive strategies

Low-anxiety listener 32 3.49 45 079 High-anxiety listener 26 2.88 30 060

Low-anxiety listener 32 3.55 25 045 High-anxiety listener 26 3.08 38 075

Low-anxiety listener 32 3.05 33 060 High-anxiety listener 26 2.70 34 067

Levene’s test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means 95% confidence interval of the difference

F Sig t df Sig (2-tailed) Mean difference

SE difference Lower Upper Listening strategies

Results of thematic analysis

In an attempt to gain more insights of utilizing various listening strategies between high and low anxious listeners, the qualitative data as the supplemental information collected through the focus-group interviews was thematically analyzed Accordingly, the themes were purposefully selected based on the main categories of listening strategies synthesized by O’Malley et al (1989) and constructed by Kassem

(2015) including cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective strategies In doing so, the approach of analyzing the qualitative data was aligned with the approach of the quantitative data analyze, which consistently highlighted the significant differences in deploying various listening strategies between high- and low-anxiety listeners

4.4.2.1 Differences in utilizing cognitive listening strategies between high- and low-anxiety listeners

The first difference was note-taking strategy Note-taking refers to writing down key words and ideas of the acoustic text as quickly as possible for the follow-up listening comprehension activities Both groups used this strategy in their listening activities; however, the tendency of writing down full text (original words) was found in the high- anxiety learners as compared to their peers who tried to take note the words in the short form (abbreviation) Following were the excerpts which shows the difference

I frequently take note key words and important ideas in short form to save time and sometimes write the information in the full text to avoid the misunderstanding Low-anxiety listener 11

When listening, I quickly take note only key words of the listening text in short form for the follow-up listening comprehension activities in the classroom In doing so, I can save time and avoid missing the incoming information Low-anxiety listener 28

Yeah, I usually take note the key words I heard from the text to answer the questions of the listening tasks in full text, sometimes in short form as well However, I sometimes focus on writing the ideas, which drives me to miss some information of the text because of the quick speed rate

And then, I can take note the missed ideas again in the next time of listening High-anxiety listener 9

Translation was the second significant difference in cognitive strategies usage between these two groups of listeners Particularly, high anxious listeners tended to translate received messages from English (as the foreign language) to Vietnamese (as the first language), except the simple listening text with familiar words and grammatical patterns In other words, they deployed this cognitive strategy more often when they encountered the complex and long listening texts Especially, the tendency of translating the important ideas was found in the high anxious group Meanwhile, low-anxiety listeners frequently tried to think in the target language although they sometimes translated new words when guessing their meanings

I often try to think in English, but sometimes I still translate to

Vietnamese when encountering new words Low-anxiety listener 19

I prefer to translating what I heard from English to Vietnamese

Although it takes time a little bit, it supports me to understand clearly the messages, especially the important information High-anxiety listener 17

When dealing with long and complex listening text, I often translate to

Vietnamese, especially detailed ideas Because it is useful to answer the questions in the exercise High-anxiety listener 25

The third significant difference was the prediction of incoming information in the while-listening stage Predicting incoming messages during listening based on the messages the speakers have conveyed is essential for better comprehension Indeed, deploying this listening strategy enables the listeners to guess what the speakers intend to speak, which supported them to easily comprehend the meanings of the messages Notably, under listening anxiety, low anxious listeners attempted to predict the incoming information based on the delivering information more frequently as compared to high- anxiety peers This difference between two groups of listeners was demonstrated in the excerpts as below

During listening, I frequently try to predict the incoming information in my mind according to the delivering messages, because it helpfully enables me comprehend the listening text better Low-anxiety listener 8

During listening, I usually try to predict the incoming information based on all ideas which were previously delivered Low-anxiety listener 19

Not really, it is quite difficult for me to process the delivering information and predict the incoming contents simultaneously I feel quite tension in doing so Thus, I often focus on the contents being delivered rather than predicting the following ones High-anxiety listener 6

No, I still struggle with the information being delivered So, it is quite hard to process many things at the same time High-anxiety listener 20

4.4.2.2 Differences in utilizing metacognitive listening strategies between high- and low-anxiety listeners

The first significant difference in listening metacognitive strategies between these two groups of listeners was advance planning for listening comprehension In the minds, low-anxiety listeners quickly connected key words given in the listening task with some synonyms as well as memorized the similar contents they already encountered before Additionally, they identified in advance the types of information they should pay more attentions when listening such as the number, name of somebody or price of something in the text Thus, this advance planning leads to the considerable difference in selective attention whose learners were aware of paying much more attentions on some specific parts of the aural text when listening Following were the excerpts expressed these ideas

In the listening task, there are introductions and requirements we should finish before listening That helps me to be aware of the contexts and support me to predict less or more the text I am going to listen Low-anxiety listener 8

Yeah, besides the context and requirements, I often think about the synonyms of some key words written in the exercise and the similar contents I already heard before as well That helps me to quickly

‘catch’ the key words in the listening text Low-anxiety listener 11

Before listening, we usually accomplish some questions in pairs, which helps us be aware of the contexts and requirements to do during and after listening Accordingly, I intend to listen to some specific parts of the text Low-anxiety listener 19

In contrast, high-anxiety listeners rarely made similar efforts before listening Simply, they paid their attentions on accomplishing the questions in the pre-listening section, then read the instructions and requirements of the given task

Main findings of the study

Overall, there were two main findings in this paper that addressed two research questions as mentioned before Particularly, the results indicated that listening anxiety of learners was significantly negatively correlated with their listening strategies usage at the moderate level In other words, the higher level of listening anxiety learners experienced in the language classroom, the less frequently and effectively they deployed various listening strategies in combination and vice versa

In addition, the significant differences between the high and low anxious listeners in utilizing cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective listening strategies were found Specifically, the low-anxiety listeners deployed the strategy of note-taking, translation, incoming information prediction and comprehension confirmation, advance planning, selective attention as well as peer cooperation more frequently and efficiently as compared to the high anxious peers Following was the discussion that attempted to gain more insight into this phenomenon in hope to empower all learners to improve and develop their listening skill better.

Discussion

The correlation between listening anxiety and listening strategies usage among learners

At theory level, the first finding of the present study supports the Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen, 1982) in a way that the degree of listening anxiety of learners should be reduced for the more frequency of listening strategies usage in the classroom According to Krashen (1982), the affective variables (motivation, self-confidence and anxiety) act as learners’ emotional filters, impeding directly the consequence of input receive and processing, which in turn hamper L2 learners to acquire the second language It means that L2 learners who have higher motivation and self-confidence as well as lower anxiety will receive and process input better As such, the better input they receive and process, the more opportunities they get to acquire the target language efficiently As one of the important learning theories in the second language acquisition domain, the pedagogical implications suggest that L2 teacher should provide the comprehensible inputs as well as create the anxiety-free learning environment in an attempt to scaffold and empower L2 learners to acquire the target language effectively and joyfully Similarly, the first finding of the current study suggests that the more frequently L2 learners deploy their various listening strategies in combination for comprehension in association with the lower level of listening anxiety they experience in the language classroom To some extent, practicing these strategies more regularly in the classroom helps to enhance their utilizing various listening strategies in combination more automatically, skillfully and effectively for better communications in the real-life circumstances

At practice level, the results are in line with the findings of the notable previous studies in various contexts Particularly, it is consistent with those results in terms of the direction of the correlation [between listening anxiety level and listening strategies usage among learners], but quite different with regard to the strength of the correlation More specifically, it is fairly consistent with the research’s results of Kim (2011) who found that listening strategies deployment of Korean EFL college learners is statistically and significantly correlated with their listening anxiety at the weak level when dealing with listening tasks Additionally, it is fairly in line with the findings of Gửnen (2009) and Golchi (2012) who also claimed that listening strategies usage of learners is statistically and significantly correlated with their listening anxiety at the strong level Notably, this

72 finding of the present study is consistent with the findings of Tsai (2013) and Berber

