Effects of corpus based instruction on verb noun collocation use

Statement of the problem

Previous studies about corpus-based approaches, data-driven learning varied from different aspects because of wide applications However, to summarize the historical development, data-driven learning starting with paper-based materials, then has developed thanks to computerization and advanced technology Most of corpus application are about linguistics to serve for research and teaching As regards teaching and learning with corpus-based instructions, applications can be investigation of spoken and written language Recently, corpus-based instruction has received concerns because it helps to shed light upon native-speaker-like language use Especially, corpus-based instruction was recommended for learning collocations

Studies on collocations have become increasingly popular From collocation assessment to collocation types for different kinds of learners Verb-noun collocations are more important than other kind because they help to form a sentence This kind of verb-noun collocations are more difficult for students than other types of collocations, showing a need of investigation

Alongside with teaching vocabulary, teaching collocations has recently received increasing concerns over how to inculcate collocations in EFL classrooms This upward trend is due largely to the great significance of collocations in foreign language learning Nonetheless, teaching and learning collocations in the Vietnamese context have recently encountered several predicaments as regards following issues

Despite being indispensable, promulgation of collocations in classroom seemed to be long ignored As for national studies, while international counterparts placed solid foundations of teaching collocations for years, Vietnamese collocational studies seem to be under investigation (Le, 2017, p.2) The fact that little attention had not paid to teaching collocations leads to an urgent need of researching this in Vietnamese conditions

In terms of instructional methods, there have been little effort in utilizing different practice tasks ; additionally, teachers face discomforts of whether inductive or deductive teaching is more effective More specifically,teachers have little idea about which tasks are beneficial to which types of collocations Given this deficiency of collocation teaching methods, research into collocation teaching methods requires much more concerns

Third, teachers who intend to teach collocations find a turbulence of collocation-based materials disorganized Even though there are some books such as

"Collocations in use", it can be questionable if collocations suggested by these books are good enough to ease learners rather than to threaten them Therefore, the usefulness of collocations taught in classrooms is called into question, thereby urging rersearchers with much more effort to elaborate this issues

Among studies conducted in Vietnam, a few mentioned types of collocations This defect is because of the complexity of both collocation types and verb-noun relations For example, it is arguable how many types of collocations, particularly verb-noun collocations and arguable which verb can go with a given noun In other words, these issues include collocation categorization and verbs suiting with nouns

In short, a lack of collocation theories has renewed much more demand of casting light upon collocational theoretical concepts

Next, it is apparent that technology, namely corpus-based lessons, has hardly ever been applied into teaching collocations,especially in Vietnam Because such applications have some hurdles, corpora have been so innovative that teachers hesitate to apply While corpora had been applied widely, it is called into questions if corpora can be used in Vietnam to teach collocations

Another issue is coupled with practice tasks and tests of collocations Although collocations can be served to writing essays, little had been known about collocation assessment Regardless of well-known collocations examined by reliable sources, the purposes of collocations for writing essays or speaking skills or academic goals have not been clear Therefore, it is imperative that collocation assessment as well as practice tasks should be clarified

Finally, there is absence of studies regarding students' attitudes towards collocations learning and corpus-based learning This is easily understandable since these each aspect just mentioned represent a gap, and the aspects of learners’ attitude have just been concerned since learners are central to every innovative approach

As final notes, learning through corpora has been received both compliments and criticisms As a consequence, it is essential for researchers to give more insights into the applications of corpus in order to maximize potentials and minimize drawbacks.

Goals of the study

The objectives of the study were to investigate the influence of instruction through data on verb-noun collocations and the learners’ attitudes towards this teaching model To achieve these goals, the study was conducted in the two colleges with first-year students, being summarized underneath

This study was executed in the 2 nd semester of the schoolyear 2021-2022 offline over 12 weeks The sample size of the experimental group was 26 students and that of the control one was 14 students The handouts included paper-based practices tasks delivered by the researcher, based on the website British National Corpus The attitudes data were collected from the experimental group who practised the searching with the website, then answered Google Forms of a questionnaire Considering research settings, overall, subjects of the study were majored college students in B1 courses Therefore, the scope of this study did not cover students of other educational institutional levels

Basically, the experiment in this study focused on influence of corpus instruction by conducting the pretest and the posttest, and focused on learners’ attitudes on this instruction model Above all, the theories used were theoretical principles of collocations, underpinnings of attitudes and conceptual frameworks of corpus studies The scope of this study focused on verb-noun collocations, not other kinds of collocations, and focused on learners’ attitudes towards corpus instruction instead of teachers’ attitudes The focus of this study did not emphasize exploration of difficulties participants faced while using corpus Equally important, the scope of this study did not focus on creating a typical list of verb-noun collocations, which required much more time to clarify

The two aims of this study are to evaluate effects of corpus-based instruction on collocation knowledge among Vietnamese undergraduate students, and to disclose learners’ attitudes towards collocations In details, the purpose of RQ1 is to understand corpus-based impacts on collocational learning whereas the purpose of RQ2 to investigate participant’s perspectives on the instruction There are two research questions as follows:

1) What are the differences in student verb-noun collocation use before and after the adoption of corpus-based instruction?

2) What are learners' attitudes towards corpus-based instruction?

The objective of research question 1 is to investigate, firstly, whether instruction through corpus data has positive or negative impacts on collocation knowledge This study intended to target verb-noun collocations because Chan and Liou (2005, p.232) and other authors firmly believe that verb-noun collocations constitute the largest proportion of learner errors as compared to other collocation kinds

The objective of research question 2 is to disclose attitudinal aspects towards corpus-based instruction, a new way of learning collocations This aims to interpret results as a description of a Likerst scale

There are rationales for the two research designs of the two research questions First, according to Cresswell (2012, p.14), data taken from two research questions are measurable and observable Data from research question 1 will be obtained due to assessment of the two tests, meanwhile data from the research question 2 will be obtained from a questionnaire Logically, Cresswell (2012, p.14) pointed out that examples of instruments to obtain quantitative data are survey questionnaires, standardized tests, and checklists.

Significance of the study

Whereas utilizing collocations is often referred as a way of enhancing writing skills, particularly for college students in high-stakes exams, collocations received little attention to pedagogical approaches In order to ameliorate this issue, some authors indicate that for college students learning collocations with corpus websites, or data-driven learning, can enrich collocations knowledge

Some authors proposed that benefits of corpus-based learning can be explained because of some reasons First, some authors stated that Input Flooding Hypothesis, input enhancement and conscious-raising practices (Sharwood-Smith, 1993) are chiefly responsible for this collocational improvement, seeing that learners should be maximized favorable opportunies to be exposed in authentic materials To put it simply, reading corpora extensively can lead to an acceleration of language skills Secondly, some authors agreed that corpora describe how language is used by native speakers Take an example of collegiate students Using appropriate language gives rise to an increase in language skills, as a result

Corpus-based instruction has been considered as compatible with second language acquistion (SLA) (Vyatkina, 2016, p.208), and learning through corpus data emphasized the probabilistic bottom-up approach rather than top-down rules (Ellis,

2014) Also in this respect, the boundary of grammar and lexis was inseparable (Ellis,

2014) Another theoretical underpining of learning with corpus data is the theory of noticing hypothesis by Schmidt (1990) Also, both implicit and explicit instruction should be emphasized to help students understand L2 (Vyatkina, 2016)

However, Vietnam research studies seem to have lacked of the studies relating to corpus-based instruction and collocation; consequently, putting forward a research for this is a much-awaited field of study This study aims at studying the influence of corpus-based instruction on verb-noun collocation use considering that this verb- noun collocation type is problematic with students (Nguyen & Web, 2016) In fact, students may be confused to choose a correct verb for a collocation Equally important, because corpus-based instruction studies were rare it is vital in this study to further investigate learners’ attitudes towards this teaching paradigm Apart from that, this study gives its focus on the verb-noun relation considering aspects of verbs and nouns, based on Durrant (2008)’s definitions of collocations

Therefore, considering the above-mentioned reasons, it is imperative that a study should be conducted as a connection between corpus-based instruction and verb-noun collocations with collegiate participants The implementation of such a study was crucial in Vietnam conditions, establishing more links between linguistics and technology

There are many reasons this study focused on priorities of collocations and corpora in general In most cases, implementing this study opens door to various benefits such as faciliating collocation learning, revisiting theories related to collocations, recommending beneficial practice tasks, clarifying some corpus-based instructional modes, nurturing other teachers in preparation of corpused-based materials, fostering technology-assisted language learning morale and exploring implications to teaching collocations with corpora

First, this study can greatly benefit collocation learning, explaining some theories and suggesting propitious tasks in learning collocations The study could raise greater awareness of collocation catergories and their strengths; thus, it could enable students to be able to understand and learn collocations easily Another possible merit is that sudents could develop collocational consciousness in semantic aspects, thereby supporting students to use collocations at their disposal

Second, this study would give a hint to corpus-based material preparations according to suitable instructional modes, acting as a prerequisite for further research inVietnam For educators, these preparations are highly beneficial for teachers who often encounter obstacles to strive for teaching materials With this study tasks, teachers could diversify teaching materials

Third, this study could contribute substantially to clarifying learners' attitudes towards the corpus-based instruction Surveys or questionnaires could elaborate students perception of corpus-based instruction, for instance surveys to examine whether they love this learning or if they feel confused with corpus examples

To simply put, the roles of this study are of significance on accounts of various reasons For sure, with feasible teachnological applications on language teaching, the study is more important on the advent of the digital age.

Structure of this thesis

This study was organized in different chapters and sections to serve the purposes of elaborate aspects of research theories and design The arrangements of these parts can be used for following purposes

The literature review was divided in three important parts including theories about collocations, instruction based on corpus data, and learners’ attitudes In details, whereas corpus studies were reviewed (section 2.3), the collocation sections (section 2.2) explained the target verb-noun collocations, the attitudes section (section 2.4) analyzed attitudal components and the adapted questionnaire items

Apart from this, the organization of research design part and the data collection procedure part were about the ways this study was carried out More importantly, these ways entail activities that students carried out from week 1 to week 12, and explanation materials that students worked out There were task differences between the experimental and the control group; besides, there were also procedural differences between the research question 1 and 2

The data analysis section shows how data were under calculations leading to final results For special calculation, there were explanations about which tools or formulas for this research to use, and justfication of reasons why they were utilized

Particularly, the appendices include mostly the pretest, posttest, and materials delivered to students Because of distinctive nature of the research, there were a considerable number of handouts, training papers, and other kinds

Finally, in the conclusion and implication parts, findings was reiterated, limitations were highlighted, and future recommendations were made In these part, there were comparisons between current findings and previous studies.

Chapter summary

The aim of this Chapter 1 is to identify problems relating to learning collocations in Vietnam and to narrow down specific aspects being the importance of the thesis’s topic These issues are presented under different aspects including a dearth of teaching methods, collocation assessment, technology-assisted language learning Similarly, there have been other issues discussed such as collocation types, learners’ attitudes towards learning collocations and material preparation Obviously, the statement of the problem determined the background of the study and identied related problems On top of that, while goals of the study described scopes of the study and research questions, significance of the study included rationales of the study In addition, the structure of the study outlined how the thesis was organized

By the end of the this chapter, some critical issues can be spotlighted, leading to the urgent need of this study

The theories regarding collocations, corpus-based approach, corpus-based instruction and students’ attitudes are highly diverse However, concentrating on the mainstream can greatly help outline relating concepts and compare theories The foci of the this chapter are to briefly review fundamental theories regarding collocations, research work on corpora, and students’attitudes; in addition, the latter part of this chapter is to readily identify research gaps.

Collocations

Definitions of collocations

Definitions of collocations are divergent in various studies No matter how different they are, the two main perspectives of collocation definitions are the stastitical view (Greenbaum, 1974; Hunston, 2002; Partington, 1998; Sinclair, 1991) and the phraseological view (Webb & Kaghimoto, 2009, p.59) The former was supported by proponents who are corpus linguists (Webb & Kaghimoto, 2009, p.59) These two perspectives were repeatedly reviewed by Webb & Nguyen (2016, p.2)

Another definitions of collocations mentioned is in Durrant (2008, p.6) Collocations are words in a relationship in which the existence of one word is likely to decide that of the other word Because typical collocates of a word represent a profile which makes them distinctive, the word strong and powerful despite being synonyms can have different collocations such as strong coffee but powerful engine (Durant, 2008) Other examples were illustrated (Durrant, 2008), as regards divergent collocations of nearly synonymous words: sheer, pure, complete, utter and absolute The term semantic prosody referred in (Durrant, 2008) to express the likely semantic environment or an aura of meaning (Durrant, 2008, p 7) that the word can be used in To put it differently, if a word is chosen, its next word is presupposed and so is the next one of that (Durrant, 2008, p.7) These combinations sometimes go beyond independent words' meanings (Durrant, 2008) This loss of meaning is the process of delexicalization (Durrant, 2008) For instance, idiomatic expressions with the similar phenonmenom are spill the beans or sitting duck Durrant (2008) stated SinClair’s

(1987, p 319-320) proposed "idiom principle of interpretation" that is a top priority or "default mode of interpretation" (Durrant, 2008, p.8) In order to explain collocations, learners should, therefore, do "chunking" (Ellis, 2001) or "priming" (Hoey, 2005), which were researched in series of the so-called "psycholinguistically- defined ‘formulaic language’" (Durrant, 2008, p 9) As stated in Do (2017), the term

"formulaic language" has been refered to "lexical phrases, multiword items, formulaic sequences, fixed expressions, prefabricated chunks, idioms, collocations, lexical bundles, conventional sequences" (p.18)

Teaching collocations has been widely researched in a multitude of studies, as in Boers, Demecheleer, Coxhead, and Webb (2014, p.3) for research work in both second language acquisition and second language pedagogy The significance of learning collocation has been evidently proved in Webb & Kaghimoto (2009, p.55)

Walker (2011, p.291) noted that collocation definitions are of either full or partial arbitrariness in multifarious articles (Benson, 1989; Nesselhauf, 2003, 2005; Smadja & McKeown, 1991; Lewis, 1997, p 32); teachers, therefore, try to avoid explanation in classroom Walker (2011, p 292) highlighted an over-dependence of language learners on dictionary, while practicing writing, to decide whether or not some language uses are acceptable What they know the rope is memorisation Besides, in Walker (2011, p 293) emphasized collocation demarcations as habitual co-occurance to combine lexical items with citation of Crystal (2003, p 82)

The components of collocations according to Walker (2011, 294) are nodes and spans Nodes are refered to the main word that is subject to collocation studied Meanwhile, spans are relevant words on the left or right of the node ; spans are called collocates of nodes (SinClair, 1966, p.415).