(2016) who revealed there are significantly negative correlation between these variables at the moderate level among learners The combination of all findings (included the current study) generally provides the remarkable phenomenon of listening anxiety in relation to listening strategies among L2 learners in the language classroom The higher level of listening anxiety learners experience, the less frequently they deploy their various listening strategies in combination for comprehension and vice versa Moreover, at language skill level, these results corroborate the Affective Filter Hypothesis developed by Krashen (1982) in a way that L2 learners will always bring their own L2 listening anxiety [as one of the affective filters] at various levels regardless different learning contexts, which would affectively influence their listening skill development to some extent Hence, all the findings suggest that it is fundamental to alleviate their listening anxiety and encourage them to deploy various listening strategies more and more frequently for their successful learning

Then surprisingly, it seems that a very little research has shed light on the association between listening anxiety and sub-categories of listening strategies among learners, except the study of Tsai (2013) and Dalman (2016) The results of these previous studies are quite inconsistent with each other due to different characteristics of the participants, different subcategories of listening strategies and the strength of the correlation between these variables Specifically, as Tsai (2013) revealed that cognitive strategies of senior high school learners are the component correlated with their listening anxiety the most strongly, followed by socio-affective strategies and metacognitive strategies The order of the correlation strength is quite different in the research of Dalman (2016) who claimed that the strongest correlation of these variables among tertiary-level learners is the compensation strategies, followed by the cognitive and metacognitive strategies, while the weakest are memory and affective strategies

Clearly, the attributes of the participants in the study of Tsai (2013) and Dalman

(2016) are different so that the results are not obviously consistent Drawing a comparison between the similar subcategories, however, it is easy to realize that cognitive strategies are negatively correlated with listening anxiety the most strongly in two cases, whereas, metacognitive strategies of Taiwanese senior high school learners are the weakest subcategory correlated with their listening anxiety as compared to the

73 second position among these three strategies of Iranian tertiary-level learners Interestingly, the ranges of the correlation coefficient of these cases are quite similar, ranging from the weak level (r ≈ - 2) to around the threshold of moderate level (r ≈ - 4)

Critically, one possible explanation for the moderate level of the correlation between those variables in the present study might be that Vietnamese EFL learners have been instructed and facilitated to acquire English [as a compulsory subject] with the integrated syllabus [instead of the conventional syllabus in the past] since the National Project of Teaching and Learning Foreign language in the National Formal Educational System came into effect in 2008 (MOET, 2008, 2017) Although there have been many considerable challenges in the implementation of this national project (especially in the mountainous and rural regions), it is envisaged to make the foreign languages become one of the advantages of next generations during the rapid globalization in the near future Notably, one of the significant differences is that they are scaffolded with the innovative teaching methodologies (such as Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) and Project Based Language Teaching (PBLT) approach) in addition to the advanced technology to develop their listening skill since learning at the high school (MOET,

2008, 2017) as compared to the prior status in which they were drawn attentions mainly on vocabulary, grammar and reading skill in the conventional curriculum Nowadays, learners are encouraged to get involved in the motivational and dynamic learning environment in which they are able to acquire linguistic, non-linguistic and cross-cultural knowledge with diverse topics through the real-life simulated situations As a result, they are empowered to gradually construct and develop their listening micro-skill and macro- skill systematically in the language classroom.

Significant differences in deploying various listening strategies between high- and low-anxiety listeners

When seeking further whether there are any significant differences in terms of listening strategies deployment between high- and low-anxiety listeners, it is noticed that the findings in the study of Gửnen (2009) shed a little light on this issue through the semi-structured interviews Particularly, Turkish tertiary-level learners experiencing high level of listening anxiety often focus more on unknown vocabularies in the aural texts, whereas, low anxious peers try to understand them instead of ‘sticking’ on those words

In addition, low-anxiety listeners always figure out the main ideas of the messages as well as clarify the misunderstandings when they communicate in the target language in the real-world contexts It means that there are significant differences in terms of listening metacognitive and socio-affective strategies usage between high- and low- anxiety listeners in the study of Gửnen (2009) Yet, it is still unclear in terms of how low anxious listeners can understand those unknown words In fact, there are many ways to understand unfamiliar words in the aural message, such as learners can guess the meanings of those words from the main ideas of the text, from the surrounding known words, from their schemata and from meaning negotiation with their peers [in the language classroom] or the interlocutors [in the real-life circumstances] Here, although there are some possibilities learners do not guess the correct meanings of those vocabularies, the importance is that they should attempt to continuously listen to the remaining aural messages rather than getting stuck and/ or confused when encountering the unfamiliar words

Likewise, Berber and Kuru-Gửnen (2017) and Berber (2016) also shed more light on the significant differences in listening strategies usage between high and low anxious listeners in Turkish EFL context As such, the considerable differences in cognitive strategies (note-taking and translation) and metacognitive strategies (directed attention and real-time input assessment) are clearly highlighted through the learning diaries and semi-structured interviews High anxious listeners always write down almost information they get (even the articles) during the while-listening stage and make extra efforts at translating the messages from the target language to their mother tongue They also easily get distracted by focusing more on the details of the text, causing them not comprehend the holistic meaning ideas totally As a result, this sequence might trigger their listening anxiety, which, in turn, might drive them to lose their concentration for listening task accomplishment Another notable issue (quite related to note-taking strategy) is that high anxious learners lack the ability of evaluating the importance of the words they listen In other words, they can not differentiate the key words and important information they should concentrate among the ‘numerous’ information they listen Low-anxiety peers, in contrast, deploy these strategies in combination more efficiently Particularly, they intend to focus on specific information such as names, figures and dates, then only selectively take note key words and important information instead of

75 everything they listen They also try to digest the ideas in the target language rather than translating from English to Turkish Moreover, they are not ‘swamped’ with an array of detailed information in the acoustic text by trying to grasp the main points of the message as well as not focusing too much on any details of the text Besides, the significant differences in socio-affective strategies are not found among learners Briefly, the significant differences in listening cognitive strategies (note-taking and translation) and metacognitive strategies (directed attention and real-time input assessment) between high and low anxious listeners are found in Turkish university context

In the same vein, the significant differences in cognitive, metacognitive, and socio-affective strategies usage among Vietnamese non-English major freshmen are highlighted through the second finding of the present study Accordingly, this finding is partially consistent with the findings of Golchi (2012) who claimed that low-anxiety listeners deployed metacognitive strategies more frequently than high-anxiety peers In contrast, Golchi (2012), notices that there are no significant differences in deploying cognitive and socio-affective strategies between these groups Additionally, the finding of the current study is fairly consistent with the findings in the study of Gửnen (2009) who revealed that there are significant differences in utilizing metacognitive and socio- affective strategies between high- and low-anxiety learners Besides, the finding of the present study is also quite in line with the research’s results of Berber (2016) and Berber and Kuru-Gửnen (2017) about the significant differences in cognitive and metacognitive strategies between these groups of tertiary-level learners Firstly, in terms of cognitive strategies, low-anxiety listeners often make prediction about the incoming information during listening, take note key words and important information quickly in full-text and short form By contrast, high-anxiety listeners deploy these strategies less frequently and effectively Besides, as compared to low-anxiety listeners who regularly digest the target language ideas, high-anxiety ones tend to translate the messages to their mother tongue more frequently for comprehension Secondly, with reference to listening metacognitive strategies, low anxious listeners often actively make advance planning for better comprehension and make confirmation continuously for correct and proper responses as well as pay more selective attention to specific parts of the aural messages High-anxiety peers, in contrast, also use these metacognitive strategies less frequently and effectively Finally, in respect to socio-affective strategies, low anxious listeners often actively

76 cooperate with their peers for better comprehension as compared to high-anxiety peers Overall, low anxious listeners deploy listening cognitive, metacognitive, and socio- affective strategies more frequently and effectively than high anxious ones

Overall, all findings of this paper and previous studies suggest that the higher level of listening anxiety learners experience in the language classroom, the less frequently and efficiently they deploy various listening strategies for comprehension; and high-anxiety listeners tend to utilize these strategies less frequently and effectively Here, the matter is that what if the tendency of the less frequent and effective various listening strategies usage among high-anxiety listeners always occurs in the classroom The high possibility would be that the affective filter of learners would increase and the vicious circle would formulate the habit of deploying various listening strategies less frequently and effectively That, in turn, will propably make apprehensive influences, to some extent, on listening comprehension not only in the language classroom but also in the real life Consequently, they would be demotivated to strive continuously to acquire this language skill as well as would become shy, timid and heistant to communicate in the target language in the real-world situations That might be worse in case there are the combination of learners’ speaking anxiety in the target language communication Another matter is that listening anxiety as the vagueness of ‘the bottom of the iceberg’ is challenging to realize among learners in the classroom Therefore, it should take listening anxiety into full consideration to provide appropriate and effective pedagogical instructions and create caring and joyful learning environment in an attempt to scaffold learners to enhance and develop their listening skill better.

Chapter summary

Overall, this chapter displayed the results of data analysis and suggested the main findings to address the research questions Statistically, listening anxiety of non-English major freshmen was significantly and negatively correlated with their listening strategies usage at the moderate level The significant differences between high and low anxious listeners in deploying various listening strategies were also highlighted Accordingly, the discussion was provided to gain more insights into this phenomenon Following is the final chapter that provides the pedagogical implications and limitations and further research of this study

Chapter introduction

This chapter sums up this paper with the main findings summary followed by the implications, limitations and further research Based on the given discussion, the theoretical and practical implications are recommended in hope that all learners will be empowered to fully develop their listening skill The limitations of study are also critically presented, which helpfully paves the potential strands for the other researchers, practitioners and educators to shed further light on this phenomenon.

Summary of the findings

Following an intriguing mainstream of the skill-based anxiety research, the author investigated the listening anxiety in relationship with listening strategies among non-English major freshmen in Vietnamese EFL tertiary context The inspiration of conducting this paper was that the amount of the studies concerned this crucial correlation in Vietnamese EFL context has seemed scare until now Indeed, the other issues related this affective variable has received more attention such as the foreign language classroom anxiety (Tran et al., 2012), speaking anxiety (Le & Tran, 2020), writing anxiety (Khau, 2019) and reading anxiety (Dang, 2022a, 2022b; Le, 2020a, 2020b) or the causes of listening anxiety (Diem & Le, 2020; Le, 2010) so that the relationship between the level of listening anxiety and the usage of listening strategy has been neglected so far

Therefore, in an endeavor to bridge this research gap, the author investigated the correlation between listening anxiety and listening strategies usage among non-English major freshmen at a certain international institute as a subordinate unit of Vietnam university in Ho Chi Minh city The aims of the study were to (1) investigate the correlation between the listening anxiety of non-English major freshmen and the listening strategies they deployed in the process of improving their listening skill in the language classroom (in accordance with research question 1) and (2) investigate whether there was any significant difference in using listening strategies between high- and low- anxiety learners in developing listening skill (in accordance with research question 2)

Consequently, the findings indicated that learners’ listening anxiety were negatively correlated with their listening strategies at the moderate level In other words, the higher level of listening anxiety learners experienced in the language classroom, the less frequently and effectively they deployed various listening strategies in combination and vice versa Additionally, the significant differences in deploying listening strategies (cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective strategies) between high- and low-anxiety learners were found Specifically, the low-anxiety listeners deployed the strategy of note- taking, translation, incoming information prediction and comprehension confirmation, advance planning, selective attention as well as peer cooperation more frequently and efficiently as compared to the high anxious peers Hopefully, the insights of this phenomenon were shed more light in the given discussion section.

Implications

Theoretical implications

This paper is hoped to make pedagogical contributions to the domain of foreign language teaching methodology and second language acquisition theories, especially in Vietnamese tertiary language education Specifically, the findings of the present study confirm the Affective Filter Hypothesis proposed by Krashen (1982) at the level of language skill More particularly, all EFL/ ESL learners should receive not only effective pedagogical methods, comprehensible and motivational instructions but also experience unstressed learning environment for better listening skill development Once this affective filter is alleviated, EFL/ ESL learners are enabled to more frequently practice using various strategies in combination individually and collaboratively Fruitfully, that enables them to skillfully and effectively deploy these various strategies for listening comprehension both in the language classroom and in the real life

Practical implications

Firstly, it is fundamental to apply both bottom-up and top-down approach in teaching listening skill because L2 listening is consciously processed through both these approaches more or less simultaneously (Graham, 2018b) In the former approach, L2 learners decode the tangible data implied in the aural message by ‘activating’ their linguistic knowledge such as phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics, lexis and discourse structure, which allows them to elicit the meanings through “speech perception and word recognition” (Rost, 2011, p 132) Meanwhile, the latter approach enables them to apply their non-linguistic knowledge such as schemata, gestures, body language and facial expressions to construct the meanings through “semantic expectations and generalizations” (Rost, 2011, p 132) Hence, once these processes are transpired more expeditiously and efficiently, listening process will be forged successfully That, in turn, strongly supports learners to deploy various listening strategies in combination more frequently and effectively for better comprehension Consequently, the well-balanced implementation of both bottom-up and top-down approach in the language classroom should be fully considered for listening skill enhancement and development of learners

Secondly, providing explicit instructions for listening strategies deployment, especially metacognitive and socio-affective strategies in the language classroom should be taken full consideration Indeed, The treatment of various listening strategies instruction make great contributions not only to listening comprehension enhancement (Carrier, 2003; Fathi & Hamidizadeh, 2019; Ngo, 2019; O'Malley, Chamot, Stewener- Manzanares, et al., 1985; Thompson & Rubin, 1996; Zhang, 2012), but also listening anxiety reduction (Bao & Guan, 2019; Fathi et al., 2020; Kaivanpanah et al., 2020; Mohamadpour et al., 2019; Movahed, 2014) As such, in an attempt to empower learners to become good and independent listeners, teacher should support them to be aware of different types of listening strategies and the benefits of those strategies More importantly, learners should know how and when to deploy what strategies for better comprehension As a result, the more frequently, appropriately and actively learners practice using various listening strategies in combination for comprehension in the classroom, the more skillfully they are able to utilize these various strategies for better comprehension That, in turn, helps learners gain more chances to deploy them proactively and efficiently in the real-life communications Therefore, the explicit

80 instruction of various listening comprehension should be implemented in the language classroom in the hope that all learners will be able to become independent and good listeners in the near future

Thirdly, it should be considered to create joyful and relaxed learning environment in the language classroom along with providing pedagogical instructions in teaching listening skill As mentioned above, because L2 learners always ‘bring’ their own affective factors such as motivation, anxiety and self-efficacy into the language classroom, teachers should ‘manage’ to ‘remove’ the affective filters as much as possible to support them acquire second language generally and listening skill specifically As such, teachers can take advantage of the advanced technology such as Kahoot, Quizizz, and Mentimeter to gamify the listening tasks to help all learners, especially high-anxiety listeners, so that they have more chances to work individually and collaboratively to enjoy these activities together and accomplish the tasks simultaneously In doing so, teachers can alleviate their listening anxiety (as well as gain their motivation) to successfully empower them to actively deploy various listening strategies in combination for comprehension and listening skill acquisition

Finally, learners should be encouraged to get involved in the activities of the extensive listening when they are outside the classroom Extensive listening is a wonderful opportunity for learners to access to the diverse authentic materials such as podcasts, videos, recordings, breaking news and interviews for both pleasure and L2 listening acquisition In general, there are five different types of extensive listening activities, namely listening only, active listening (shadowing and/or overlapping during listening), reading while listening and listening and viewing (Ivone & Renandya, 2019) Providing multimodal inputs and compelling contents, these extensive activities make supplemental contributions to many important language learning and listening aspects such as vocabulary stock and retention, pronunciation correction, words and sentences boundaries recognition, learning autonomy, listening strategies, listening automaticity, fluency, accuracy and comprehension as well as background knoweldge (schemata) (Chang & Millett, 2014, 2016; Cross, 2014; Fauzanna, 2017; Ivone & Renandya, 2019, 2022; Tran & Tran, 2021) Teachers should recommend listening materials which should be appropriate with the listening proficiency level, needs and interests of learners Another important issue is to ensure the roles of teachers and the other peers as well as

81 gain motivation and self-directed among learners in this ‘encouraging learning program’ by creating a listen-learn-share forum in which all learners can reflect what they are interested in or concerned about the most and what they learn from the materials in addition to give feedbacks and comments to the posts of the other peers on the online collaborative workspace Overall, the extensive listening activities are the joyful and good channels for learners to enhance and develop listening skill.