Collocations are statistically extracted by concordance computer programmes on the basis of their appearance frequencies in divergent discourses But it depends on which senses a node have, its collocates may vary It is widely known that some large corpora can be listed as British National Corpus, Collin COBUILD Corpus, and Cambridge Corpus However, most of them are not free of use and only accessed by own institutional officicers

Unaldi, Bardakci, Akpinar & Dolas (2013, p.83), Benson (1985) and Gabrys- Biskup (1992) categorized collocations as grammatical/ syntactical collocations and semantic/ lexical collocations The former contains a grammatical word with prepositions or structural patterns, while the latter refers to a mere combination of nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs Nesselhauf (2005, p.22) classified collocations into six types: adjective + noun, noun + verb, noun + noun, adverb + adjective, verb + adverb, verb + (object) + noun Aisenstadt (1981) as in Nesselhauf (2005, p.22) further divided verb - noun collocations into verb + noun or verb + preposition + noun (come to a decision) Accordingly, if grammatical elements are added such as prepositions, collocations are of grammatical collocations With regard to classifications of verb-noun collocations, Nesselhauf (2005) tried to clarify meaning of verbs and classified "figurative", "delexical", "technical" (p.22) What is more, Nesselhauf (2005, p.24) made classification based on "commutability" and degree of restriction Briefly speaking, semantic restrictions of either "verb" or "noun" can lead to different combination possibilities Nesselhauf (2005, p.30) divided verbs into five groups depending on the degree of freedom in combinations For instance, verbs in group 1 such as "want" can combine almost every noun while verbs in group 2 such as touch or kill can combine a narrower scale of nouns Verbs in group 3 such as catch or spend are likely to combine in a limited smaller groups of nouns than group 2 because of semantic properties ("catch" + [infectious diseases] or [means of public transport]; "spend" + [a period of time]) (Nesselhauf, 2005, p.29-30) Three groups just mentioned are free combinations (Nesselhauf, 2005, p.30) Then, consider other verbs groups including group 4 and group 5 Verbs in group 4 can have exceptional combination in terms of semantic properties (commit + [something wrong or illegal], i.e, commit a lie, commit a delinquency; perform + [something such as piece of work, task or duty], i.e, perform a survey) (Nesselhauf, 2005, p.30) Verbs in group 5 can only combine with limited number of nouns such as purse sb's mouth, run a risk, fell a tree, foot the bill As a result, combinations of group 4 and 5 are collocations

(Nesselhauf, 2005, p 31) Nesselhauf (2005; 2003) catergorized combinations into free combinations, collocations, and idioms In particular, hold sb's hand for instance, can be regarded as idioms because we can not identify the sense of hand Nesselhauf

(2005, p 33) The idiom means to comfort someone through difficulties.Then, Nesselhauf (2005, p.35-36) has two ways of classifications: The first classification is according to restrictions: collocations of group 4 as said above are RC1 (type 1) and those of group 5 are RC2 (type 2) The second classification is SVC and non-SVC SVC stands for stretched verb constructions which denote verb-noun collocations which are alternatives of the verb itself For instance, take a bite out of is another way to say bite Nesselhauf (2003, p.226) indicated two measures to teach collocation types: RC1 (less restricted) and RC2 (a lot of restriction) Nesselhauf (2003) saw less errors in RC1 (such as pay attention or run a risk) It seemed that learners made more errors with collocations where verbs have a wide range of collocations such as exert, perform or reach

Differently, according to Rezaee, Rouhi, Saeedakhtar (2013), Rezaee et al

(2013) suggested the classification of HCV (high communicative value) and LCV collocations to indicate lexical and grammatical collocations respectively Rezaee et al (2013) in many studies on HCV and LCV Rezaee et al (2013) investigated roles of concordancing with a mixture of HCV and LCV collocational tests Rezaee et al (2013)'s equal targeted collocations comprised HCV items consisting of verb-noun, adj-noun, noun-verb and LCV items consisting of verb-preposition, prep-noun, adj- prep, noun-prep Rezaee et al (2013) found concordancing had had equal effects on HCV and LCV collocations

Among delineations regarding types of collocations, delexical verbs were mentioned to play a role in forming collocations A case in point is make a proposal, in which the meaning is laid on the noun rather than the delexical verb make

(Szudarski, 2012, p.10) In fact, delexical verb + noun collocations (Wang, 2016, p.56) are troubled waters for students Wang (2016) noticed that only some verbs have high frequencies and contain classified semantic features For instance, give goes with communication nouns such as advice, account, indication and answer or goes with behaviors nouns such as yelp, snort, shrug, grunt, gurgle and shudder In terms of "semantic fields" Wang (2016, p.63) listed several examples For instance, in the semantic field of "manner", collocations can be make an effort, take steps, do sb's duty; or, in terms of "communication", collocations can be make a comment, give someone a call (Wang, 2016, p.63) Having analysed in British National Corpus,

Wang (2016, p.65) tabulated a breakdown of uses of "have" in nine semantic fields

A valuable table can be found in Wang (2016, p 67) who listed differences in L1 and L2 of the key nouns in "have" collocations This is significantly noteworthy because Nesselhaulf (2003) suggested a translinguistic method in teaching collocations (also in Sripicharn (2003), Chan & Liou (2005), Nataka (2006), Webb & Kagimoto (2009), Nakata (2006)) Differences in meanings classify if a collocation is congruent or non- congruent Teaching collocations with Vietnamese translations seem to be ignored in general Likewise, the five verbs: "get", "make", "give", "do", "take", has the same tables Chi, Wong & Wong (1994, p.158) took the example of have a shower to show how meaning falls on the noun "shower" whereas the verb "have" loses its meaning or "delexicalised"

Dongkwang (2008) distinguished collocations and colligations Dongkwang

(2008, p.71) explained colligations have the element of grammatical class An example of this is verb+preposition + a ripe old age such as live to a ripe old age, survive to a ripe old age These are colligations rather than collocations because they contained a preposition

Overview of L2 collocations

Vocabulary knowledge is of importance given the fact that it is catalogued into constructs There are variations of vocabulary aspects suggested by researchers, but amongst them are vocabulary form, meaning and use (Webb, Newton & Chang,

Open: drink-> liquid Restricted certain meanings: commit-> immoral act

Certain items are required transparent: brush teeth opaque: spill beans

2013, p 94) (Appendix A) Webb, Newton & Chang (2013, p 94) indicated that for learners, there is less form and meaning knowledge of collocations than form and meaning knowledge of single words For example, a student knows the word medicine, but he or she does not know a correct verb to go with it Consequently, understanding each aspects is essential; reviews about this are thus now disscussed

With respect to word form, Carstairs-McCarthy (2002, p 30) clarified that word forms can distinguished clearly straightforwardly and clearly by pronunciation For example, perform is a lexeme but performance, performs and performed are word forms of the lexeme perform which indicated the bare and unaffixed state (Carstairs- McCarthy, 2002, p.30-31) Also, word forms can be primarily organized in two groups : derivation and inflection According to Carstairs-McCarthy (2002, p.45), while inflectional forms are decided by grammar such as performs or performed, derivational forms result from kinds of affixation Furthermore, the term word classes or parts of speech or lexical categories includes main groups such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs A ô base ằ is a word form that is attached with an affix A base can be roots (for example, wive- in wives is bound root, and cat in cats is free root) or bigger roots that include a root already and an affix (Carstairs- McCarthy,

2002, p 45-49) By adding suffixes and prefixes, verbs can be morphed into nouns, adjectives and many other types.

Verb-noun collocations

Among many types of collocations, verb-noun collocations are ones that Nguyen & Webb (2016, p.4) and Nesselhauf (2005) affirmed students often found most difficult to acquire Similarly, Boers, Demecheleer, Coxhead and Webb (2014,p.55) and Laufer and Waldman (2011) considered the acquisition of verb-noun collocations as being problematic for students Also in Laufer and Waldman (2011), the productive skill of using verb-noun collocations is regarded clearly distinctive between lower- and upper-intermediate students Some verbs in verb-noun collocations are often misused by learners because impact of L1 and lack of equivalents (Nessehaulf, 2005 ; Yamashita & Jiang, 2010) Therefore, it is imperative that verb-noun collocation be concerned as a top priority in collocation research.

Discussion on a working definition of collocations

Based on considerations, the working definition of collocations was chosen in this research is the definition of Durrant (2008) because this emphasizes on the meaning relationship between the words of a collocation In this case, this relation is between the verb and the noun This is why collocations can be classified in different groups from free combinations to more idiomatic collocations This working definition seem have solid theoretical backgrounds as presented in the literature above.

Discussion on verb-noun collocations

As above-mentioned, this study chose verb-noun collocations as the focus of the research given that it is essential for college students In other words, improving verb-noun collocation is expected to ameliorate students’ collocation use

As known from previous parts, one noun of a collocation can go hand in hand with many verbs (Chan & Liou, 2005, p.232) ; however, each verb conveys a different meaning, which depends on either the postive or negative context the sentence carries, expressing meanings such as cause-effect, and success or failure However this factor is not completely systematic but rather it sometimes relies on native speaker habits (idioms) Considering collocational theories and based on Chan & Liou (2005, p.232), Wang (2016) and other authors, selection of target collocations had some modifications and adaptations

Classifications of verb-noun collocations can vary due to recent studies For one thing,Verb-noun collocations can be classified into delexicalized, non-congruent, synonymous verbs, troponymy verbs (Chan & Liou, 2005, p.236-239) For other things, verb-noun collocation can be seen from perspectives of functions (Wanner,

2004, p.102-112), eight most common types of which were listed such as Oper1 (perform/do/act), Func0 (happen/ take place), Real2 (fulfill/ meet) and other types If judged from meaning representation, verb-noun collocations can be classified thanks to hypernym-based meaning representation and the development of WordNet, a lexical database (Gelbukh & Kolesnikova, 2012, p.53-54).

Corpus- based instructions

Corpora definition and development

The notion of real data collection emanated for long but since 1950s it came into use, which was pointed by Leech (1992) and Tognini-Bonelli (2001) Computer development was a prerequisite of transformation: from the start of cumbersome reel- to-reel collections to the groundbreaking innovation of COBUILD ; corpus linguistics, thus, took a remarkable progress (O’Keeffe & McCarthy, 2010, p.5) In historical perspectives, concordance programmes were developed such as Wordsmith Tools (1996) and Monoconc (1996) Cambridge International Corpus (Cambridge University Press) may be one of the biggest corpora in the world

As regards corpora types, corpus linguists these days created divergent ones Small corpora are used to analyse particular uses of language whereas multi-modal ones are in speech, writing or body-language (O’Keeffe & McCarthy, 2010, p.6) There are a plethora of corpora for multi-purposes (Bunting, 2013; Tognini-Bonelli ,2001)

Kim (2019, p 129) made discrimination of "corpus tools" and "corpus methods" Kim mentioned work in Rӧmer (2011, p.206) to set apart "corpus tools" as hands-on text items and corpus-access software programmes Meanwhile, corpus methods involves analytic skills to consult corpus data Corpora undoubtedly substantiate learners with a multitude of potential uses as proven in These usages are widely known as "affordances" in areas of applied linguistics (Hafner & Candlin,

Recently in contrast to disagreements over corpus classroom use, pedagogical applications os corpus uses can be categorised into Direct and Indirect corpus applications These two kinds of corpus applications can be seen in figure 10 below (Flowerdew, 2012, p.192)

Figure 2: Types of pedagogical corpus applications (Flowerdew, 2012, p.193)

To explain types of applications above, Rửmer (2010, p.19) and(Kim, 2019, p.126) noted that indirect applications are refered to work of researchers who compile dictionaries and teaching materials In contrast, direct applications are used by teachers and learners when they actively involve corpora (Rệmer, 2011; Xiao, 2009, p.14) In other words, indirect uses mean to writing books, and direct uses mean to how to use in classrooms.

Corpus-driven approach, corpus-based instructions, and data-driven

There have been a number of terms, namely corpus-based driven approach, corpus-based approach and data-driven learning, which are difficult to understand This part aims at comparing these terms

To begin with, corpus-driven approach means to look for evidence of linguistic rules in corpus data In fact, corpus-driven approach use data to form hypothesis, then to check if this hypothesis is true This means corpus-driven approach begins with a hypothesis, and ends with a conclusion regarding whether the hypothesis is true or

Indirect application: hands on for researchers and materials writers

Effects on the teaching syllabus

Effects on reference works and teaching materials

Direct applications: hands on for learners and teachers (data- driven learning DDL)

Learner-corpus interaction false The nature of corpus-driven approach is for researchers and linguistics, rather than students, to look for new linguistic rules

Look into characteristics of corpus-driven approach Farr (2010, p 29) stated that when a researcher conducts corpus-driven approach, he or she holds no predispositions about linguistic rules He or she will, thus, find evidence of those rules in corpus data This approach was what SinClair and Tognini-Bonelli refer to a pure inductiveness in learning (Johns, 1991a)

In contrast, corpus-based approach is concerned, Tognini-Bonelli (2001, p.17) notioned that corpus-based approach means an explicitness of language rules, and checking corpus-data is just a way of validation and qualification Corpus-based approach, thus, means a start of explicit linguistic rules, and ends at confirming those rules being true Similarly, corpus-based instructions just "reinforces ideas" that were known beforehands (McCarthy, 1998, p.22) as in Farr (2010, p 29)

There are characteristics of corpus-based approach, instead The term "corpus- based" means ‘treats the corpus as an adjunct to the development of theoretical positions’ (Butler, 2002, p.2) The word "adjunct" means an additional and secondary part in instruction McCarthy, Matthiessen & Slade (2002, p.70) clarifies two manners of corpus linguistics They are quantitative and qualitative approach While quantitative approach uses the largest size of data to investigate frequencies, patterns, and recurrence, qualitative approach tries to answer "Why" and to find explanations Considering the quantitative and qualitative approach, Biber (1998, p.4-5), however, proposed characteristics of corpus-based approach In this explanation, "corpus- based" term includes both quantitative and qualitative approach Biber (1998, p.9) pointed that corpus-based approach goes beyond quantitative approach, and goes into interpreting why linguistics rules come into existence

Apparently, there are differences between corpus-driven approach and corpus- based approach First, in terms of users, corpus-driven approach is used by researchers and linguistics in order to discover new language rules, whilst corpus- based approach is used by teachers and students Secondly, in terms of process of human and corpus interaction, corpus-driven approach often adopted the inductive and implicit approach whereas the corpus-based approach often used the deductive and explicity approach Thirdly, in terms of materials, corpus-driven approach exploited a large number of corpora in order to examine the truth and evidence of a language rule ; meanwhile, corpus-based approach uses a specific corpus as an aid to help students check language rules even these rules have been known

Finally, regarding Data-Driven Learning (DDL), DDL is a type of direct applications (Chen and Flowerdew, 2018) which are, as above-mentioned, used by learners themselves; moreover, DDL proposes the way learners both actively learn and research (Cheng, 2010, p.320) Therefore, to be brief, DDL is a type of learning and is conducted in classroom through various steps

To compare, DDL is a type of corpus-based instructions, but it has some specific charateristics For instance, in DDL, learners acts as researchers by looking at concordance lines, and learn from those lines Besides, DDL is often designed to learn ; therefore, conditions of searching are easier, and are made favorable for learners to absorb language

The matter of how many steps a learning process of DDL can undertake has been under debates In details, there are models of OHE, III, PPP, and IIII These models would be explained as following