Limitations

In this part, the drawbacks of this correlational study are given for better further research Critically, there are some limitations although a lot of efforts were made These shortcomings are related to the nature of correlational research, the research instruments and the generalizability Details of these limitations are presented as follows

The first drawback is that the causility does not inferred from the negative correlation of listening anxiety and listening strategies usage among learners In other words, the cause-and-effect relationship of these variables does not determined in the current study Although this issue is outside the research scope of the current study, it should be given clearly to avoid the misunderstanding Specifically, because the causation does not implied in the correlation, it should be not concluded that listening strategies usage of learners are negatively impacted by their listening anxiety and vice versa Hence, it is not claimed that listening anxiety causes learners to deploy their listening strategy usage less frequently and effectively or deploying various listening strategies in combination causes the level of listening anxiety among learners increase

The second one is that the findings of this small-scale research can not be generalized to other cohorts of learners in other contexts Indeed, the generalizability is generally determined through the randomness, representative and size of the sample in the research As such, it is clear that the participants of this study are hardly represented all Vietnamese non-English freshmen as well as the sample size is not large enough (n > 1,000) Hence, the generaliztion of the findings of this study should not be considered This study, however, can be viewed as the preliminary for further research

The third shortcoming is about the research instruments More specifically, the data is still not approached through the triangualtion of tools Ideally, researcher should triangulate the research instruments to enrich and crosscheck the collected data By

82 doing so, researcher can enhance the validity of quantitative data and the trustwothiness of qualitative data much more better, which empower researcher to give the in-depth analysis and discussions Consequently, the comprehensive picture would be depicted more and more holistically Accordingly, some recommendations are made in the part of further research for those who have strong passions to complete this picture.

Further research

With respect to non-reciprocal listening and interactive listening, there are at least four strands to investigate the affective factors including motivation, listening anxiety and self-concept (for example, self-efficacy and self-esteem), coupled with the process- and product-based approach of listening Accordingly, under the umbrella of process- oriented listening, the first strand is to investigate the relationship between single or mutiple affective variables and listening strategies among learners to explore the magnitude and direction they are correlated with each other through correlational analysis Secondly, for those who are interested in the product-oriented listening, it could be to investigate the possible effects of affective variables on listening achievement in the general and/ or academic learning programme by conducting empirical studies Thirdly, it is essential to investigate whether listening strategies and various affective variables are good predictable indicators through multiple regression analysis, which could make prognostication about listening achievement of learners, especially of high- anxiety and/ or low-proficiency listeners Finally, the last strand is to conduct comparative studies to evaluate the level of all skill-based anxiety and/ or both speaking and listening anxiety among learners In doing so, there would have more chances to solve the ‘puzzle’ of L2 listening by providing meaningful and applicable implications for the stakeholders to adjust teaching approaches and methods, education policy as well as course book and learning curriculum As such, the levels, interests and needs of learners can be satisfied in accordance with the development of contemporary era so that teacher can scaffold, facilitate and instruct learners to enhance and develop listening skill meaningfully, appropriately and joyfully Overall, there are still ‘fertile soils’ in listening skill teaching and research for researchers, educators and practitioners to continuously conduct experimental, correlational and comparative studies in global context generally and in Vietnamese context particularly

Conclusion

Overall, it is worth investigating listening anxiety in relation to various listening strategies usage among learners Following the mainstream of listening anxiety in addition to process-oriented approach, this study attempts to bridge the research gap in Vietnamese tertiary-level context by investigating the relationship of listening anxiety and various lisening strategies usage among non-English major freshmen Accordingly, the findings suggest that the higher level of listening anxiety learners experience in the language classroom, the less frequently and effectively they deploy various listening strategies in combination for comprehension and vice versa Notably, the significant differences in deploying cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective listening strategies between high and low anxious listeners are found in the present study The theoretical and practical implications are given adequately in a hope that teacher will be able to empower all learners, especially high-anxiety listeners, to enhance and develop their listening skill individually and collaboratively better and better in the joyful, meaningful and caring learning environment Even so, there are still many strands for researchers, educators and pratitioners to conduct a variety of studies to shed further light on the comprehensive picture of L2 listening and skill-based anxiety Fruitfully, all learners will be able to acquire listening skill joyfully, meaningfully and effectively.

Chapter summary

Briefly, this final chapter wrapped up this paper Based on the main findings and discussion provided in the previous chapter, the theoretical and practical implications were meaningful recommended in hope to fully develop listening skill of learners The limitations were also critically given for the further research Overall, it was worth shedding more light on this phenomenon in various contexts

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Research summary

An investigation of the relationship between listening anxiety and listening strategy use among non-English major freshmen Type of study Research method Research field Research site Participants Period time

Second language teaching and learning Second language acquisition

2 nd semester of academic year 2022-2023

1 Investigate the correlation between the listening anxiety non-English major freshmen experience and listening strategies they deploy in the process of improving their listening skill

2 Investigate whether there is any significant difference in using listening strategy between high-anxiety learners and low-anxiety learners in developing listening skill

1 What is the correlation between the listening anxiety of non-English major freshmen and their deployment of listening strategies in the language classroom?

2 Is there any significant difference in the deployment of listening strategies between high- and low-anxiety learners in developing listening skill?

Sampling technique ❖ Convenience sampling ❖ Stratified random sampling

1 Questionnaires (close-ended questions, Vietnamese back translate technique)

❖ Foreign Language Listening Anxiety Scale (FFLAS) (Kim, 2000; as cited in Kim, 2005; Kimura, 2008)

❖ Listening Strategy Use Questionnaire (LSUQ) (Kassem, 2015, pp 166-167)

2 Semi-structured interview (open-ended questions)

❖ Interview the learners with open-ended questions to gain more insights into the significant differences between high and low anxious listeners

2 Correlation analysis (Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficient)

1 Statistically, learners’ listening anxiety was significantly negatively correlated with their listening strategies usage In other words, the higher level of listening anxiety learners experienced in the language classroom, the less frequently and effectively they deployed various listening strategies in combination and vice versa

2 The significant differences in utilizing cognitive, metacognitive and socio-affective listening strategies were found between high and low anxious listeners

Overview of research procedure

3 R ep or ti ng a nd ev al ua ti ng fi nd in gs

2 D at a co ll ec ti ng , an al ys in g an d in te rp re ti ng 1 P re pa ra ti on

Identifying the research problem Design the research

Making the pilot of questionnaire

Administering face-to-face interview Making data coding, analysis & interpretation

Reporting and evaluating research findings Providing the discussions, implications, limitations, further research and conclusion

Making the research proposal Asking for permission

Making the pilot of interview

Listening strategies

Cognitive Meta-cognitive Social-affective

• stopping to think about spelling

• stopping to think about meaning

• listening for the overall message

Note: From “Chapter 13: Listening strategies” by T Lynch and D Mendelsohn, in N Schmitt and M.P.H Rogers (Eds),

An introduction to applied linguistics (p 230), 2020, Routledge, Copyright 2020 by Routledge.