Firstly, the term "OHE" or observation-hypothesize-experiment that is used to refer the learning process with corpora is often mentioned when it comes to corpus- based instructions (Huang, 2016, p.5; Johns, 1994, p 297) However, this OHE is obsolete when more models have been proposed so far Except for studies of Johns

(1994) and Huang (2016), other instructions regarding DDL have been developed and intertwined with corpus-based approach

Secondly, Sah (2015) used the instructional process 3"I"s strategy: Illustration-Interaction-Induction which afterwards was evolved into 4"I"s with

Previous studies into corpus-based instructions and DDL

Romer (2011) had careful literature reviews of most previous studies about corpora research work The following table demonstrates former studies and their themes in various aspects ; and, to end of the table there are some new unresolved issues that need researching more

Previous studies about DDL in classrooms (Rӧmer, 2011)

Considering DDL as being motivating

Johns 2002, p.108 Learners as ô linguistic researchers ằ

Johns 1997 Learners as ô language detective ằ

Bernadini 2002 Corpus-aided discovery learning with BNC

Bernadini 2002, p.165 Learners and teachers find out patterns of language and behaviors

Summaries of DDL benefits in classrooms MICAE website ; Tom Cobb’s

Romer (2011) ; Boulton (2010) 2011;2010 Downloadable DDL worksheets

Granath 2009 Advantages for advanced students

Yoon 2008 Advantages for L2 academic writing

Advantages for error correction in second language writing

Advantages of corpus over traditional pedagogy

Bernadini 2004b Advantages for translation teaching

Yunus 2017 A summary of DDL benefits For instance, Yunus (2017, p.142) and Huang (2016, p.5-6) agreed with DDL’s benefits First, in specialized courses such as legal discourses, DDL can be used to teach collocations, or to help students write academic legal articles Secondly, DDL can be regarded as a communicative approach which involves language facts and problem-solving tasks (discovery learning) This is because CLT is meaning- making, task-based activities, creativity and self-discovery Furthermore, DDL provide sentences to help students learn grammar What is next, DDL promotes product and process approaches, foster the spirit of teachers as ô facilitators ằ In addition, DDL encourages learner autonomy, independence, consciousness-raising and self-correction Moreover, DDL is in line with Krasen’s Input Hypothesis (Poole,

2012) More usefully, DDL can be used as teaching aids in technology-assisted classrooms Besides those benefits, DDL faciliates teachers to teach collocations and colligations with it (Yunus, 2017, p.144-145) Teaching collocations is one of the most popular uses of DDL

To conclude, there are a great number of benefits of DDL These potentials have been gradually discovered due to different research over time.

Corpus studies in Vietnamese conditions

Relatable to data-driven learning in Vietnam, important findings were highlighted in Karras (2016) and Cong-lem & Nguyen (2021) with different approaches Karras (2016) conducted the experimental studies with secondary students (grade 6 to 8) in vocabulary sections in an international school, utilizing Compleat Lexical Tutor, comparing British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English in comparison with the dictionary-based control group Karras (2016)’s findings were positive results especially if with long-term

DDL lessons Secondly, Cong-lem & Nguyen (2021) used a web-based tool for DDL called LambNLP and conducted a TAM-based survey to understand students perception of technology acceptance and intentions to use, for instance the usefulness of the website Participants of Cong-lem & Nguyen (2021) were major students in Dalat University Although the findings showed positive attitudes from students, the study confirmed the limitations were from limited numbers of participants

Although corpus studies are fairly new areas, there were a quite some studies relating to other different aspects For instance, Huynh, Nguyen & Nguyen (2022) proposed a new corpus for Vietnamese people to facilitate the process of natural learning process Another new corpus designed for Vietnamese people was from Nguyen, Nguyen & Nguyen (2018) to evaluate sentiment, and this corpus was called Vietnamese student feedback’s corpus Apart from this, a bilingual corpus for translation between English and Vietnamese was introduced by Ngo, Winiwater, and Wloka (2013) In addition, Le, Kettle and Pillay (2020) analyzed the student vocabulary needs of Petroleum students in writing emails Furthermore, Huynh and Nguyen (2020) used corpus softwares to compare two sets of Vietnamese English textbooks to extract vocabulary

To be brief, corpus research studies have been becoming increasingly popular in Vietnam This would lead to more attention needed to elaborate corpus models in Vietnam with different aspects of language learning and teaching.

Previous studies into learning difficulties in corpus-based instruction 27

Without doubt, whilst there exists a growing global trend in researching corpora, researchers have debates over difficulties with corpus-based instruction Some consent with benefits; in contrast, others, nonetheless, cast a doubt on corpora implication

Difficulties in learning with corpus were mentioned in Poole (2012), Huang

(2007), Bunting (2013), Breyer (2009), Caliskan & Kuru Gonen (2018), Farr (2008), Lin & Yi (2015), McCarthy (2008), Zavera (2017), Frankenberg –Garcia (2021), (Jeaco, 2017; Wilson, Hertley, Sharoff and Stephenson, 2010, p.776), and Yunus

(2017) To be specific, obstacles are integration of corpora into curriculum, shortage of time, unfriendliness of the website interface, great effort required, dearth of accessibility, requirement of high-level student proficiency to fully benefit corpus activities This was reminded of in Vyatkina (2016) as regards hard reading for low- level learners This was also agreed in Poole (2012, p.690) that concordance lines overwhelmed students or rendered them inconclusive if the meaning was correct In addition, other drawbacks include a shortage of students’ metalinguistic knowledge, preparation of an appropriate corpus, great effort of material compilation The problem of lack of time for learning with corpus data was likely addressed by flipped classroom Khoshsima (2021)

Another barrier of learning corpus mentioned in Bunting (2013) and Healther

& Helt (2011) was that concordance lines (sentences) cut short in a corpus can hinder students’ understanding This is because students find contexts of these sentences confusing

Aside from what were discussed, training is a throny issue in applying DDL For instance, Crosthwaite (2019) found that even teachers were hesitate to apply corpus in classrooms because there was lack of training This means training plays an important role in applying corpora As another way to illustrate, Vannestal and Lindquist (2007,p.344) found that a confusion occurs to a number of students due to technical issues

Moreover, deficiency of analysing skills of students were reported Furthermore, Huang (2016, p.7) pointed that selecting and gaining access to appropriate corpora, having technical issues with pedagogical materials, and pressure from time constraints are difficulties in corpus-based approach and DDL

To discuss difficulties corpus-related research may face, Bunting (2013) mentioned challenges previous researchers had, and these can be seen as following

Difficulties in corpus studies (Bunting, 2013)

-Corpus size causing issues of representativeness and usefulness in question

-ineffectiveness of over-exposing students with authentic language

(2005, p.133) teacher resistance against corpus because:

-poor communication from corpus researchers

-lack of distinction between scientific importance and pedagogical feasibility

-confusion to integrating corpus tools in existing pedagogy

-difficulties because extreme attitudes of corpus proponents (true believers)

-over-reliance on native speaker corpora on patterns -undue focue on frequency as primary identifier

-time and energy from teachers

-truncated concordance lines from bottom-up processing are decontextualized

-less pedagogical opportunities for further discussion and expansion

Staples (2011) Limited data showing its benefits in university classrooms

Two out of fifteen in-service and three out of 16 pre-service teachers used corpus They concerned a lack of time, lack of confidence, relevance of corpus-based teaching methodologies to classes

Complexity of working with tools Time needed to analyze data

Cortes (2011) Around half of students (45%) interviewed concerned about “too many papers to analyze”, “too little time for analysis”

Bunting (2013) Teacher invisibility: weak link between corpus data and classroom

Lack of teachers to carry on

Cortes (2011) Difficult to convince (school) administrators and instructors about the new teaching methods

The ease of integrating is over-stated

It is easier and less daunting for those already enthused about corpus tools than for those not

Furthermore, limitations of DDL should be also considered when it comes to previous studies First, Yunus (2017, p.145) agreed that authentic corpus sentences are examples that are difficult for lower proficient learners to follow Second, Yunus

(2017, p.145) mentioned other researchers’ opinions that authentic corpus sentences fail to convey meaningful sociolinguistic senses Third, Yunus (2017, p.145) highlighted other researchers’ opinions that they casted doubt upon practicality and efficacy of DDL in which conducting DDL is pedagogically challenging DDL seemed reliant on learning styles and motivation because it changes noticeably among different students In addition, Yunus (2017) indicated some studies that believed that vast data of DDL can confuse learners or discourage ill-trained learners What’s more, DDL can have negative effect on technophobic learners Another limitation is that DDL is not Asian learners’ cups of tea because they get used to being knowledge recipients rather than explorers with hypothesis and formulation In such countries, deductive approaches are prevalent To conclude, DDL has many drawbacks To the end, Yunus (2017, p.146) considered DDL as being “a perpetual challenge for teachers and learners”.

Learners' attitudes

There are a variety of attitude definitions mentioned, among which there are some relevant studies that are useful for this study Generally, attitude is the term used to indicate a " a hypothetical construct used to explain the direction and persistence of human behavior" (Baker, 1992, p.10)

According to Yang (2010, p.13), Matsuda (2000) developed the concept to divide attitudes into three components: cognitive, affective, and conative (readiness for action) This division was somehow similar to Gardner (1985) Gardner defined

"attitude" as “Attitude is thus linked to a person’s values and beliefs and promotes or discourages the choices made in all realms of activity, whether academic or informal.” There were other research work relating to attitudinal components (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1973, p 493; Ostrom, 1969, p 12; Breckler, 1984, p 1191) ; in addition, each of attitudal components was elaborated (Bloom, 1956 ; Krathwohl et al, 1964 ; Simpson,1966) For instance, Bloom (1956) explained cognitive domains while Simpson (1966) analyzed behavioral aspects

Abidin, Mohammadi and Alzwari (2012, p.121) refers this emotional aspect to how students like or dislike the learning In this respect, emotion and feelings serve as triggers to students’ attitudes and perspectives (2012, p.122)

According to Bloom’s scale, the affective domain consists of receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and characterization (Krathwohl et al., 1964; Anderson et al., 2001) In summary, from receiving for characterizing, learners form emotion and then behaviors in relation to learning objectives

Abidin, Mohammadi and Alzwari (2012, p.121) stated that cognitive aspects involve belief about the knowledge and understanding of learning process This aspect includes four steps: connecting the old to the new information, creating, checking and applying new knowledge Also, being widely believed, cognitive aspects encompass the beliefs, thoughts and viewpoints about the object

Kara (2009) indicated that this aspect is seen clearly when a student has a positive attitude toward learning Therefore, he or she behaves or reacts positively in the class Such behaviors express eagerness to solve problems, acquire knowledge, useful skills and engage emotionally Likewise, in this respect, learners strive to learn more, for example useful life skills

In overall, to summarize, three aspects mentioned are affective, cognitive and behavioral apsects These aspects plays important roles in measuring attitudes This was emphasized in Baker (1995, p.12-13), Allport (1954), Oppenheim (1982), Garrett

2.3.4 Previous studies into attitudes towards learning with corpus

There are research studies to investigate attitudes toward corpus-based instruction (Chang & Sun, 2009; Charles, 2012, p.5; Poole, 2020, p.11; Charles, 2012, p.5; Liaw, Huang & Chen, 2006; Sripichan, 2003, p.213-214) These studies have different questionnaires of attitudes; however, the drawback is there was not about verb-noun collocations Furthermore, there was a deficiency of explanation of attitudinal aspects, namely affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects

Poole (2020) made an investigation into teacher’s attitudes towards corpus- based teaching, and findings revealed some pluses and minuses of this learning type Teachers agreed that corpus-based activities were helpful; besides, students could use searching modes On the other hand, findings showed that while students can search they did not engage in inductive learning activities; in addition, they were not autonomous; and did not have enough proficiency to understand sentences or to analyze searches Furthermore, teachers concerned over time to prepare materials

Lin (2015, p.2) reported findings of attitudes towards corpus-based learning with key authors For instance, Lin (2015) highlighted positive or optimistic findings of attitudes in some research (Cresswell, 2007; C Yoon, 2011; Lenko-Szyma nska, 2014; H Yoon & Hirvela, 2004 ; Phoocharoensil, 2012; Charles, 2014; Geluso & Yamaguchi, 2014; Phoocharoensil, 2012 ; Rezaee, Marefat, & Saeedakhtar, 2014 ; Jalilifar, Mehrabi, & Mousavinia, 2014 ; Smart, 2014; Todd, 2001; Tono, Satake, & Miura, 2014 ; Z Huang, 2014; H Yoon, 2008) Lin’s study, itself, also had findings with the same results, such as students being motivated (Lin, 2015, p.15-17) Moreover, Lin (2015) found that Taiwan students, stereotyped as traditional ones, suits corpus-based instruction, which Lin (2015) likened with Japanese students in a previous study

Charles (2011) investigated students’ attitudes toward corpus-based learning about rhetorical functions, and found that comments were favorable and positive

This agreed with some other authors However, one of some important findings was that respondents thought analyzing concordance lines was easy (item 12 with 54%)

Chan and Liou (2005) investigated students’ attitudes after having students take the pretest and posttest, and had positive findings Participants felt the special designed bilingual corpus, and they liked explicit feedback (Chan and Liou, 2005, p.246)

Geluso and Yamaguchi (2014) examined students’ attitudes in a study to improve spoken fluency, and found some strengths and weaknesses of DDL Their study found that students believed DDL was useful and effective Students admited effectiveness; however, they confessed some difficulties when facing lexical problems and being confused with concordancing lines

Asik, Vural and Akpinar (2016) found negative attitudes in a study into DDL instruction to improve lexical awareness In fact, negative feedbacks from Turkish students showed that they faced technical issues, wasted much time completing corpus-based tasks, and their lexical awareness had not increased as expected.

Research gaps

Generally, collocation studies seem to have be inconsistent in different research areas This thesis attempted to bridge the following gaps, which are now discussed

The first gap is that in Vietnam, collocation studies focused on a few themes such as topic-based collocations or Vietnam- English comparison.There was a study about comparison and contrast between English and Vietnamese collocations (Le, 2005; Vo, 2010) Another study is about collocations of words in sports (Nguyen,

2011) These studies, although important and new, can be argued if target collocations were beneficial to students, especially in writing skills Moreover, there was a deficiency of studies in different language dimensions

The second gap is that in Vietnam the collocation teaching lacks of of well- designed approach This leads to ineffectiveness of collocation teaching, and shortage of collocation practice tasks, as well as scarcity of technology assistance Take the study of Webb and Nguyen (2016) as for investigating receptive knowledge of collocation among Vietnamese students One drawback is the test Web and Nguyen

(2016) designed was very randomized; instead, many collocations students never use Web and Nguyen (2016) affirmed shortcomings of collocations teaching in Vietnam This was explained because of inadequacy of collocational meaningful contexts which facilitates students Furthermore, this was also because students pay little attention to collocations Another drawback is only one test task, multiple-choices, was used This is because only receptive skill was emphasized To summarize, Web and Nguyen’s study was well-designed ; however, usefulness of target collocations, test-task simplicity, and deficiency of technology assistance

The third gap relates to productive skills, namely writing Take other studies as examples Hoang and Nguyen (2018) found some signficant correlation of collocation scores of four-year and one-year students between collocation scores and reading-writing scores Tran and Nguyen (2018) researched and found signficant correlations between collocation posttests and writing scores These studies are in common with descriptive data, instead of effect of instruction on collocation test scores

Another gap is lexical collocations are very often subjects to recent studies A survey highlighting impacts of teaching lexical collocation on writing scores (Dang,

2018) and an investigation exploring collocation errors (Nguyen, 2016) are examples This is, however, arguable if it is possible for verb-noun collocations, another type of collocations, can be researched in Vietnam

The fourth gap is collocation instructions, ways of collocation teaching.Whilst some studies suggest that students should be exposed in collocation-embeded texts, other promoted translation-based instructions Alternatively, some studies foster students’ understanding of semantic features of collocations Meanwhile, other studies emphasized on the two different ways of explicit and implicit learning (or deductive and inductive learning) Take Chan and Liou (2005) as an example Students were asked to search in a corpus and learn collocations Nonetheless, Chan and Liou (2005)’s research design was different, and was aimed at Chinese students Therefore, this gap of collocation teaching seems to have been wide

Another gap is although corpus studies have been increasingly popular recently as mentioned in part 2.3.4 and part 1.3 , an investigation into collocation learning with corpus data seems to receive little attention Therefore, it is important to carry out a research as to whether the effect of learning with corpus data is effective to college students

The next gap is the test’s format A number of worldwide studies designed receptive tests, productive tests but not both Besides, test tasks are mostly multiple choices and are decontextualized (without contexts) They just gave items without full sentences Although few studies gave two or three sentences like what are in Web and Kagimoto (2009), others such as Webb and Nguyen (2016) and Gyllstad (2009) use one or no sentence in question items There are inconsistent implementations of collocation test-designers such as Bonk (2000), Gallstad (2009), Revier (2009) and Eyckmans (2009) But aside from them, Rezaeea, Marefata and Saeedakhtara (2013) and Chang and Sun (2019) modified the aspect of writing with collocations (proofreading, paraphrasing or storytelling) into tests which make their research worthier Therefore, the gap here is to investigate a test containing many elements that are suitable for Vietnamese lower level students

Another gap is before this thesis was written and conducted, there had not been attitudes towards instruction with corpus in Vietnam pedagogy This is because of the shortage of research into corpus in Vietnam This study, thus, can offer valuable help to casting light on attitudes towards corpus-based instruction

Finally, there has been little evidence that speaking skills were investigated in relation to collocation learning among students, regardless of there having been a gap of speaking- aimed collocations Nevertheless, this gap is, although great, hard to implement research because of inclusive findings First, the speaking skill is heavily influenced by a profusion of factors hard to make assessment Even if a student uses abundant collocations in their speaking, it is hard to say they have good speaking performance Instead, contributing factors can include rhythm, intonation, grammatical accuracy, lexical range, or appropriateness Furthermore, rating processes for these aspects are challenging and nerve-racking(Luoma, 2004, p 171), whether they are holistic or analytic In addition to that, recording and scripting out elements in student products generate multiple difficulties Second, the speaking skill endures huge impact from validity especially teaching conditions, say, interraters, topics, and time As a result, this gap of collocation-investigated speaking research can, although great, lead to an uncertainty in findings In a nutshell, conducting a research with speaking-aimed collocations and instruction via corpus is unfeasible

To recap, it seems teaching collocations with corpora have not received attention in a prolonged period in Vietnam in terms of technology-assisted instructions, instructions through corpus data, tests, usefulness and Vietnamese- student levels.

Chapter summary

This Chapter 2 aims at revisiting literature of previous studies relating to collocations, corpus-based studies, and learners ‘attitudes; research gaps were then recognized and research questions were posed considering the relation of factors and research conditions This Chapter also presented theories and analyses of plus and minus points of approaches

More specifically, in terms of collocations, this chapter mentions definitions of collocations, their types, and knowledge of knowing collocations Collocation types concerned include lexical and grammar collocations, one of which is verb-noun collocations, an important type As for attitudes, various theories divided attitudes into three components Long proven in research work, three components are affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects Respecting research question gaps, this study aims at collocations because of shortages of research work in Vietnam, in terms of collocations and learning through corpus data Finally, the Chapter 2 poses two research questions for this study in views of both the influence of learning through corpus data on collocation learning and the learners’ attitudes towards this instruction

The purpose of this chapter was geared towards describing the research design, research participants of this research, explaining research instruments and materials The progress of this chapter then continues with data collection procedures for each research questions Consequently, data analysis was implemented and presented, and ethical issuses and consent forms were further discussed.

Research design

The two research questions both were quantitative research studies Therefore, data were acquired based on statistical methods in terms of each research question

The reason of using quantitative research was data could be certainly obtained by virtue of observable and measurable data Creswell (2012, p.13) pinpointed that characteristics of quantitative studies envelop distinctive attributes such as narrow, specific, observable, and measurable purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses In addition, these studies made a collection of numeric data based on preset questions and responses

This study undertook an experiment and a survey because of following motivations Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2018, p 187) clarifies that each of models has different purposes On the one hand, experiment model is designed to involve comparing results under controlled conditions, making generalization of effectiveness of a treatment, measuring in an objective way, and establishing causality between a teaching method and its effect On the other hand, survey model (RQ2) involves gathering big data for generalization In this study survey model was employed under the form of a questionnaire

There were cogent reasons that corpus-based investigation could greatly benefit from this research design Indeed, an experimental study and questionnaires were adaptable Experimental studies not only gave rise to evaluating corpus-based impact on collocation learning due to test results but also eliciting learner opinions in terms of the brand new instruction As opposed to experiments, correlational and descriptive could never provide deep understanding of relations of the collocation teaching with corpus and collocation learning In Vietnam, the start of instruction through corpus should be triggered with experiments Therefore, the experiment study was chosen

As for research conditions, although in the world there had been studies using corpora compiled by researchers themselves, Vietnam research studies could hardly make a corpus just for study This was because Vietnam educational conditions were not able to equip appropriate computer rooms with corpus-based softwares This insufficiency led to a research design that fitted to available conditions, namely using students’ mobile phones or laptops to search corpus sentences and namely using an available corpus website, the British National Corpus

The current study was quasi-experimental on grounds that population sampling was not randomized; the research conditions were not standardized Creswell (2012, p.309) pinpointed experimental studies have to be strict since there was random assignment of participants Given that random assignment benefits from objectiveness, however, in the thesis’s conditions, it was unworkable to create randomly-assigned groups Classes appointed to the researcher depended heavily on school years and semesters whose conditions were not ideal as expected

The teaching procedure which was designed in this study had certain justifications The model P-P-P (Presentation- Practice - Production) was familiar in the Vietnamese context, and is widely known (Harmer, 2007, p.66; Sah, 2015; Smart,

2014) This model was also hinted on the ground of Lexical Approach (Lewis, 2000, p 178) Another justification for this teaching procedure was the adaptation from work of Dufour (2017) If other instructional models such as III or OHE (see Chapter

2) had been chosen, learners would have faced difficulties to study since Vietnamese students, who are from oriental cultures, are accustomed to the deductive approach.

Research participants

The study involved two groups of participants: the control group and the experimental group For each group, participants were sources to provide different data for different research questions

Regarding research quesition 1 (RQ1), participants were freshmen who majored in English at two different colleges in HoChiMinh city With view to characteristics of participants, these participants were at B1 level, majored in English (Translation or Commerce), accounting for an approximately equal ratio of genders, and they were following courses of Grammar B1 and Reading and Writing There were 26 students in the experimental group and 14 students in the control group

The sampling method was convenience sampling due to availability and accessibility Creswell (2012, p 145) mentioned that convenience sampling was conducted when participants were willing and available, which leads to the fact that the study’s representativeness is not guaranteed although useful information of the research can be possibly provided

Regarding research question 2 (RQ2), 26 students who had used the corpus gave their opinions by responding the attitude questionnaire The participants responded questions on the platform of Google Form

For the reason that even students with high scores in B1 tests, it can not be concluded about their ability of collocation knowledge, the input tests for the two groups were not always necessary to carry out The level of partcipants were greatly determined by the course they were following

The teacher of this study was the researcher at C1 level The research was conducted by the researcher to ensure handouts and explanation to be delivered in time, considering the complication of the study

Justification of choosing different sampling research areas

The study chose participants from different areas since there were certain research conditions Whereas selecting participants from different research venues can hinder the generalization of the corpus-based effect which perhaps leads to limited understanding of this kind of instruction model, there are objective causes relatable to this selection

In the objective terms, although generalization of the effect could be criticized to have less valuable on the premise that choosing different research venues can undermine results, there are some plus points about it First, if data had been collected from one site (one university or one college) it could have been suffered from the same quality of student cohorts To put it simply, a college usually recruits students with a certain level and a certain quality If data had been collected from one college, the research data could have been characteristics of such college, the generalization therefore was seriously affected Apart from this, some researchers argue that homogenity of student levels from the input in the same college should be important be conduct independent Sample T-tests; however, it could be somehow impractical

To be specific, expectation of an ideal condition can not be lived up to and was not completely feasible considering time limit When mistakes could have occurred, if the cancellation of unqualified research results had accumulated along with implementation of the research, the workload would have become unmanagable

Some other objective reasons can be given to the choice of different research colleges Internal validity was one factor to consider In fact, Street (1995) and Creswell (2012) pointed that there are a number of extraneous factors or confounding factors Creswell (2012, p.304) indicated that threats to validity include the history factor, In case of the history factor, if a long time had bee spent on in one college to choose a student group, it would have led to unexpected events occurs which would intervene the treatment, or In fact, in colleges, having one group of majored students to follow a majored course is mostly difficult; therefore, the researcher would have waited until the next semester to continue the study However, this can lead to the factor of diffusion of treatment (Creswell, 2012, p.305), which entails the fact that the control group can learn about the treatment from the experimental group Making two groups completely separated can be impossible In addition, the disadvantage of conducting two groups in one college can be proved by the factors of compensatory rivalry and resentful demoralization (Creswell, 2012, p.305; Street, 1995, p.178) In fact, knowing being treated in the control group with no special treatment can trigger resent among control participants considering this as unfair On the opposite, the experimental group can complain they must carry out a great number of tasks, being much more than the control group.When this occurs, either the control group or the experimental group could underperform, leading to the results being not objective Street (1995, p.178) stated that one measure taken to avoid resentful demoralization is that the researcher should consider collecting data from two different institutions

To summarize, it was admitted with limitations that if different research venues had been chose, the results would have been much more reliable and valuable Nonetheless, considering time constraint, and the abovementioned factors, the study was perhaps possible with limited available conditions.

Research instruments and materials

The instruments of this study were the pretest and posttest, scoring rubrics, teaching materials for research question 1, and the questionnaire for research question

2 These instruments were described and analysed as follows

3.3.1 The pretest and the posttest

There were two tests assigned to participants These two tests, namely the pretest and posttest were designed by virtues of following reasons

Regarding RQ1, the two tests included the pretest (Appendix B) and the posttest (Appendix C) Keys of these two tests were displayed in Appendix D

In terms of the format, there was a similarity among the two tests, each of which consiseds of four parts (Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, and Part 4) The format of these tests were identical although their contents changes relatively Formats were similar in order to avoid participant’s estrangement which leads to invalidity of test scores

If participants had been surprised by alien formats, scores of the tests would have been affected Additionally, this resemblance could give rise to homogeneity or parallelism among tests Alternatively, format identicalness could result in reliable stability via a test-retest process, which benefited consistency of the assessment

First, Part 1 consisted of mutilple choices in order to assess receptive knowledge of collocation In this Part 1, there were fifteen multiple choices (Questions 1 to 15) Participants had to choose only one correct answer out of four options, three of which were distractors The answer was the right verb suitable for the noun given in the sentence to form a right collocation The right collocations were target collocations chosen because of high frequencies in BNC (British National Corpus) In contrast, wrong collocations were wrong word combinations or wrong meaning Sometimes, the verbs of distractors were synonyms of the correct option; however, it was untrue to use these verbs This was because in special situations there was only one verb that could collocate with the given noun

Another reason for a correct option in tests was that the collocation in the correct option was a fixed expression that was idiomatic As explained in chapter 2 (part 2.1), idioms were formed because of native habitual uses This is irreplaceable, and cannot be altered by other verbs

This part 1 of the pretest and the posttest was in multiple choices because multiple choices are popular among previous studies on collocation (Gyllstad, 2009; Gyllstad, 2017; Nguyen and Webb; 2016, and many other authors) Chan and Liou

(2005) used synonyms of verbs to make this multiple choice format of their collocation tests An example of the pretest and the posttest is

Example: Noise can stress even when a person is sleeping

A cause B affect C make D bring Answer: A Cause

The nouns that were key words of target collocations were in reference to Lei and Liu (2018), Gyllstad (2007; 2009), Barfield and Gyllstad (2009), Ackermann and Chen (2013), Chan and Liou (2005), Barfield and William (2006), Wang(2016), Chi, Wong and Wong (1994), Nesselhaulf (2003), and Peng (2016)

Part 2 of the pretest and the posttest comprised five questions (Questions 16 to 20) This part 2 was error recognition, or also known as the proofreading task This was designed in reference to Chang and Sun (2009, p.286) Chang and Sun

(2009, p.286) stated that proofreading could give rise to writing skills and writing competence

From a paragraph having five errors of collocations, part 2 of the pretest and the posttest required learners to select unsuitable word combinations To do this task, learners had to recognise collocations among combinations in a paragraph with many sentences An example can be seen in the part 2 of the pretest (Appendix A) Besides the correct collocations, there were distractors of word combinations for test-takers to consider

Part 3 had five questions (Questions 21 to 25); this part let test-takers fill collocations in gaps These collocations were given with only initial letters of the verbs and Vietnamese meaning in a bracket For example, “s _ an exam” (trãi qua một kỳ thi) (Answer: sit an exam) This format of this part 3 was in reference to Webb and Kagimoto (2009), Szudarki (2012), Nataka (2006) The purpose of this test was to highlight differences between the collocations and their translated Vietnamese meaning This design aimed to adopt the contrastive approach in learning collocations and to focus on major problems facing learners as for non-congruent collocations Sometimes, there were one or two technical collocations being embedded This was compatible with Nesselhauf's (2003) types of collocations and Nesselhauf (2003)'s suggestions to teaching collocations

Example: She showed these children a series of pictures and got them to t _ what they had seen ( kể chuyện)

Part 4 of the pretest and the posttest had five questions (Question 26 to 30) Participants made sentences from a given noun by thinking of a suitable verb for the noun If a sentence made by participants did not contain target collocations, it would be illegitimate and unmarked This aimed at assessing productive collocation knowledge which had been used in many studies such as Daskalovska (2015)

Answer: He has kept a diary since the age of thirteen

To sum up, there had four parts in three tests given Each part required students to various tasks The three tests were designed in a wide range of test tasks such as multiple choices, spoting errors, making sentences from hints and making a whole new sentence from given words

Despite the pretest and the posttest having had similar formats, they nonetheless included different collocations Some collocations were located at later weeks for their idiomacity which could embarrass those who learn with corpus the first time Besides, there were some collocations overlapped between the pretest and the posttest Reasons for this are next discussed

There were some compelling reasons why there are ten collocations repeated in the pretest and posttest Firstly, those who had not known collocations in the pretest were tested again in the posttest to show if there would be any improvement Secondly, the rate of repeated collocations was one third of targeted collocations, which could produce minor influence on participants’ assessment as the whole Thirdly, presence of such repetition guarantees the two tests' consistency

Had much repetition been given, much repetition would have produced errors in data collection In fact, if all collocations had been repeated in both tests, unexpected effects such as memorization would have influenced results gained In contrast, if the pretest and the posttest had no repeated collocations, it would have been impossible to observe participants’ improvement

Another reason to avoid much repetition of target collocations in the pretest and the posttest is to hinder the teach-for-test effect which many researchers disagree with These researchers took issues with teaching methods in which teachers only teach students some knowledge for exams, and then design a test containing this repetitive question items It is recommended that the knowledge taught to students should be more than the knowledge in the tests

Data Resources

Data types and data sources for each of research questions

Research question Data type Data sources

What are the differences in student verb-noun collocation use before and after the adoption of corpus-based instruction?