Original listening strategies use questionnaire

COG 35 I use linguistic clues to comprehend the scripts, such as prefixes and suffixes MET 4 I focus harder on the text when I have trouble understanding

COG 10 I use my experience and knowledge to help me understand

MET 27 Before listening, I concentrate my mind on the listening task and keep away things that distract my attention

COG 5 I use the words I understand to guess the meaning of the words

COG 20 I use the main idea of the text to help me guess the meaning of the words that I don’t understand

MET 9 When there’s something I don’t understand, I pursue trying to compensate for it MET 28 I listen to what is said without paying much attention to every new word

MET 21 I skip over words that I do not understand so that I don’t miss what is said next MET 13 I try to get back on track when I lose concentration

COG 29 As I listen, I try to predict incoming content using the information being delivered

MET 6 When my mind wanders, I recover my concentration right away

COG 7 As I listen, I compare what I understand with what I know about the topic

COG 22 As I listen, I try to think in English without having to translate into my own language

COG 14 Before listening, I try to predict the words I am likely to hear based on the title MET 16 I identify my problems in listening and work on solving them

MET 39 I watch TV shows or movies or listen to the radio in English to enhance my listening ability

COG 26 I use pronunciation aspects like stress and intonation to enhance my understanding

COG 3 Before listening, I make predictions about the listening material based on the title SOA 34 I try to relax whenever I feel tense as I listen

MET 17 After listening, I think back to how I listened, and about what I might do differently next time

COG 36 I use the setting and the relationship between speakers to guess the meaning of unknown words

MET 37 After listening, I reflect on my problems or difficulties and how to overcome them

MET 33 After listening, I evaluate how much I could understand

COG 38 I use the speakers’ tone and intonation to better understand what I listen to COG 15 As I listen, I quickly adjust my interpretation if I realize that it is not correct MET 25 After listening, I reflect on the listening task with my classmates

SOA 32 I talk to my teacher and classmates about how to be a better listener of English COG 12 I use my knowledge of the text organization to understand the text

COG 31 I picture the setting of the conversation to understand what the speakers are talking about

COG 23 When I guess the meaning of a word, I think back to everything else that I have heard, to see if my guess makes sense

COG 2 I translate in my head as I listen

COG 18 After listening, I make a mental summary of what I have listened to

MET 1 Before I start to listen, I have a plan in my head for how I am going to listen MET 30 As I listen, I repeat important words mentally

MET 24 As I listen, I periodically ask myself if I am satisfied with my level of comprehension

MET 19 When I have difficulty understanding what I hear, I give up and stop listening SOA 8 As I listen, I encourage myself through positive self-talk

MET 11 Before listening, I think of similar texts that I may have listened to

Note: From Appendix A, The relationship between listening strategies used by Egyptian

EFL college sophomores and their listening comprehension and self-efficacy, by Hassan M

Kassem, 2015, published by Journal of English Language Teaching 8(2), 153-169 https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v8n2p153

Original foreign language listening anxiety scale

ORIGINAL FOREIGN LANGUAGE LISTENING ANXIETY SCALE

1 When listening to English, I tend to get stuck on one or two unknown words

2 I get nervous if a listening passage is read only once during English listening tests

3 When someone pronounces words differently from the way I pronounce them,

I find it difficult to understand

4 When a person speaks English very fast, I worry that I might not understand all of it

5 I am nervous when I am listening to English if I am not familiar with the topic

6 It's easy to guess about the parts that I miss while listening to English

7 If I let my mind drift even a little bit while listening to English, I worry that I will miss important ideas

8 When I'm listening to English, I am worried when I can't watch the lips or facial expression of a person who is speaking

9 During English listening tests, I get nervous and confused when I don't understand every word

10 When listening to English, it is difficult to differentiate the words from one another

11 I feel uncomfortable in class when listening to English without the written text

12 I have difficulty understanding oral instructions given to me in English

13 It is hard to concentrate on what English speakers are saying unless I know them well

14 I feel confident when I am listening in English

15 When I'm listening to English, I often get so confused I can't remember what I have heard

16 I fear I have inadequate background knowledge of some topics when listening in English

17 My thoughts become jumbled and confused when listening to important information in English

18 I get worried when I have little time to think about what I hear in English

19 When I'm listening to English, I usually end up translating word by word without understanding the contents

20 I would rather not have to listen to people speak English at all

21 I get worried when I can't listen to English at my own pace

22 I keep thinking that everyone else except me understands very well what an English speaker is saying

23 I get upset when I'm not sure whether I understand what I am listening to English

24 If a person speaks English very quietly, I am worried about understanding

25 I have no fear of listening in English as a member of an audience

26 I am nervous when listening to an English speaker on the phone or when imagining a situation where I listen to an English speaker on the phone

27 I feel tense when listening to English as a member of a social gathering or when imagining a situation where I listen to English as a member of a social gathering

28 It's difficult for me to listen to English when there is even a little bit of background noise

29 Listening to new information in English makes me uneasy

30 I get annoyed when I come across words that I don't understand while listening to English

31 English stress and intonation seem familiar to me

32 When listening to English, I often understand the words but still can't quite understand what the speaker means

33 It frightens me when I cannot catch a key word of an English listening passage

Note: From Appendix, The reliability and validity of a foreign language listening anxiety scale, by Joohae Kim, 2005, published by Korean Journal of English Language and

Questionnaire form

BẢNG KHẢO SÁT V/v SỬ DỤNG CÁC CHIẾN LƯỢC NGHE HIỂU

VÀ MỨC ĐỘ LO LẮNG TRONG QUÁ TRÌNH PHÁT TRIỂN KỸ NĂNG NGHE Ở LỚP HỌC TIẾNG ANH

Tôi là Hà Quốc Cường, học viên cao học chuyên ngành Lý luận và phương pháp dạy học bộ môn tiếng Anh (TESOL) tại ĐH Mở TP HCM Hiện tôi đang thực hiện đề tài nghiên cứu về mối quan hệ giữa cảm giác lo lắng trong khi nghe tiếng Anh và việc sử dụng các chiến lược nghe hiểu tiếng Anh của sinh viên năm nhất không chuyên tiếng Anh

Bảng khảo sát này có 2 phần chính với 72 câu hỏi và chỉ mất khoảng 15 phút để hoàn thành Việc tham gia khảo sát của các bạn sẽ góp phần rất lớn cho sự thành công của nghiên cứu này cũng như vào kiến thức chung về phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh

Cảm ơn các bạn rất nhiều!

Bây giờ, xin mời bạn nhấn nút “Next” để bắt đầu bài khảo sát thú vị này nhé

− Việc tham gia bài khảo sát này là hoàn toàn tự nguyện

− Không có câu trả lời đúng hoặc sai cho bài khảo sát này

− Việc tham gia bài khảo sát này hoàn toàn sẽ không ảnh hưởng đến kết quả học tập của các bạn

Họ và tên (tuỳ chọn):

Giới tính * :  Nam  Nữ  Khác

Lưu ý: Bạn vui lòng điền đầy đủ thông tin vào các ô có dấu *

HƯỚNG DẪN (cho bảng khảo sát 1) Để nghe hiểu ngoại ngữ nói chung và tiếng Anh nói riêng, người học thường được khuyến khích sử dụng các nhóm chiến lược khác nhau bao gồm nhóm chiến lược nhận thức, nhóm chiến lược siêu nhận thức và nhóm chiến lược kiểm soát tình cảm/ cảm xúc Và phần này sẽ khảo sát về việc bạn sử dụng các nhóm chiến lược này để có thể nghe hiểu tiếng Anh tốt hơn

Trong phần này, mỗi phát biểu có 5 lựa chọn như sau:

Bạn vui lòng chọn duy nhất một câu trả lời cho các phát biểu dưới đây

BẢNG KHẢO SÁT VỀ CHIẾN LƯỢC NGHE HIỂU LISTENING STRATEGIES USE QUESTIONNAIRE

NHÓM CHIẾN LƯỢC NHẬN THỨC (phần 1/3)

1 Trước khi nghe, tôi cố gắng đoán các nội dung sẽ được nghe dựa trên tiêu đề bài nghe

Before listening, I make predictions about the listening material based on the title

2 Trước khi nghe, tôi cố gắng đoán các từ vựng sẽ được nghe dựa trên tiêu đề bài nghe

Before listening, I try to predict the words I am likely to hear based on the title

3 Khi nghe, tôi cố gắng đoán những nội dung sắp được nghe dựa trên những thông tin đang được nghe

As I listen, I try to predict incoming content using the information being delivered

4 Khi nghe, tôi so sánh nội dung của bài nghe với kiến thức sẵn có của bản thân về chủ đề đang nghe

As I listen, I compare what I understand with what I know about the topic

5 Khi nghe, tôi thầm dịch nghĩa từ tiếng Anh sang tiếng Việt

I translate in my head as I listen ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

6 Khi nghe, tôi cố gắng suy nghĩ bằng tiếng Anh (không phải dịch sang tiếng Việt)

As I listen, I try to think in English without having to translate into my own language

7 Khi nghe, tôi luôn nhanh chóng điều chỉnh cách hiểu của mình ngay khi nhận ra mình đã hiểu sai

As I listen, I quickly adjust my interpretation if I realize that it is not correct