(Experimental study: pretest and posttest)

-Students' pre-test scores -Students' posttest scores

What are learners' attitudes towards corpus-based instruction?

As presented in the table, each of research questions had different data types and data sources Regarding research question 1 data types were continuous (score totals of tests) and categorical (with or without corpus-based instruction) Regarding research question 2, the data type was continuous because scales of the questions were numeric.

Data Collection Procedures

3.5.1 Quantitative data collection for RQ1 into corpus instruction’s influence on collocation use

It is essential that two research questions needed more justifications There were differences about timing and variable types in two research questions First, the data for research question 1 was taken at the beginning, at the Week 12 of the course and at the Week 14 of the course Important points of time corresponded to the pretest, and the posttest Meanwhile, the data for research question 2 was taken at the Week

12 of the course after the posttest had been taken

The teaching procedure for each week in two groups

Time Control group Experimental group

PRETEST Appendix B 2.Teacher gave a course introduction

3.Teacher announced the working schedule, asking Consent Forms

3.Teacher announced the working schedule, asking Consent Forms Appendix M

4.Teacher gave a corpus training session

Teacher gave students 1 sheet of Appendix J

Teacher gave feedback to students, corrected answers practice- production tasks

The table given illustrated how teaching procedure to collect RQ1 data occured during the study Overall, for both groups (experimental and control group), there were four different phases: phase 1 (Week 1), phase 2 (Week 2 to 11), phase 3 (Week 12), and the phase 4 (Week 14)

Apparently, the experimental group was similar to the control group regarding stage 2 of phase 2 (Week 2 to 11), phase 3 and phase 4 Apart from being in stage 2 of phase 2, two groups both accomplished handouts of Practice-Production Tasks These two groups also experienced the posttests

For week 1, the experimental group was entirely different from the control group As can be seen, both groups had consent forms, Pretests, listened to explanation to importance of learning collocations, and introduction to the time of given phases, whilst the experimental group alone had some information about corpus and the training session In this regard, the experimental group, in addition, was introduced to importance of corpus instruction over collocational learning The experimental group, more differently, then, took up the training session This guidance was short, and it helped participants search as well as familiarize with the corpus’s website interface

From week 2 to 11, the both groups were attributed to very different stages For example, the control group was delivered collocation lists with Vietnamese meanings, meanwhile the experimental one was delivered the Hypothesis Formation Tasks Furthermore, the control group, next, had read Vietnamese meanings and examples in the list before soon moving on the stage 2 By contrast, the experimental group did not have the list, but instead it had tasks to hypothesize from sentences what they had read from the corpus website They, after that, searched collocations and worked out with hypothesis tasks Following this, the experimental group continued moving on to stage 2 (Practice Production Tasks) like the control one In this stage 2, both groups stimultaneously worked with the same exercises whose formats were displayed in the table above

In general, as a side note, the total time of a couse was fixed The class meetings were set once a week for 3 periods (2 hours 15 minutes), and prolonged 15 weeks The treatment period lasted for 10 sessions (10 weeks)

In terms of reliability of Pretests and Posttests, scoring was conducted by two raters (the researcher and a Master graduated learner) to ensure interrater scoring processes There were some slight differences in recognition of Part 4 relating productive skills For example, “one rater gave “have difficulty” 1.0 point because it was a correct collocation; but the other rater gave 0.5 point because it was not the target collocation; instead, it must have been “face difficulty” However, these differences were not significant

After having another examiner score the test, this study chose results from the own researcher’s work, although these score numbers are smaller than those from the friend This is due to two reasons First, the target collocations taught in classrooms were “face difficulty”, not that “have difficulty” When students continued using

“have difficulty”, this means there was no improvement Secondly, Warren (2007, p.11) emphasized that “face” means to be in a negative situation This word highlights the seriousness of the bad situation expressed in the question Therefore, smaller scores were kept

With view to reliability of the questionnaire, Cronbach’s Alpha tests were run in three components of the attitude items, and an overall value All of them were larger than 0.7, which showed the questionnaire was reliable

As for practice sheets, participant task sheets were all scanned and uploaded into Google Drive In addition to these digitalized data, there were paper-based task sheets stored for later use

3.5.2 Quantitative data collection for RQ2 into leaners’ attitudes towards the corpus instruction

To understand participant attitudes towards corpus instruction (research question 2 which investigates perspectives of participants regarding corpus inculcation), this study used a questionnaire including a 15-item questionnaire The questionnaire was adapted from the questionnaire made by Yoon and Hirvela (2004) about ESL students’ attitudes towards corpus use in L2 writing

Data collection was implemented through Google Forms, which was best fit- suited in reviewing stastitics and calculation This was to reduce mistakes as compared to paper-based surveys manually

With respect to the questionnaire item scales, the option "strongly disagree" received 0 point, "disagree" received 1point, "neutral" received 2 point, "agree" received 3 point, and "strongly agree" received 4 point The first part of the questionnaire is asking about personal information.

Data Analysis

3.6.1 Quantitative analysis relating to Research Question 1 (RQ1)

In response to RQ1, the quantitative analysis of data of the Pretest and the Posttest was run by SPSS The analytical processes included distribution of Pretest and Posttest scores of the experimental and the control group, effect size calculation, and paired sample t-tests of the pretest and the posttest of the CG and EG

Firstly, distributions of the Pretest and Posttest scores of the pretest and the posttest were examined This was to examine if scores were normally distributed In order to do this, both visual and numerical analyses were implemented

Secondly, an independent T-test of the Pretest scores of the two groups were conducted in order to compare differences of Pretest scores in the two groups There would be two cases In case that the pretest scores of the two groups were similar, independent T-tests of postttest scores between two groups would be used In contrast, supposed that the pretest scores of the two groups were different, the independent T-test would not be used In this later situation, the problem can be only solved by calculating effect size values

To this respect, effect size calculation can be implemented In terms of Effect Size, there are needs to report this value and definitions to explain First, Effect Size is required to be reported according to APA and other publications (Kelly and Preacher, 2012, p.138) This is a criterion to evaluate the significance of a study Secondly, in terms of Effect Size’s definition, there have been many definitions Nakagawa and Cuthill (2007) defined Effect Size as a measurement of magnitude of an effect Kelly and Preacher (2012) listed definitions of effect size as a value to indicate the importance of an effect Kelly and Preacher (2012, p.140) defined that effect size quantitatively reflects the phenonmeno’s magnitude in order to address a question of interest To have a note, Cohen’d is used with caution If Cohen’d is large, it means the effect is large when compared to Rule of Thumb of Cohen’d (particularly 0.2, 0.5, 0.8) (Cohen, 1988, p.20-22; Sawilosky, 2009, p.599) However, a larger effect is not necessarily better that a small one Indeed, if the d value is under 0.2, the effect of the treatment is considered as trivial and small If the d value is about 0.5, the effect of the treatment is medium If the d value is above 0.8, the effect is large

A calculation of Effect Size, or Cohen’d (Cohen, 1988, p.20-22; Sawilosky,

2009, p.599) is used if there is a difference in pretest mean scores of two groups Effect Size was used to identify how large the effect of a treatment is The Cohen’d’s formula is shown as follows:

Finally, an analysis of paired t-test was conducted to compare the result of the Pretest and Postest scores within Control Group and within Experimental Group This is to measue the influence of treatments on the collocation learning within each group

3.6.2 Quantitative analysis of questionnaire scores (RQ2)

The analysis of RQ2 aimed at a survey to understand participants guided by corpus instruction From question 1 to 15, aims of questionnaire items varied The data analysis showed bar graphs and percentages of scale options selected

The computer equipment and softwares that were used in this study

Computer equipment and software needed

- Logged in with a student account

- Free but a limited number of concordancing lines per day

-Google Form -sent at the

This given table showed tasks implemented in this study in order to respond two research question 1 and 2 Overall, regarding RQ 1, there were more tasks than RQ2; meanwhile, there were differences between technology-assisted platforms used in two researh questions

To compare, tasks regarding RQ1 were searching collocations via British National Corpus, whereas the task of RQ2 was to respond a questionnaire after using the corpus 12 weeks Considering RQ1, participants had to register an account to BNC website, then searched collocations to complete hypothesis exercises In contrast, RQ2 required participants to answer 15 questions about attitudes.

Ethical issues and permission

Before the study began, the research had informed participants the purpose and procedures of the study This was to follow the principle of “informed consent” which was suggested by Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2018, p.122) as an ethical perspective The consent forms also included explanation of benefits and risks of the study In addition, the study has kept the anonymity and confidentiality of participants’ identities (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2018, p.129) Furthermore, the researcher gained permission from the department head where the researcher teaches; this is emphasized in Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2018, p.134)

Students in this study either in the experimental group or in the control one received two consent forms, one in English and one in Vietnamese (Appendix M) These students replied and agreed with the study conditions They agreed by filling their name in the word files and then sent these emails back to the researcher The current consent form was adapted from Sterling (2015) and some other studies These can be seen in appendices.

Chapter summary

The purpose of this Chapter 3 is to present research design of this study This included instruments, participants, research procedure and data collection

With view to instruments, this study made use of three tools: the pretest, the posttest and the attitude questionnaire Other minor instruments were the materials and the list of target collocations

In views of participants, this study took place with 40 majored college students whose levels are B1 To answer research question 1, there were 26 students in the experimental group while there were 14 students in the control group To answer research question 2, 26 students in the experimental group responded the questionnaire

In light of materials, the experimental group and the control group used two different sets of materials For the experimental group, their sets included corpus tranining materials, hypothesis worksheets, practice-production worksheets For the control group their sets included lists of collocations and practice-production worksheets The practice-productions worksheets of two groups were the same

With view to the questionnaire, there are 15 items in total designed for three aspects of attitudes, namely affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects Each aspect consists of 5 questions This means each aspect has the same number of items

Regarding target collocations, this study included collocations from different previous study containing different collocation types These collocations were adopted from different research relating collocations

Considering procedures, participants experienced fourteen weeks for the research At the beginning the pretest was assigned At week 12, the posttest was assigned and next was the questionnaire

The objectives of this chapter were to demonstrate the results of data analyses in terms of two research questions, namely the influence of corpus instruction on collocation use and the students’ attitudes towards this instruction In order for data to be neatly presented, regarding research question 1, there were data of two groups including the experimental and the control one; in contrast, regarding research question 2, there were data in three attitude aspects.

The influence of corpus instruction on collocation use (Research question 1)

After collected, the pretest and posttest scores were then compared by analyzing by SPSS For participants who had not taken part in the treatment, the study eliminated their posttest scores out of the analyses despite the fact that two of five invalid participants were good enough In the following parts, CG stands for Control Group and EG stands for Experimental Group

4.1.1 The distribution of the Pretest and Posttest scores

After the data collection procedure, data were run by SPSS through statistics analysis, starting with normality distribution tests In order to check the normality of distribution of scores in the Experimental, the study ran visual and statistical presentation as following

Distribution of the Pretest scores of the

Distribution of the Posttest scores of the

Numerically, to carefully check whether the pretest and posttest data of the experimental group were normally distributed, the Shapiro Wilk Test was used Rovai, Baker & Ponton (2014, p.192-193) stated that normality means the shape of distribution of a variable The expected distribution is the one modeled after the Gaussian distribution, which is bell-shaped and symmetrical For the purpose of Independent T-test, there is a requirement that dependent variables should be normally distributed The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (Chakravarti, Laha & Joy,

1967) is to examine the goodness of fit between a set of data and a theoretically desired distribution (Berger & Zhou, p.1) This test is usually used for NP or more

In contrast, Shapiro –Wilk (1965) is often used for N0.05) This means the null hypothesis about similarity of a normal distribution was accepted

It is in other words, scores of the experimental group were normally distributed

The next session aimed to report the process of checking control group’s distribution In this respect, the control group was checked with its distribution Doing the same process with Shapiro Wilk led to the resulting table as following:

Tests of Normality Distribution of the Control group

Kolmogorov-Smirnov a Shapiro-Wilk Statistic Df Sig Statistic Df Sig

* This is a lower bound of the true significance a Lilliefors Significance Correction

As closely observed, the sig value of the CG Posttest was higher than 0.05 (0.200>0.005) This led to the acceptance of the null hypothesis; and, the CG posttest scores were normally distributed In contrast, the pretest sig value was less than 0.05 This led to the refusal of the null hypothesis; and, the CG pretest scores were not normally distributed This was because the size of the Control Group was fairly small

4.1.2 The Pretest mean of the Control Group and the Pretest mean of the Experimental Group

Firstly, the prestest mean scores of two groups were compared The following table showed figures for the two means of the Pretest scores of the Control Group (CG) and the Experimental Group (EG)

Means of Pretest scores of Control Group and Experimental Group

The independent T-test was run between two the EG and CG Pretest scores Results were shown as follows

Groups N Mean Std Deviation Std Error Mean

Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper

The two tables compared the means of the two groups including the Experimental Group (M.5; SD=4.1929) and the Control Group (M=7.1429; SD=3.1344) The second table showed the analysis of the Independent Sample T-test of the two means of the two groups

Looking at the Levene’s Test, the sig value of Levene’s Test was larger than 0.001(p>0.001) As a result, the null hypothesis was kept; in addition, it is conluded that the variances were equal Consequently, looking next at the value sig (2-tailed), this p was smaller than 0.001 This means the mean scores of the pretest of CG and

EG were different (MD=5.3571; DS=1.2807)

As a consquence, the effect size was calculated to replace the p significance value This is to examine whether or not the effect was large

4.1.3 Effect Size of the Experimental Group and the Control Group

Difference in the Pretest and Posttest mean scores of CG and EG

The line graph in the figure 7 showed the difference between CG and EG in terms of Pretest and Posttest mean scores Overall, the two groups started with different Pretest mean scores, whereas there was an increase in both groups

The pretest score of the CG was at 12.5 (M.5; SD=4.1929), nearly two times as much as the prestest score of the EG at 7.14 While the EG experienced a considerable upswing to approximately 15 points, the CG also rose to nearly 9 points

Calculating Effect Size Cohen’d used the formula in the Data Analysis part After calculated, Cohen’d of the EG was 0.577, and Cohen’d of the CG was 0.513

As can be seen, two values of Cohen’d of the EG and the CG were approximate As a result, the effect on the EG was as strong as that of the CG In other words, the effect of corpus instruction was relatively the same as the effect in the control group

4.1.4 Comparison within Control Group of the Pretest and the Posttest scores

The table below shows the comparison between the Pretest and the Posttest scores of the Control Group In overall, there was a slight rise in means

Paired samples of the Pretest and Posttest of the Control group

Paired Differences t df Sig (2- tailed)

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Pair

The table given signified the figures for the pretest and posttest of the control group As shown, the posttest mean was at 8.857, and was larger than the pretest figure at 7.1429 Nonetheless, looking at the values of correlation and significance, the analysis showed that the difference shown by the significance value at 0.104 larger than 0.05 was unimportant

4.1.5 Comparison within the Experimental group between the Pretest and the

As presented, the breakdown demonstrates how different means of the pretest and posttest scores were Overall, the figure for posttest mean was larger than that of the pretest The pretest mean was at 12.5 while the posttest mean stood at 14.98

Paired samples of the Pretest and Posttest scores of the Experimental group

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Pair

The figure for mean held a minus value (-2.480) means posttest scores’ means was higher that the pretest scores’ The value of sig was at 0.02 less than 0.05, which signified the difference is significance.

Attitudes towards corpus instruction (Research question 2)

As for replying the questionnaire, all of respondents were majored students Regarding the background information, students were asked about whether they had heard of corpus learning 71% of students surveyed said they had never known until this course In contrast, above 28% of respondents said they had known this way of learning

The Cronbach’s Alpha values for each aspects of the questionnaire were operated According to these figure, the figures for affective aspect and cognitive aspect stood at 0.795 and 0.707, whereas the figure of behavioral aspect was 0.776 Therefore, it can be said because these values were greater than 0.70, the reliability of the questionnaire’s parts were acceptable

Reliability Statistics (Cronbach's Alpha) of three parts of the questionnaire

Reliability Statistics Cronbach’s Alpha Affective

After responding background questions, students answered main questions The means of attitude questionnaire items were summarized and shown in the table

Percentages of responses of the questionnaire in terms of three aspects (%)

Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

Percentages of responses in terms of Likerst Scales

The bar char showed percentages of Likert scales in terms of question items Overall, agreement responses accounted for the largest percentage among all question items, whereas strong disagreement responses accounted for the least percentage

Apparently, the most noticeable results are at question 4,6, 7 because there were small percentages of nearly 4% indicating strong disagreement These results was discussed later Furthermore, the greatest proportions at above 60% in terms of agreement can be observed in question 2, 9 and 12 By contrast, the biggest shares of disagreement can be seen in question 5, 8, 15 In general, there was a considerable decrease in percentages from strong agreement to strong disagreement

Qu estio n 1 Qu estio n 2 Qu estio n 3 Qu estio n 4 Qu estio n 5 Qu estio n 6 Qu estio n 7 Qu estio n 8 Q u es tio n 9 Qu estio n 1 0 Qu estio n 1 1 Qu estio n 1 2 Qu estio n 1 3 Qu estio n 1 4 Qu estio n 1 5

Percentages of responses in terms of Likerst Scales

Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

Respondents agreed they were interested in corpus learning Of all five items, ranked the largest percentage is item 2 showing a vast majority of students (60.7% of strong agreement and 21.4% of just agreement) concurred that the training and practice sessions were helpful Being second-largest, item 4 showed more than 80% students supported the idea that corpus learning can benefit word-form learning (verbs and nouns)

In contrast, item 3 and 5 revealed a wide range of opinions regarding comparison with non-corpus learning and benefit to the learning of meaning and usage of collocations When it comes to meaning and use in question 5, the total percentage of students who agree experienced a drop In contrast, question 3 relating to word forms, the percentage of students who agree is much higher than in question 5

Considering the cognitive aspects comprising item from 6 to 10, there are some difference among answers These questions were aimed at asking about difficulty in learning corpus There are a wide range of percentages among answers

In respect of question 6, 51 percent of participants agreed that they had encountered some difficulty in analyzing corpus sample sentences Only a few students had neutral or disagreement responses Whereas in question 7, 53 percent of respondents thought understanding contexts of corpus sentences was challenging, there were more 25 percent of participants who strongly agreed with this statement

The difficulty of using corpus was mentioned in Bunting (2013), and Chang

& Sun (2009, p.292) Especially, Flowerdew (2009) indicates that concordance lines which were truncated can make readers confused and puzzled about their contexts In addition, Bunting (2013) and Heather & Helt (2011) indicated that analyzing concordance lines is time-consuming

As far as last five behavioral questions are concerned, most of participants proposed that they would look into the corpus to search collocation if they came across them In question 13, the proportion of participants who agreed and strongly agreed is over 67% This question asked if students were confident to complete all corpus exercises given More than 70% participants agreed they intended to use corpus in the future With view to the question 15, under half of students surveyed thought they were able to make sentences containing collocations after using corpus, whereas 25% of participants hold a neutral view.

Chapter summary

This Chapter 4 presented results of the research It can be seen the effect of corpus instruction was not profound enough to make different between the experimental and the control group This Chapter also showed the results of collocation posttests as compared to the pretests within a group Besides, the results revealed wrong answers in tests which helps explore some issues

As for the questionnaire, it can be seen generally students felt supportive towards the corpus instruction Despite this, some unexpected responses can be seen in some items

The purpose of this chapter was to critically discuss the findings of this study This chapter was oriented towards the influence of corpus instruction on verb-noun collocations as well as the learners’ attitudes towards corpus instruction Firstly, in terms of the influence, this chapter would carefully discuss justifications and previous literature work relevant to findings, indicating some predicted reasons of the findings Secondly, this chapter would interpret the learners’ attitudes results, and briefly review literature work relating to findings.

The influence of corpus instruction on verb-noun collocation use (Research question 1)

Evidently, based on data collection, the analysis results probably spotlighted some considerable issues, which will be currently canvassed Regarding RQ1, these issues consist of the Effect Size interpretation, the aftermath of the control group, and test scors of collocations through corpus data

First and foremost, some issues should be brought to attention considering that the effect size results showed nearly equal figures in both groups In fact, whilst the effect size Cohen’d was larger than 0.5, effect size interpretation should be taken with caution Firstly, the prestest mean score of the experimental groups compared with the control group was higher than that of the control group Hereupon, it is inconclusive to the effect of the corpus instruction on collocation learning Equally important, it is the small population size that could lead to incorrect outcomes On top of that, implementation of the research in two different colleges could be a source of problem since by doing this comparison between effects in two groups can be problematic

Although the research did not include collocation scores of high and low achievers, there were obvious differences, and this had been scientifically supported in previous studies Whilst some high-achievers successfully accomplished worksheets, pretests and posttests with high scores, slow learners postponed submission of exercises, or failed to recognize correct collocations in tests With regard to this thesis’s result, for example, a student who had had a IELTS background carefully completed exercises evey meeting and had high score (22/30) in the posttest Reasons for this stem from gaps of student cognitive capabilities, which were mentioned in various articles (Granath, 2009;Vyatkina, 2016)

Focusing on the control group, there was some discussion based on data analysis The fact that the control group achieving the effect size value as much as the experimental group is presumably because of some reasons One reason is whereas experimental students had to deal with more collocations than in the tests, the control students had only a list of target collocations, thereby making control group possible to remember Another motive is likely because the control group’s task loads were lighter than the corpus group Therefore, students absorbed the knowledge better A balance between workload of two group in the future will perhaps help mitigate the issue

Regardless of receptive skills of in part 1 and 2 of the posttest, making sentences is difficult to control students In fact, according to Input Flood Hypothesis and conscious-raising effect (Sharwood-Smith, 1993), students who read enormously can enhance their skills This may be true to collocation learning

Next, in terms of collocation types, there are some noteworthy results It is likely that learners made a few errors with delexical verbs (make, give, get…) even though “take precaution” was commonly mistaken It is worth noticing that participants did not make mistakes with most of posttest items of delexicalized verb- noun collocations, and this somehow contradicts some studies (Chi, Wong & Wong, 1994; Wang, 2016; Nguyen &Webb, 2016) who emphasized delexicalized verbs (make-have-give-do-take-go) as problematic sources From this studies, it is likely that only rare collocations could mislead students

Furthermore, for most students collocations with free combinations are straighforward despite the fact that “have difficulty” was used commonly instead of

“face difficulty” Some figurative collocations which help students bring in mind about certain images such as “break the habit” are easier to reminisce than technical collocations such as “carry the motion” or “foot the bill” Meanwhile, collocations like this including “curry the favour” were mistaken as “do the favour” despite students not having read the contexts Personally, it seemed these collocations were too difficult for them, and these may as well lie in the images of native cultures

Firstly, to deeply understand meanings of collocations for students, it could be hardly possible For instance, in some situations participants can not infer the specfic situation in the sentence Such problems with truncated concordance lines were in line with remarks of previous researchers (Bunting, 2013), Poole (2012) and Yunus

Learners' attitudes towards corpus instruction (Research question 2)

First and foremost, given affective aspect items, question items 1 to 5 were considered Overall, participants may mostly find it helpful to interact with the corpus, and they may find it interesting to learn with corpus instruction, being in line with Lin (2015) Results of affective attitudes were consistent with writing and boosts confidence Yoon and Hirvela (2004), positive attitudes and autonomy (Poole, 2020; Chan & Liou ,2005; Chang & Sun, 2009, p.292), student perception of usefulness Sripicharn (2003)

In light of cognitive aspect, item 6 to 10 were justified Regarding question 6 and 7, a majority of respondents agreed that they had had difficulties in understanding and analyzing data According to Bloom’s cognitive domain, learners should be able to understand, distinguish, analyze the knowledge; therefore, the findings of this study proved that interacting with the corpus BNC may trouble participants This is also true with findings of question 10 because nearly a quarter respondents had neutral answers, being unsure that they can distinguish different verbs of a collocation These findings reached a consensus with Bunting (2013) and Yunus

This also means that theoretically, a corpus reader can read concordance lines to understand collocations’ meanings; nonetheless, it depends on the quality of data and the language capability of that reader before he or she can infer the correct use of a collocation To solve problems of corpus quality, Chan and Liou (2005) organized a English-Chinese corpus with source selection, being more effective than the corpus in this thesis To clarify issues with reading difficulties, various authors (Bunting, 2013; Jeaco, 2017; Wilson, Hertley, Sharoff and Stephenson, 2010, p.776) determined the root stemming from shortened sentences in the corpus rendering readers impossible to infer situations

Regarding item 5 showing a broad agreement with helpfulness of training materials Crosthwaite (2019) agreed that teachers and learners lack of training regarding corpus tools In fact, because students, technophobes, had wasted enormous time registering and logging in before settling to search for collocations This aligns with Bunting (2013) and Boulton (2010), Huang (2011), Vannestồl and Lindquist

(2007) To address this, videos were sent to them for home revision (Khoshsima,

2021) Questions students have can be explained next meetings, saving time in classes.

Chapter summary

This chapter discusses the influence of corpus instruction on verb-noun collocations and the description of learners’ attitudes towards this instruction Accordingly, the effect of corpus instruction in the experimental group was probably similar to the effect of learning collocation through lists of collocations Results of effect largeness showed two these effects with approximate values However, looking closely at the corpus instruction, the posttest showed a slight improvement in productive skills (writing skills using collocations) Regarding the attitudes, the findings demonstrated a great interest of using the corpus in a majority of participants; in addition, the affective aspect had the largest mean

This chapter also made relevance to previous studies about corpus in the past These would help to find similarities and differences with previous studies’ findings

This chapter was presented in an endeavor to summarize chief findings of this thesis, then to indicate limitations of the results, and next to advance further research Firstly, the thesis showed outcomes of two groups namely the experimental group and the control one, consequently exploring attitudes of learners towards corpus instruction Secondly, the drawbacks of this research could be seen in the next chapter part, which was undeniable because of urgent research conditions Thirdly, the implication part would indicate research gaps that futuristic work may be estimated to further unveil.

Summary of key findings

This quasi-experimental study investigated effects of corpus instruction on verb-noun collocation use With an aim to collecting data, the study availed itself of following instruments: the pretest, the posttest, the questionnaire, the teaching materials and scoring and rubrics Effects of the corpus instrument was observed by means of the pretest, and posttest scores; in addition, understanding of student attitudes could be enhanced on account of the questionnaire

As for research questions, this research attempted to respond two questions:

1) the influence of corpus instruction on verb-noun collocation learning (i.e, receptive, productive, form, meaning, forms), and 2) description of student attitudes towards corpus instruction

This study was implemented with 40 college students: 26 majored students in the experimental group and 14 majored students in the control group After analyzing data, the study showed that within the experiment group, the posttest mean score was significantly higher than the pretest However, because the group sizes was small and because the pretest scores of the two groups were different, effect size was run Then the result of this effect size analysis showed the effect of corpus instruction was approximately as large as the effect in the control group However, as many authors concerned, the effect size should be used cautiously, and it is not necessarily true that large effect is better than small effect Nonetheless, this result also means the corpus instruction in the experimental group produced as strong effect as the learning of collocation lists in the control group

Furthermore, it seemed the questionnaire showed students felt interested in the corpus instruction They seemed to understand the purpose of using the corpus, and intended to use it for searching language patterns

In terms of research gaps, this research endeavored to bridge following gaps: a corpus study in Vietnam conditions, learning of collocations in Vietnamese colleges, a relation of using collocations in productive skills, a way of teaching collocations, formats of collocation tests In fulfilling these roles, this study tried to pilot corpus pedagogy, to put forward productive skills with collocations, to renew teaching collocation methods, and to propose collocation test formats.

Conclusions

The study examined scores of collocations in two groups: the control and the experimental group The experimental group was the group learning with corpus data, while the control group did not The results of mean scores of the pretest in two groups were 7.14 (control group) and 12.5 (experimental group) The results of mean scores of the posttest in two groups were 8.85 (control group) and 14.98 (experimental group) Independent T-test of the pretest scores between two group indicated that two groups were significantly different in the pretest score Paired sample tests’ results within the control group showed that no significant increase can be considered, whereas results within the experimental group showed that there was an increase in scores considerably Effect size figures of two groups explained that the Cohen’d of the CG was 0.511 while Cohen’d of the EG was 0.577 When aligned with Rule of Thumbs the Cohen’d of both CG and EG accounted for medium effects In other words, the effects of two groups were nearly the same Regarding the normality distribution, Shaprio Wilk values showed score normality in EG and CG

Whereas questionnaire items 2, 9, 11, 12 accounted for the highest percentage rates of positive responses with over 60%, questionnaire items, questionnaire items 5, 8,

15 constituted the highest percentage ratios of negative responses There were differences of percentage proportions in three aspects: affective, cognitive, and behavioral

In terms of positive responses, considering items 2, 9, 11, 12 a large percentage rates of students agreed with the benefits of training materials, understanding of corpus purposes, intention to future use, and recommendation corpus to their friends These results were important because results reflects students interactions with corpus learning

As regards negative responses, considering items 5, 8, 15, a numbers of students disagreed that learning with corpora can help them in understanding meaning and usage of collocations, planning steps of checking in corpus, and disagreed about the confidence of using corpus These item results show higher percentages than other items, which represented problems with corpus

Regarding item 1, 50% and 19.2% of all students agreed that learning with corpus was interesting These positive results showed the affective aspect of attitude was optimistic.