NHÓM CHIẾN LƯỢC NHẬN THỨC (Phần 2/3)

8 Tôi sử dụng ý chính của bài nghe để đoán nghĩa của những từ tôi không hiểu

I use the main idea of the text to help me guess the meaning of the words that I don’t understand

9 Tôi sử dụng những từ tôi đã biết nghĩa để đoán nghĩa cuả những từ mới trong bài nghe

I use the words I understand to guess the meaning of the words

10 Khi đoán nghĩa của một từ, tôi thường dùng nội dung của cả bài nghe để kiểm tra xem bản thân đã đoán đúng hay chưa

When I guess the meaning of a word, I think back to everything else that I have heard, to see if my guess makes sense

11 Tôi sử dụng trải nghiệm lẫn kiến thức của bản thân để hiểu nội dung bài nghe

I use my experience and knowledge to help me understand ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

12 Tôi sử dụng kiến thức về cấu trúc văn bản để hiểu nội dung bài nghe

I use my knowledge of the text organization to understand the text ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

13 Tôi sử dụng kiến thức về phát âm (như trọng âm và ngữ điệu) để hiểu nội dung bài nghe tốt hơn

I use pronunciation aspects like stress and intonation to enhance my understanding

14 Tôi sử dụng các đặc điểm về ngôn ngữ học (như tiền tố, hậu tố) để hiểu rõ nội dung bài nghe hơn

I use linguistic clues to comprehend the scripts, such as prefixes and suffixes

NHÓM CHIẾN LƯỢC NHẬN THỨC (Phần 3/3)

15 Tôi cố gắng hình dung ra ngữ cảnh của bài nghe để hiểu nội dung bài nghe tốt hơn

I picture the setting of the conversation to understand what the speakers are talking about

16 Tôi sử dụng ngữ cảnh và mối quan hệ giữa các nhân vật trong bài nghe để hiểu nội dung bài nghe

I use the setting and the relationship between speakers to guess the meaning of unknown words

17 Tôi chú ý đến giọng nói và ngữ điệu của người nói trong bài nghe để hiểu rõ nội dung bài nghe hơn

I use the speakers’ tone and intonation to better understand what I listen to

18 Sau khi nghe, tôi tổng kết lại các nội dung đã nghe được trong tâm trí của mình

After listening, I make a mental summary of what I have listened to

NHÓM CHIẾN LƯỢC SIÊU NHẬN THỨC (phần 1/4)

19 Trước khi nghe, tôi lên kế hoạch để có thể nghe bài nghe tốt hơn

Before I start to listen, I have a plan in my head for how I am going to listen ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

20 Trước khi nghe, tôi suy nghĩ về các nội dung tương tự tôi đã nghe trước đó để có thể nghe tốt hơn

Before listening, I think of similar texts that I may have listened to

21 Trước khi nghe, tôi tập trung vào phần hướng dẫn và các yêu cầu của bài nghe, và tránh không để mất tập trung

Before listening, I concentrate my mind on the listening task and keep away things that distract my attention

NHÓM CHIẾN LƯỢC SIÊU NHẬN THỨC (phần 2/4)

22 Khi không hiểu những gì đang nghe, thì tôi từ bỏ và không nghe tiếp nữa

When I have difficulty understanding what I hear, I give up and stop listening ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

23 Khi cảm thấy khó hiểu về bài nghe, tôi sẽ chú ý nhiều hơn đến các nội dung/ gợi ý đã được viết ra (trong bài nghe)

I focus harder on the text when I have trouble understanding

24 Khi có nội dung không hiểu, thì tôi cố gắng tìm kiếm các thông tin khác từ bài nghe để có thể hiểu được nội dung chưa rõ đó

When there’s something I don’t understand, I pursue trying to compensate for it

25 Trong lúc nghe, tôi bỏ qua các từ tôi chưa hiểu để không bỏ lỡ các nội dung sắp được nghe tiếp theo

I skip over words that I do not understand so that I don’t miss what is said next

26 Trong lúc nghe, tôi cố gắng nghe hiểu nội dung của bài nghe và không tập trung quá nhiều vào từng từ mới trong bài nghe

I listen to what is said without paying much attention to every new word

NHÓM CHIẾN LƯỢC SIÊU NHẬN THỨC (phần 3/4)

27 Khi bị mất tập trung, thì tôi ngay lập tức có thể tập trung trở lại để tiếp tục nghe

When my mind wanders, I recover my concentration right away

28 Tôi vẫn sẽ cố gắng tiếp tục nghe những nội dung tiếp theo của bài nghe dù tôi có mất tập trung trong phút chốc

I try to get back on track when I lose concentration

29 Khi nghe, tôi lặp lại các từ quan trọng trong tâm trí tôi

As I listen, I repeat important words mentally ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

30 Khi nghe, tôi thường tự hỏi bản thân đã hài lòng với trình độ nghe hiểu của bản thân chưa

As I listen, I periodically ask myself if I am satisfied with my level of comprehension

31 Tôi biết các điểm yếu của bản thân trong quá trình nghe hiểu và cố gắng tìm cách khắc phục chúng

I identify my problems in listening and work on solving them

32 Để cải thiện khả năng nghe hiểu tiếng Anh, tôi thường hay xem các chương trình truyền hình thực tế, phim ảnh hoặc nghe các bài tiếng Anh trên radio ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

I watch TV shows or movies or listen to the radio in English to enhance my listening ability

NHÓM CHIẾN LƯỢC SIÊU NHẬN THỨC (phần 4/4)

33 Sau khi nghe xong, tôi suy nghĩ về các vấn đề hoặc khó khăn của mình trong lúc nghe và đưa ra cách khắc phục chúng

After listening, I reflect on my problems or difficulties and how to overcome them

34 Sau khi nghe xong, tôi suy nghĩ về quá trình nghe của mình và suy nghĩ về cách nghe tốt hơn cho lần sau

After listening, I think back to how I listened, and about what I might do differently next time

35 Sau khi nghe xong, tôi trao đổi với các bạn cùng lớp về những nội dung đã nghe được và những nội dung chưa nghe rõ để hiểu rõ nội dung bài nghe hơn

After listening, I reflect on the listening task with my classmates

36 Sau khi nghe xong, tôi tự đánh giá bản thân đã hiểu được bao nhiêu nội dung của bài nghe

After listening, I evaluate how much I could understand

NHÓM CHIẾN LƯỢC KIỂM SOÁT CẢM XÚC (phần 1/1)

37 Khi nghe, tôi luôn tự động viên bản thân

As I listen, I encourage myself through positive self-talk ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

38 Khi nghe, tôi cố gắng thư giãn mỗi khi tôi cảm thấy căng thẳng

I try to relax whenever I feel tense as I listen ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

39 Tôi thường trao đổi với giảng viên và bạn cùng lớp về cách nghe tiếng Anh hiệu quả hơn

I talk to my teacher and classmates about how to be a better listener of English

HƯỚNG DẪN (cho bảng khảo sát 2)

Trong quá trình phát triển kỹ năng nghe ở lớp học, người học có thể cảm thấy lo lắng, bất an, căng thẳng và những cảm xúc tương tự như vậy Và phần khảo sát tiếp theo sau sẽ đo lường mức độ của các cảm xúc này khi nghe tiếng Anh trong lớp học tiếng Anh

Mỗi phát biểu sẽ có 5 lựa chọn như sau:

Bạn vui lòng chọn duy nhất một câu trả lời cho các phát biểu dưới đây

BẢNG KHẢO SÁT VỀ SỰ LO LẮNG KHI NGHE HIỂU TIẾNG ANH

FOREIGN LANGUAGE LISTENING ANXIETY SCALE

1 Khi nghe, tôi thường chú tâm quá nhiều đến một hoặc hai từ trong bài nghe mà tôi không biết nghĩa

When listening to English, I tend to get stuck on one or two unknown words

2 Tôi trở nên lo lắng khi chỉ được nghe duy nhất một lần

I get nervous if a listening passage is read only once during English listening tests

3 Khi nghe các từ được phát âm khác với cách tôi thường phát âm, thì tôi cảm thấy khó hiểu các từ đó

When someone pronounces words differently from the way I pronounce them,

I find it difficult to understand

4 Khi bài nghe có tốc độ quá nhanh, tôi lo lắng mình không hiểu hết tất cả nội dung của bài nghe

When a person speaks English very fast, I worry that I might not understand all of it