Limitations

It is undeniable that the study has some limitations The first downside is that the treatment was under time limit Because of time constraint, the implementation of some collocation learning aspects were less effective than as expected This is because corpus instruction has been fairly new in Vietnam The material preparation and application can be fairly challenging

The second drawback of the study is its population selection which was unavoidably ill-designed This stemmed from the difficulty in must-have participants which must be in approximately B1 level and be college/ university students This is because only if students have good cognitive skills can they do the practice to make inference about meanings of collocations via sentences

Seen as the third handicap is the research conditions which had been challenging when the teacher must teach the main curriculum knowledge Therefore, the teacher had to compile handouts or videos (kinds of flipped classrooms) for students to learn at home, then to ask in next meetings Similar to this difficulty is the effort to prepare materials was too gruelling This had been mentioned in some research

Another difficulty of the study is the scaffolding prompts list seems ineffective to students Little did the learners use these strategies to infer meanings of collocations.

Implications

In terms of teachers’ benefits, this study suggests solutions to tailor materials, handouts, and pedagogical approaches to ameliorate corpus instruction in teaching collocation as well as teaching other language aspects In order for teachers to optimize teaching procedures, they should minimize tasks and make them compacter

In terms of pedagogical solutions to corpus instruction, this study used time-save videos of training for students to tackle problems

Finally, in terms of teaching methodologies, this study explored a new way of learning Although corpus instruction has not been proven to have as strong effect as expected, this instruction showed a slight rise in the posttest scores

As regards researchers’ benefits, this study provided theoretical understanding of collocation, which is an aspect lack of definitions and categories As already known, collocations are divided in different types Most of collocation research relating to collocation types have been implemented so far, but not in Vietnam Therefore, there are many doors to be explored in the future This study did not depict exact pictures to reveal facts about which collocations are problematic to students

However, if feasible, futuristic research can do more investigation with larger samples to detect these problems

Another researcher’s benefit from this study is proper understanding of corpus-based instruction and practical applications of corpora to benefit linguistics This thesis also highlighted corpus-based models of instructions

As for students, this study casted light upon attitudes towards corpus instruction It seemed most of participants enjoyed learning the new type of collocation learning, namely with corpus instruction Regardless of this fact, a number of students faced some difficulties in analyzing corpus lines

The studies offer benefits for students to learn collocations First, they can accelerate the process of learning language patterns through observing corpus data associated with native speakers’ uses of language For instance, they can know which collocations have high frequencies of use, thereby writing more effectively Secondly, learners can accummulate knowledge of collocations thanks to consulting corpus as a teacher or a source of information, thereby entailing learner self-learning to experience an uplift As a consequence, this acts as a booster to learners’ results afterwards.

Chapter summary

This chapter outlined the key findings of this thesis, showing strengths and downsides of this research and proposing possible solutions for future research However, these positive and negative aspects could be ameliorated in forthcoming studies

Regarding the drawbacks of this research, there were two issues in need of discussion Firstly, the key findings indicated that there was a similarity of outcomes of the experimental group and the control group This led to a conclusion that the effect of corpus instruction was actually not remarkable to outweigh the effect in the control group This also highlights the shortcoming of this research because the population was not large enough to make firm conclusion Secondly, the downsides of this research may be rooted behind the student levels that should be high enough to understand corpus lines

Upon the discussion of strengths, the instruction through the corpus website did enable participants to achieve good collocation scores, and students had positive attitudes towards this instruction An evidence of this is the posttest mean score was significantly higher than the pretest mean scores Simultaneously, based on the attitude questionnaire’s outcome, students were interested in the corpus instruction, albeit with some setbacks In terms of positive feedback, a majority of participants were interested in the instruction, and most of them thought training materials were helpful However, setbacks in questionnaire’s outcomes can be seen when students found it difficult to understand corpus sentences Some students felt confused with collocation examples in the corpus website, and the fact about which had been already mentioned in previous studies

However, all thing considered, the implications of future research can be promising, which shows an urgent need of more research Flexible instruction with corpus could be better considering Vietnamese teaching contexts, and choosing good corpus websites or softwares may be a remedy to rectify the issues experienced

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APPENDIX A : Aspects of knowing collocations (Webb, Newton & Chang,

Spoken R What does the collocation sound like ?

P How is the collocation pronounced ? Written

R What does the collocation look like ?

P How is the collocation written and spelled ?

R What words are recognizable in this collocation?

P What words are needed to express the meaning ?

R What meaning does this collocation signal ?

P What collocation can be used to express this meaning ?

Concepts and referents R What is included in the concept ?

P What items can the concept refer to ? Associations

R What other words or collocations does this make us think of ?

P What other words or collocations could we use instead of this one ?

R In what patterns does the collocation occur ?

P In what patterns must we use this collocation ?

R What words, collocations, or types of collocations occur with this one ?

P What words, collocations, or types of collocations, must we use with this one ?

Constraints on use (register, frequency, …)

R Where, when, and how often would we expect to meet this collocation ?

P Where, when, and how often can we use this collocation ?

Choose the correct verb that, in your opinion, can go along with the underlined word and be best suitable in the sentence context.(15 pts, 1 pt/ each)

Example: Noise can stress even when a person is sleeping

1 People _ time when they don't have a plan

2 Healthy people are not eager to medicine for a disease they may never get

3 No one has the problem of what to do with radioactive waste

4 So, minimise the risk of a cold by washing your hands regularly

5 The president a major speech to Congress yesterday

6 The inspectors _ a surprise visit to the factory

7 We should _ pride in London being the most international of cities

8 They've _ all sorts of promises about reforming the health system

9 They failed to the necessary precautions to avoid infection

10 Mr Steele has no crime and poses no danger to the public

11 She _ some helpful suggestions on how to cut our costs

12 It good sense to buy a big pack because it works out cheaper in the end

13 He _ his doctor’s advice and went on a low-fat diet

14 Don't _ any attention to Nina, she doesn't know what she's talking about

15 I struggled to the habit of biting my nails, but getting regular manicures helped

PART 2 Error Recognition(5 pts, 1 pt/ each)

Find five wrong verb-noun collocations in the paragraph below

Example: get comment-> make comments

Regarding the dam project of electricity generation that Ethiopia is undertaking, Egypt got general comments last week According to that, although Egypt fully protects Ethiopia 's rights and interests, it will make more effort to avoid making harm to Egyptian citizens' benefits respecting the problems of the Great Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERB) In addition, Egypt is having progress to finalize documents before a discussion of three countries including Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia most affected by the massive dam occurs If a concensus of interests influenced by the dam is made, the negotiation is believed to achieve needs of three nations Egypt will make a flexible proposal to create a conclusion as soon as the talks start The Egyptian Foreign Minister is so determined that he repeatedly asserted to write an agreement the next meetings As a result of security risks relating to international rivers, the UN organized a discussion session after receiving submission from Egypt

PART 3 Gap-filling(5 pts, 1 pt/ each)

Fill in the gap with a collocation that has a given Vietnamese meaning

She showed these children a series of pictures and got them to _ what they had seen ( kể chuyện)

21 They swear a lot but they do not threaten to f _ (gửi khiếu nại)

22 Representatives of both Barcelona and Real flew out to the French capital to try and s _ for the Paris Saint-Germain star (ký kết hợp đồng)

23 The new computer p to all the files (cho phép truy cập)

24 We can m _ to put something beautiful in a surrounding business- perhaps art or flowers that uplift (nổ lực)

25 After the training session, they s _ to ensure they had learned the area well (trãi qua một kỳ thi)

PART 4 Sentence-making(5 pts, 1 pt/ each)

Make sentences by thinking of a verb that suits the give word in the bracket

Answer: He has kept a diary from the age of thirteen

PART1 Multiple Choices(15 pts, 1 pt/ each)

Choose the correct verb that, in your opinion, can go along with the underlined word and be best suitable in the sentence context

Example: Noise can stress even when a person is sleeping

A cause B affect C make D bring Answer: A cause

1 If she thinks it's losing the money that bothers me then she's _ the point

2 He was always _ jokes and making people laugh

3 He warned against _ hasty decisions

4 The motion was by six votes to one

5 We need to _a balance between these conflicting interests

6 It's going to ages yet to get it dry

7 Stephen _ his lips with distaste

8 At the wedding reception, the bride's father _ a toast to the new couple

9 We can’t the demand for tickets to the game

10 The Congress was very straightforward It _ room taxes upon rich people

11 It wouldn’t _ you any harm to get some experience first

12 She _ an effort to change the subject of the conversation

13 My mother never _ sides when my brother and I argue

14 Before 2020, only developed countries are required to _actions to reduce emissions

15 We have to _exams at the end of each year

PART 2 Error Recognition(5 pts, 1 pt/ each)

Find five wrong collocations in the paragraph below

Example: give a complaint-> make a complaint

As a company's affairs go a bit pear-shaped, office politics overrides all concerns from those who try to give a complaint As a consequence, this can make consultant face difficulty in borrowing a hand I have been in the shoes of the consultant as well as the employee, and I gained experience of how anger can be provoked by an

"outsider" We all know the saying “give a consultant your watch and they will tell you the time” For some people, it does not have sense to hire a consultant who tells business what were known For other ones, it is unneccesary to lose time with consultants now that they just want to earn a good living.This results in Chinese whispers or gossips heard through the grapevines, which finally leads to finger pointing, bad-mouthing and avoidance tactics The business problem, therefore, becomes so demanding that consultants find it hard to identify Some bad people might try to make favour by making fake friendship with consultants, or take preventive measures if consultants try to acquire information However, if having experienced, consultants can cut through the smoke and mirrors, get a right conclusion to solve problems

PART 3 Gap-filling(5 pts, 1 pt/ each)

Fill in the gap with a collocation that has a given Vietnamese meaning

She showed these children a series of pictures and got them to _ what they had seen ( kể chuyện)

21 The police had to b _ to the boy's parents (báo tin đến)

22 His parents can’t afford to f for his college education ( chu cấp nhiều tiền)

23 I couldn’t t of leaving him alone even for a short time (chấp nhận rủi ro)

24 They d _ that they were about to get married (tiết lộ)

25 I struggled to b _ of biting my nails, but getting regular manicures helped

PART 4 Sentence-making(5 pts, 1 pt/ each)

Make sentences by thinking of a verb that suits the give word in the bracket

Answer: He has kept a diary since the age of thirteen

APPENDIX D: Keys to the pre-test, posttest and scoring rubrics

(Research question 1: What are the differences in student verb-noun collocation use before and after the adoption of corpus-based instruction?

6 C 16 line 3: making harm-> doing harm;

17 line 4: having progress-> make progress;

18 line 7: achieve needs-> fulfill needs;

19 line 8: create a conclusion;-> draw a conclusion

20 line 9: write an agreement-> reach an agreement;

6.D 16 Line 2: borrow a hand-> lend a hand;

17 line 5: have sense-> make sense;

18 line 6: lose time-> waste time;

19 line 9: make favour-> curry favour;

20 line 12: get a conclusion-> draw a conclusion

PART 4: Depend on students' own answers

APPENDIX E: Scoring rubrics for for part 4 of the tests

 Students use wrong collocations or do not know the collocations

 Student produces correct collocations, but makes nonsense sentences

 Students use correct collocations (correct verb), but make slightly wrong spelling

 Students uses correct verbs but wrong tenses and incorrect grammar

 Students use correct collocations (with the given words) There are no errors about collocation forms (parts of speech) There are no errors about collocation meaning

There are no errors about appropriateness

APPENDIX F: Target collocations (collocations in three tests)

The targeted collocations in this study

Adapted from Oxford Collocations Dictionary for students of English (Published in

8 Make a choice Non-target Non-target Non-target 1

Non-target Non-target Non-target 2

23 Make a mistake Non-target Non-target Non-target 3

24 Follow the rule Non-target Non-target Non-target 3

32 Spill the beans Non-target Non-target Non-target 4

38 Book the flight Non-target Non-target Non-target 5

39 Touch wood Non-target Non-target Non-target 5

40 Make tea Non-target Non-target Non-target 5

47 Pollute the air Non-target Non-target Non-target 6

Non-target Non-target Non-target 6

55 Reduce the effect Non-target Non-target Non-target 7

56 Take a seat Non-target Non-target Non-target 7

62 Enjoy one’s life Non-target Non-target Non-target 8

63 Break the ice Non-target Non-target Non-target 8

64 Get the picture Non-target Non-target Non-target 8

70 Keep a secret Non-target Non-target Non-target 9

Non-target Non-target Non-target 9

72 Face a dilemma Non-target Non-target Non-target 9

Non-target Non-target Non-target 10

Non-target Non-target Non-target 10

APPENDIX G: A sample of intructional handouts for Control group

Collocations – Vietnamese meanings – Examples -Sources

Meaning: Lãng phí thời gian

Example: People waste time when they don't have a plan

Source: https://www.quora.com/Why-do-we-waste-time-even-when-we-realize-were- wasting-time

Example: Doctors agree that getting kids to take medicine, especially if they have a chronic condition, can be a challenge for any parent

Source: https://www.everydayhealth.com/kids-health/10-ways-to-get-kids-to-take- medicine.aspx

Meaning: Giải quyết vấn đề

Example: The ability to solve a problem is a basic life skill and is essential to our day-to-day lives, at home, at school, and at work

Source: https://ccmit.mit.edu/problem-solving/

Example: If you catch a cold you will feel tired and have a runny nose and possibly a headache, sore throat, cough, or a slight temperature

Source: https://studylinks.com/what-to-do-if-you-do-catch-a-cold-or-flu-a-guide-for- international-students/

Meaning: Trình bày một bài diễn thuyết

Example: If we fail to successfully deliver a speech at a wedding or a presentation in a boardroom, we’re at risk of humiliating ourselves and losing our identity Source: https://www.dumblittleman.com/9-techniques-to-delivering-speech-with/

Meaning: Cảm thấy tự hào

Example: Employees who take pride in their work are motivated, productive and pleasant to be around

Source: https://www.budtoboss.com/personal-professional-development/3-leadership- practices-for-building-employee-pride/

Example: If you take a nap too late in the day, it might affect your nighttime sleep patterns

Source: https://www.verywellhealth.com/how-do-naps-affect-sleep-at-night-

3014731#:~:text=Disadvantages%20of%20Napping&text=Disrupting%20nighttime%20 sleep%3A%20If%20a,become%20a%20self%2Dperpetuating%20cycle

Meaning: Có một sự chọn lựa.