5 Tôi lo lắng khi được nghe những chủ đề không quen thuộc

I am nervous when I am listening to English if I am not familiar with the topic ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

6 Tôi dễ dàng đoán được những phần tôi không nghe được trong bài nghe

It's easy to guess about the parts that I miss while listening to English ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

7 Tôi hay lo lắng rằng bản thân đã bỏ qua những nội dung quan trọng trong bài nghe khi tôi bị mất tập trung dù chỉ trong phút chốc

If I let my mind drift even a little bit while listening to English, I worry that

8 Khi nghe, tôi cảm thấy lo lắng khi không nhìn thấy khẩu hình miệng hay biểu cảm trên khuôn mặt của người nói

When I'm listening to English, I am worried when I can't watch the lips or facial expression of a person who is speaking

9 Khi nghe, tôi cảm thấy lo lắng và bối rối khi không hiểu được tất cả các từ trong bài nghe

During English listening tests, I get nervous and confused when I don't understand every word

10 Khi nghe, tôi gặp khó khăn trong việc phân biệt các từ gần giống nhau

When listening to English, it is difficult to differentiate the words from one another

11 Trong lớp học, tôi cảm thấy không thoải mái khi nghe mà không được nhìn lời thoại

I feel uncomfortable in class when listening to English without the written text

12 Tôi gặp khó khăn trong việc nghe hiểu các hướng dẫn bằng tiếng Anh

I have difficulty understanding oral instructions given to me in English ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

13 Tôi cảm thấy khó tập trung vào nội dung, khi tôi không biết rõ người nói là ai

It is hard to concentrate on what English speakers are saying unless I know them well

14 Tôi cảm thấy tự tin khi nghe tiếng Anh

I feel confident when I am listening in English ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

15 Khi nghe tiếng Anh, tôi thường bối rối khi không nhớ được nội dung vừa mới được nghe

When I'm listening to English, I often get so confused I can't remember what I have heard

16 Tôi cảm thấy lo lắng khi bản thân không có đủ kiến thức nền liên quan đến chủ đề đang nghe

I fear I have inadequate background knowledge of some topics when listening in English

17 Dòng suy nghĩ của tôi bị xáo trộn và nhầm lẫn khi nghe các thông tin quan trọng bằng tiếng Anh

My thoughts become jumbled and confused when listening to important information in English

18 Tôi cảm thấy lo lắng khi có ít thời gian để suy nghĩ về nội dung được nghe

I get worried when I have little time to think about what I hear in English ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

19 Khi nghe, tôi thường dịch từng từ mà vẫn không hiểu được nội dung của bài nghe

When I'm listening to English, I usually end up translating word by word without understanding the contents

20 Tôi không thích nghe tiếng Anh

I would rather not have to listen to people speak English at all ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

21 Tôi cảm thấy lo lắng khi không được nghe theo tốc độ mong muốn (như muốn nghe với tốc độ chậm hơn)

I get worried when I can't listen to English at my own pace

22 Tôi luôn nghĩ rằng ngoài trừ tôi thì các bạn trong lớp đều đã hiểu rất rõ nội dung của bài nghe

I keep thinking that everyone else except me understands very well what an English speaker is saying

23 Tôi cảm thấy khó chịu khi không chắc mình có đang hiểu đúng nội dung bài nghe chưa

I get upset when I'm not sure whether I understand what I am listening to English

24 Khi nghe âm lượng quá nhỏ, thì tôi thường cảm thấy lo lắng vì không biết mình đã hiểu đúng nội dung đang được truyền đạt chưa

If a person speaks English very quietly, I am worried about understanding

25 Khi bản thân đang ở trong một tập thể và cùng mọi người nghe tiếng Anh, thì tôi không có cảm giác lo sợ

I have no fear of listening in English as a member of an audience

26 Khi nghe tiếng Anh qua điện thoại (dù trên thực tế hoặc chỉ trong tưởng tượng), thì tôi cũng cảm thấy lo lắng

I am nervous when listening to an English speaker on the phone or when imagining a situation where I listen to an English speaker on the phone

27 Trong những dịp tụ họp đông người (dù trên thực tế hoặc chỉ trong tưởng tượng), tôi cũng cảm thấy căng thẳng với việc nghe tiếng Anh

I feel tense when listening to English as a member of a social gathering or when imagining a situation where I listen to English as a member of a social gathering

28 Tôi cảm thấy khó khăn trong việc nghe hiểu tiếng Anh khi có tiếng ồn xung quanh, dù chỉ có một chút ồn ào thôi

It's difficult for me to listen to English when there is even a little bit of background noise

29 Việc nghe thông tin mới bằng tiếng Anh khiến tôi cảm thấy không thoải mái

Listening to new information in English makes me uneasy ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

30 Khi nghe, tôi cảm thấy khó chịu khi gặp phải những từ tôi không hiểu

I get annoyed when I come across words that I don't understand while listening to English

31 Tôi cảm thấy quen thuộc với trọng âm và ngữ điệu của tiếng Anh

English stress and intonation seem familiar to me ① ② ③ ④ ⑤

32 Khi nghe, tôi thường hiểu rõ các từ trong bài nghe, nhưng lại không hiểu được nội dung người nói đang muốn trình bày/ diễn đạt

When listening to English, I often understand the words but still can't quite understand what the speaker means

33 Tôi cảm thấy lo sợ khi tôi không nghe được một từ khoá (từ quan trọng) trong bài nghe tiếng Anh

It frightens me when I cannot catch a key word of an English listening passage

Cảm ơn bạn đã dành thời gian tham gia khảo sát

Tất cả các ý kiến của bạn là đóng góp quý báu cho bài nghiên cứu này và cũng sẽ là đóng góp to lớn cho việc phát triển trình độ tiếng Anh ở bậc đại học

Mến chúc bạn sớm “đột phá” lên trình độ tiếng Anh cao hơn và gặt hái được nhiều thành công hơn trên con đường học tập

Consent form

1 What kind of listening activities in the language classroom have you been engaged in? And what are you required to accomplish those tasks?

2 Do you discuss with your friendsin pairs or groups before listening?

If yes, what do you discuss?

3 How do you use note-taking strategy during listening? And why?

4 When do you translate in mind from Vietnamese to English during listening?

5 How do you predict the incoming information during listening?

6 Do you have advance planning before listening? And how?

7 How can you pay more selective attentions during listening?

8 What are you going to do when you encounter the information responding to the questions?

9 Do you discuss with your friends in pairs or groups after listening?

If yes, can you share what you discuss with your peers?

10 What are you going to do in case that there are some differences between your responses and your friends’ responses in your discussion?

11 Do you want to share more things about this issue?

1 Trong lớp, bạn thường được tham gia các hoạt động nghe nào?

Các yêu cầu của các hoạt động này là gì?

2 Trước khi nghe, bạn có thảo luận theo cặp hay theo nhóm không?

Nếu có, nội dung thảo luận là gì?

3 Trong khi nghe, bạn ghi chú như thế nào? Tại sao?

4 Trong khi nghe, khi nào thì bạn sẽ thầm dịch từ tiếng Anh sang tiếng Việt?

5 Trong khi nghe, bạn làm thế nào để đoán trước nội dung sắp được nghe?

6 Trước khi nghe, bạn có lên trước kế hoạch mình sẽ nghe như thế nào không?

Nếu có thì bạn lên kế hoạch như thế nào?

7 Trong khi nghe, bạn tập trung cho việc nghe có chọn lọc như thế nào?

8 Trong khi nghe, nếu bạn bắt gặp được nội dung để trả lời câu hỏi trong phần bài tập, thì bạn sẽ làm gì?

9 Sau khi nghe, bạn có thảo luận theo cặp hay theo nhóm không?

Nếu có, nội dung thảo luận là gì?

10 Khi thảo luận với bạn cùng lớp, bạn sẽ làm gì khi có những bất đồng về đáp án?

11 Ngoài ra, bạn còn muốn chia sẻ thêm điều gì nữa không?

INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT OF LOW-ANXIETY LISTENERS

Interviewer: What kind of listening activities in the language classroom have you been engaged in? And what are you required to accomplish those tasks?

LA8: I was involved in to fill in the blanks, give true or false answers, give short answers and choose correct answers

LA11: Yeah, I was required to fill in the blanks, give true or false answers, give short answers after listening in the classroom

LA19: I was involved in the listening exercises, for example filling in the blank, giving true/ false and yes/ no answers, arranging the order of sequence Interviewer: Yeah, thank you And you?

LA26: In the classroom, I also do the type of listening exercises such as multiple choices, true/ false exercises, order arrangement of sequence and short answers

LA28: Yeah, I also those kinds of listening exercise

Interviewer: Alright, thank you So, do you discuss with your friends in pairs or groups before listening? If yes, what do you discuss?

LA8: I usually discuss with my friends about the meaning of the unknown words in the written texts and the contents we are going to listen in the listening text

LA11: Yeah, we often finish the questions together in the section of before listening and then predict the contents we are going to listen

LA19: There are usually some questions we should accomplish before listening in pairs And then, we guess the content we are going to listen according to the guiding question

Interviewer: All of you might have taken note during listening, right?

Interviewer: So, how do you use note-taking strategy during listening? And why?

LA8: When listening, I often take note only key words and key ideas of the text for the task accomplishment Usually, I have to listen and quickly write simultaneously otherwise I will miss the important information

LA11: I frequently take note key words and important ideas in short form to save time and sometimes write the information in the full text to avoid the misunderstanding

LA19: So do I Only key words and ideas

Interviewer: Thanks, how about you?

LA26: I usually write down key words and ideas such as name, age and location to do the listening exercises Interviewer: Yeah, thank you

LA28: When listening, I quickly take note only key words of the listening text in short form for the follow-up listening comprehension activities in the classroom In doing so, I can save time and avoid missing the incoming information

Interviewer: Yeah, thank you Then, can you share with me when do you translate to

LA8: In listening, I try to think in English because it helps me to save time and do the exercises faster But I still sometimes translate to Vietnamese in my mind when guessing the meaning of new word

LA11: I sometimes translate during listening, but I still try to think in English to do the exercises quickly

Interviewer: Ok, thank you so much And you?

LA19: I often try to think in English, but sometimes I still translate to

Vietnamese when encountering new words

LA26: Sometimes I still translate to Vietnamese when encountering new words; and I usually try to think in English

LA28: Well, so do I Usually think in English and sometimes translate into

Interviewer: Alright So, how do you predict the incoming information during listening? And why?

LA8: During listening, I frequently try to predict the incoming information in my mind according to the delivering messages, because it helpfully enables me comprehend the listening text better

Interviewer: Thank you, how about you?

LA11: Yeah, in some cases, it is easy to predict the incoming messages; however, in some situations, for example,… choosing the dishes for dinner is quite hard because of many choices in the menu Anyway, it is better to try to predict what will happen next

Interviewer: Ok, thank you so much And you?

LA19: During listening, I usually try to predict the incoming information based on all ideas which were previously delivered

LA26: Commonly, I also use the ideas the speakers are speaking in order to make prediction

LA28: During listening, I also try to use the written texts, pictures and delivering contents to predict what the speakers intend to say

Interviewer: Alright, thanks so much So, regarding the information prediction, I wonder whether you have advance planning before listening? And how?

LA8: In the listening task, there are introductions and requirements we should finish before listening That helps me to be aware of the contexts and support me to predict less or more the text I am going to listen

Interviewer: Thank you, how about you?

LA11: Yeah, besides the context and requirements, I often think about the synonyms of some key words written in the exercise and the similar contents I already heard before as well That helps me to quickly ‘catch’ the key words in the listening text

LA19: Before listening, we usually accomplish some questions in pairs, which helps us be aware of the contexts and requirements to do after listening

As such, I intend to listen to some specific parts of the text

Interviewer: Ok, thank you How about you?

LA26: So do I I intend to focus on some particular parts and information based on the introductions and provided information such as the written texts and pictures to comprehend the text and accomplish the exercise as well

Interviewer: Yeah, thank you So, you say that you intend to focus on some particular information in specific parts How can you pay more selective attentions?

LA8: I focus on the details I intend to listen to such as name, age or the quantity of something

LA11: During listening, I often try to listen to the linking words such as firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally, and then or after that because these words signal that the speakers transit from this idea to the other one Thus, the detailed ideas are often expressed sequentially that I should pay more attention to those

LA19: Before listening, I intend to focus on some certain information So, during listening, I am going to concentrate more when the speaker

120 mentions to the information nearby the parts which should be focused more

Interviewer: Ok, thank you How about you?

Interviewer: Yeah, thank you so much And let’s say that you encounter the information responding to the questions, what are you going to do in that case?

LA8: Yeah, I always still continuously listen to the text because I might misunderstand the ideas of the speakers Maybe, the following information is explained the previous ideas in details Also, the speakers can change their ideas; for example, changing ideas when buying clothes or choosing the dishes or restaurants for dinner Interviewer: Yeah, thank you And you?

LA11: I often encounter the changes of ideas of the speakers a lot They are some kinds of trap in the listening exercises Thus, it should be better to listen to the text continuously to get the correct ideas

LA19: I continuously listen to the text to figure out the correct answer

LA26: Yeah, me too Because the speaker can suddenly change the ideas at the end of the text Interviewer: Yeah, thank you How about you?

LA28: So do I I continue to listen to confirm what I already listened

Interviewer: Alright, thank you so much So, do you discuss with your friends after listening? If yes, can you share what you discuss with your peers?

LA8: After listening, I usually contrast my responses with my friends’ ones I also ask about unknown words or some uncertain parts I encountered in the text

LA11: I also clarify what I am uncertain in the text

LA19: So do I I also clarify what I can heard clearly and uncertainly with my friends to find out the correct answers

LA26: Yeah, me too There are some parts make me uncertain about my responses, so I discuss with my friends to comprehend the text better And then, we also compare the responses together

Interviewer: Yeah, thank you so much How about you?

LA28: I also contrast responses with my peers and clarify my uncertain contents

Interviewer: Alright, thank you so much So, it is obvious that there are some differences between your responses and your friends’ responses in some cases, right? What are you going to do in those cases?

LA8: We double-check the order of the questions to see whether we check the wrong statement Then, we share what we heard to check which response is correct

LA11: Usually, my friends and I also share what we already heard and then check the requirements again

Interviewer: Yeah, thanks And you?

LA19: We are going to share what we heard in order to check the answers LA26: Yeah, we share the information we got to check our answers

Interviewer: Yeah, thank you How about you?

LA28: We also share what we heard to check our answers

Interviewer: Ok, that is the last question So do you want to share more things about this issue?

Interviewer: Ok, thank you so much, everyone

INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT OF LOW-ANXIETY LISTENERS

Người phỏng vấn: Các bạn được tham gia các hoạt động nghe hiểu nào trong lớp học tiếng

Anh? Và trong những hoạt động này, các bạn được yêu cầu làm gì?

LA8: Em được làm các bài tập điền vào chỗ trống, chọn đúng sai, viết các câu trả lời ngắn và nối các câu ở hai phần khác nhau

LA11: Dạ, trong lớp thì em được yêu cầu làm các bài tập điền vào chỗ trống, chọn đúng sai, viết các câu trả lời ngắn sau khi nghe

LA19: Dạ, em làm các bài tập nghe như điền vào chỗ trống, chọn câu trả lời đúng/ sai, sắp xếp thứ tự các câu trong bài

Người phỏng vấn: Yeah, cảm ơn bạn Còn bạn thì sao?

LA26: Trong lớp, em cũng được làm các bài tập nghe ví dụ như bài trấc nghiệm, bài chọn đúng/ sai, bài sắp xếp các câu theo thứ tự và viết các câu trả lời ngắn sau khi nghe

LA28: Dạ, em cũng tham gia các bài tập nghe đó

Người phỏng vấn: Cảm ơn các bạn Vậy trước khi nghe thì các bạn có thảo luận với các bạn cùng lớp không? Nếu có, các bạn thảo luận nội dung gì?