Example: I'd prefer not to work but I don't have much choice

Source: https://www.facebook.com/ieltstutor234/posts/2555456831201062/

APPENDIX H: Training materials (presentational materials for the experimental group)

HƯỚNG DẪN SỬ DỤNG BRITISH NATIONAL CORPUS WEBSITE

I Introduction to importance of collocations and British National Corpus

You are going to learn collocations via using a web Collocations are important because they help language use more natural and minimize errors Therefore, collocations can improve your reading,writing, listening and speaking considerably

Hypothesis-formation tasks (presentational materials for the

This is a sample of handouts in Week 1 which is used for the experimental group to hypothesize data searched from the corpus

I.Use BNC, find verbs with highest frequencies that can combine with the headwords below Đăng nhập vào trang BNC, tìm 5 động từ với tần số cao mà có thể kết hợp với những danh từ bên dưới Điền vào bản dưới đây: (You can search the meaning of these nouns if you do not know them)

Remember to fill the noun meaning in the dotted line

Noun Verbs Frequency Noun Verbs Frequency

II Matching collocations to sentences

In each set of the following sentences, there is only one appropriate collocation (verb + noun) to correctly fill in all sentences Choose from the list above one pair of verb and noun and fill the gap

(If you do not know how to do, look at the guidance paper again for "SEARCHING STRATEGIES" (Chiến lược tìm kiếm))

The most common reason people _is by coming into contact with the cold virus

You'll _if you go outside with wet hair

If you _, you will feel tired and have a runny nose and possibly a headache, sore throat, cough, or a slight temperature

It can be hard to remember to _

If your doctor says to _for 10 days, take it for the whole time, even if you start to feel better sooner

Forgetting to _or taking it incorrectly can not only make a caregiver's job more complicated, but can cause serious health issues

If you _ too late in the day, it might affect your nighttime sleep patterns

Sometimes I just give up and go _

Many people feel tired during the day but don't have the time to _

We mustn’t _discussing unimportant matters

Students _and Energy on Unnecessary Work

People _when they don't have a plan

He _in his excellent grades

Employees who _in their work are motivated, productive and pleasant to be around

We _in providing the highest levels of customer satisfaction

After your list of ideas that can _becomes quite long, you need to choose a single method of solution

The ability to _is a basic life skill and is essential to our day-to- day lives, at home, at school, and at work

If the solution does not _, you can try one of the other solutions you came up with

We all _with impromptu style from time-to-time, but some speakers do this better than others

What matters more is that you can _that is tailored to your audience and one that will resonate with them

If we fail to successfully _at a wedding or a presentation in a boardroom, we’re at risk of humiliating ourselves and losing our identity

APPENDIX J: Practice-production materials for the both groups

Choose the correct verb that, in your opinion, can go along with the underlined word and be best suitable in the sentence context

Example: Noise can stress even when a person is sleeping

1 Many people struggle at times to _medicine because of swallowing difficulties a A take B drink C eat D have

2 You will _ a cold or flu if you get cold or wet a A have B grab C take D catch

3 You can tell that John _ a lot of pride in his kids a A accept B hold C take D get

4 The Governor of New York _ a rousing speech to the national convention a A made D delivered C gave D presented

Find three wrong word combinations in the following paragraph

Sleeping learning which is known ô hypnopedia ằ dates back to 1914 The pyschologist who first studied it supposed that learning new things before sleeping a nap is beneficial for memory Therefore, sluggish people now can take a chance to avoid going to school or long-term education Some who take sides with this may think doing that does not lose time because even if you learn nothing you can sleep They cite statements from scientists who think sleeping improves our memory and brain There is an old saying that problems can be pushed effectively if we ô sleep on it ằ Believe it or not, more evidences are needed before any conclusion is drew

Source : https://thelanguagedoctors.org/yes-you-can-learn-a-language-in-your- sleep/

Fill in the gap with a collocation that has a given Vietnamese meaning

She showed these children a series of pictures and got them to _ what they had seen ( kể chuyện)

1 Convincing a child to t _ can sometimes be a difficult task (uống thuốc)

2 So, minimise the risk of c a cold by washing your hands regularly

3 She t _ a lot of pride in running such a successful business (cảm thấy tự hào)

Make sentences by thinking of a verb that suits the give word in the bracket

Answer: He has kept a diary since the age of thirteen

APPENDIX K: Differences in concordance lines between "make a speech",

"give a speech", and "deliver a speech" :

Explanation : The word ô speech ằ appeared in different scenarios As observed, ô deliver a speech ằ can be seen with more formal contexts where politicians talk to audience

V CLICK FOR MORE CONTEXT 0 SAVE ( TRANSLATE § ANALYZE

1 CN3 w_fici_prose 0 4 a Conductor outlined." The Conductor?" The man who delivered the speech,’ The guard paused by the door.1 This will be kept locked

2 H92 w_fict_prose 0 4 a them, Not only had he mastered the lines, he had also delivered the speech with greater power than it had ever received, either by him in rehearsal,

3 AK9 W_news p_b rd 5 h t_nat_misc 0 4 a ELLIOT # AT LAST month's Conservative local government conference, Michael Portillo delivered a speech noted for its intellectual rigour and its steadf

4 A96 VVnews p_b rd 5 h t_nat_report 9 4 a fashion them into a pacemaker for granny, Unfortunately, Mr Clarke only delivered another speech lauding the Government's plans for the NHS, The s

5 A5K W_newsp_brdsht_nat_editorial 0 4 I ,even a starring role from the conference platform (Heseltine has not delivered a speech there since 1985) remain the prerogative of those within the

6 CBF W_newsp_other_report 9 4 Cl Chief Inspector Bob Small had his Vauxhall Nova stolen byjoyridersashe delivered a speech on how to stop car thefts, He left a community meeting in

7 E9W w_pop_lore 0 4 Cl unveiling was happy but nerve-racking All the staff of the company director delivered a speech, I in turn thanked him for his careful encouragement an

8 FT9 YY_pop_lore 9 4 Cl and many other recollected gems stand out in The Don's admirably planned and delivered speech at the 1989 dinner marking the opening of the Bradr

9 H81 W_ac_politjaw_edu 9 4 Cl 1 s, 6d I would dismiss the appeal, LORD KEITH OF AVONHOLME delivered a speech to similar effect LORD REID: The manufacturer pays royalty on rec

10 H81 w_ac_pol itjaw.edu 9 4 Cl consideration For these reasons I would allow die appeal LORD TUCKER delivered a speech allowing the appeal Appeal allowed # Questions # 1, # S l '1 HKU w_non_ac_p olit_law.edu 9 4 Cl of goodwill in the context of talks over the Falkland Islands Menem delivered a speech over the remains before they were interred at the Recoleta cem

'2 HKV W_non_ac_polit_law.edu 9 4 Cl 's Counter Corruption Commission (CCC), In late May, Chaovalit delivered a speech at a conference in Bangkok in which he said that he felt" quite asha

13 HL1 w.non.acJJ olit.la w.edu 9 4 Cl 's" river to sea" speech Israel's Prime Minister Itzhak Shamir delivered a speech on Nov 18 which revived the controversy surrounding his" big Israel'

14 HL9 W_non_acjjolit_law.edu 9 4 Cl subjects for discussion at a conference, # Israeli and Palestinian response Shamir delivered 3 speech on June 4 which appeared to indicate that he was

15 ACH w.non.ac.soc.science 9 4 Cl Moscow, was committed for three months in the second division for having delivered a speech at Castleford on Wednesday likely to cause disaffection.

I am conducting a research on students’ attitudes towards learning English verb-noun collocations with corpora The following questionnaire is to understand your attitudes towards learning verb-noun collocations with corpora It is highly appreciated to receive your responses

Thầy đang thực hiện nghiên cứu về sự ảnh hưởng của sự hướng dẫn học tập thông corpus lên việc học collocations động từ - danh từ Bảng câu hỏi dưới đây giúp nghiên cứu hiểu thêm về thái độ sinh viên về việc học collocations động từ- danh từ thông qua phương pháp dùng corpus Cảm ơn sự giúp đỡ của anh/ chị !

 Your full name (Họ tên đầy đủ) ………

 Your faculty/ department (Khoa/ Bộ môn) :…………

 Gender (Giới tính): □ Male □ Female

 Have you heard about corpora before you took this class:

(Trước khóa học này, bạn đã từng nghe về việc sử dụng corpus để học tập chưa ?) □Yes □No

 Please read the statement carefully

 This is not a test with right or wrong answers Please answer honestly

 Circle one number for each statement

1= Strongly disagree ; 2=Disagree ; 3=Neutral ; 4=Agree ; 5=Strongly agree

 Các bạn đọc các câu hỏi cẩn thận

 Đây không phải là một bài test với câu trả lời đúng hay sai Các bạn trả lời theo suy nghĩ của mình

 Chọn đáp án phù hợp bản thân theo thang:

1= Rất không đồng ý; 2= Không đồng ý; 3=Không chắc chắn; 4)=Đồng ý ; 5=Hoàn toàn đồng ý

1 I am interested in this learning because the searching technique was easy to learn

(Tôi thích học theo cách này vì phương pháp tìm kiếm dễ thực hiện)

2 I find the training and practice sessions helpful for learning the technique

(Tôi thấy rằng phần hướng dẫn và luyện tập rất hữu ích)

3 I feel that learning corpus is more interesting and innovative than learning vocabulary with lists of vocabulary

(Tôi cảm thấy học với corpus hữu ích hơn học theo cách bình thường)

4 Using the corpus is helpful for learning the word forms such as verbs and nouns regarding collocations

(Sử dụng corpus hữu ích cho việc học từ loại như động từ và danh từ của các collocations)

5 Using the corpus is helpful for learning the meanings and usage of collocations

(Học bằng corpus hữu ích cho việc hiểu nghĩa và cách dùng của các collocations)

6 I have some difficulty in analyzing the data because of time and effort

(Tôi có một số khó khăn khi phân tích các dữ liệu vì thời gian và công sức)

7 I have some difficulty in understanding collocations based on contexts

(Tôi có một số khó khăn khi hiểu các collocations dựa trên ngữ cảnh)

8 When I come across a collocation, I plan steps to check it in the corpus

(Khi tôi gặp một collocation, tôi dự định tra nó trong corpus)

9 I understand the purpose of using the corpus in this course

(Tôi hiểu được mục đích sử dụng corpus trong khóa học này)

10 I can distinguish uses of different verbs used with a noun in a given collocation

(Tôi có thể phân biệt sự khác nhau của các động từ khi kết hợp với 1 danh từ)

11 I think I’ll consult web corpora to learn about English collocation in the future

(Tôi nghĩ rằng tôi sẽ tham khảo trang web corpus để học collocations trong tương lai)

12 I think I’ll recommend others to use corpus for their collocation study

(Tôi sẽ đề nghị những sinh viên khác sử dụng corpus cho việc học collocation của họ)

13 I am able to complete all searches that the teacher gave

(Tôi có khả năng hoàn thành tất cả các tìm kiếm collocations mà giáo viên giao cho)

14 I intend to use corpora more frequently to search for my own practices

(Tôi dự định sử dụng corpus thường xuyên hơn cho việc luyện tập của bản thân)

15 I am confident that I am able to make sentences with - collocations to the corpus

(Tôi tự tin tôi có thể đặt câu với các collocations nhờ vào corpus)

Các câu hỏi đến đây là hết Xin chân thành cảm ơn các bạn đã đóng góp! Xin chúc các bạn thành công nhiều sức khỏe, thành công trong cuộc sống, trong học tập và gặp nhiều may mắn!!! Trân trọng!!!

APPENDIX M: Consent Form ĐẠI HỌC MỞ TP HỒ CHÍ MINH

PHIẾU ĐỒNG Ý THAM GIA NGHIÊN CỨU

NGHIÊN CỨU SỰ ẢNH HƯỞNG VIỆC GIẢNG DẠY TRÊN NỀN TẢNG CORPUS LÊN VIỆC SỬ DỤNG COLLOCATION ĐỘNG TỪ-DANH TỪ

Ph.D (Iowa State University, USA);

M.A (The University of Melbourne, Australia) Phó Trưởng Khoa, Khoa Tiếng Anh, Đại Học Quốc Tế, Đại Học Quốc Gia TPHCM Phone:

Trường ĐH Mở TPHCM Địa chỉ: 97 Võ Văn Tần, Phường Võ Thị Sáu, Quận 3, TP HCM

1 Tổng Quan Và Giải Thích Về Nghiên Cứu

Nghiên cứu này phân tích sự ảnh hưởng của việc dạy thông qua Corpus lên cách dùng collocation động từ-danh từ Liên quan đến thuật ngữ collocations, có 3 định nghĩa về collocations như sau:

▪ "collocations xảy ra dựa trên sự kết hợp thường xuyên giữa các từ chứ không mang tính ngẫu nhiên" (Nguyen & Webb, 2016, p.2)

▪ "Những từ trong một mối quan hệ có thể dự đoán lẫn nhau bởi vì sự có mặt của từ này rất có thể dẫn đến sự có mặt của từ kia " (Durrant , 2008, p.6)

Có nhiều loại collocations như collocation tính từ-danh từ, trạng từ - tính từ nhưng dự án này chỉ nghiên cứu collocation động từ -danh từ Ví dụ của collocations động từ-danh từ là "take care", "take comfort" và "take notice" Chúng ta không thể dùng "make" hay "give" để thay thế

Nếu bạn tình nguyện tham gia, đầu tiên bạn sẽ làm bài kiểm tra pretest khoảng

15 phút trong lớp Bạn cũng sẽ được hướng dẫn hoàn thành các bài tập và nộp chúng mỗi lần học

Khoảng 2 tuần trước khi khóa học kết thúc, bạn sẽ làm bài kiểm tra lần 2 để tìm hiểu bạn đã tốt hơn như thế nào sau khoảng thời gian Và cuối cùng, khi khóa học kết thúc bạn sẽ làm bài kiểm tra lần 3 để đo lượng kiến thức giữ lại sau khóa học

2 Mục Đích Của Nghiên Cứu

Mục đích khóa học là để tìm hiểu tác động của việc giảng dạy thông qua lên việc dùng các collocations động từ-danh từ Điều này là bởi vì collocations rất quan trọng trong năng lực tiếng Anh Nghiên cứu cũng hướng đến tìm hiểu tính hiệu quả của việc học này

Nghiên cứu được dự đoán sẽ đưa ra nhiều ứng dụng cho việc giảng dạy ngôn ngữ trong chương trình giáo dục đặc biệt ở cấp Đại Học ở Việt nam

3 Rủi Ro Và Lợi Ích

Có những rủi ro nhỏ cho người tham gia liên quan đến nghiên cứu

Người tham gia nghiên cứu có thể không quen với các loại bài tập collocations, và cảm thấy chúng hơi khó Tuy nhiên một khi bạn quen với chúng, những bài tập này mang lại lợi ích về sau, và bạn sẽ xử lý bài tập càng lúc càng nhanh hơn

Có tối đa hai bài tập bạn cần hoàn thành sau mỗi buồi học và có 3 bài test tổng cộng trong suốt khóa học

Bên cạnh đó, bạn có thể không quen với bài test thông qua Google Forms mặc dù tôi tin rằng trong giai đoạn Covid 19, việc này đã rất phổ biến ở các trường đại học và cao đẳng