In the early stages of economic growth degradation and pollution increase, but beyond some level of income per capita which will vary for different indicators the trend reverses, so that
Introduction
Carbon dioxide (CO2) plays a crucial role in global warming, primarily released through the burning of fossil fuels and the decay of organic matter As an invisible and odorless gas, CO2 is responsible for approximately 75% of global warming, despite other contributing gases While natural emissions of CO2 have existed for billions of years and are vital for maintaining Earth's temperature, human activities since the late 18th century have drastically increased atmospheric CO2 levels This rise has occurred rapidly, with current concentrations higher than they have been in the last 800,000 years, and possibly the last 20 million years, marking a significant shift in a geological instant.
Since the nineteenth century, the burning of coal and petroleum has significantly increased atmospheric CO2 levels Recently, this rise in CO2 emissions has accelerated, exacerbated by deforestation, which has become a major contributor Additionally, human activities have led to increased concentrations of other greenhouse gases, such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), further intensifying global warming.
The issue of carbon emissions from the transport sector has become increasingly critical for ASEAN countries Data from the IEA indicates that in 2005, Vietnam's total transport emissions reached 20.3 million tons, with road transport contributing 16.8 million tons Notably, motorcycles accounted for 53% of CO2 emissions in Vietnam that year Projections suggest that, without intervention, emissions from the transport sector could soar to 144 million tons, with road transport alone reaching 126 million tons, reflecting an annual growth rate of 4.5% In 2009, Indonesia emerged as the top emitter in ASEAN, ranking sixteenth globally with 413.29 million tons of CO2, followed by Thailand at 253.58 million tons and Vietnam at 98.76 million tons The IEA warns that carbon emissions from transport in ASEAN nations are expected to double in the coming years.
By 2050, carbon emissions from transportation in developed nations are expected to remain stable, while current transport emissions, which constitute nearly 25% of total anthropogenic CO2, will see a significant shift The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts that emissions from developing countries, currently at 35%, will surge to 66% by 2050.
The impact of carbon dioxide (CO2) on our lives is significant, particularly in ASEAN countries like Vietnam This article aims to analyze the effects of CO2 emissions and utilizes the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) to examine the environmental and economic relationships in these nations.
Objectives of the study
This study aims to validate the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) using data from ASEAN countries, focusing on key concepts related to CO2 emissions and the EKC framework The research addresses critical questions surrounding the relationship between economic development and environmental degradation in the context of these nations.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region has experienced significant economic growth, but this has come at the cost of increasing CO2 emissions As ASEAN countries continue to develop and industrialize, their carbon footprint is expanding, with the region's CO2 emissions projected to rise by 60% by 2030 The economic growth in ASEAN countries, driven by fossil fuel-based energy systems, has resulted in a substantial increase in greenhouse gas emissions, posing a significant challenge to the region's sustainable development goals Despite this, some ASEAN countries have made efforts to transition to cleaner energy sources and reduce their carbon emissions, with renewable energy targets set by countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines.
2 What is the main source of CO2 emissions?
This analysis delves into the impact of CO2 emissions across ASEAN countries, providing a comprehensive understanding of the environmental implications To mitigate these effects, we propose the implementation of stringent policies by governments and targeted measures for corporations By adopting these strategies, corporations can effectively manage and improve environmental quality, ultimately contributing to a more sustainable future for the region.
CO 2 Emssions
Carbon dioxide, a colorless gas with a density approximately 60% higher than dry air, is composed of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms As a naturally occurring trace gas in Earth's atmosphere, CO2 is invisible and odorless under all conditions found on the planet The gas is primarily removed from the atmosphere through two key processes: photosynthesis, where plants extract carbon from CO2 to build their tissues, and dissolution, where CO2 is absorbed by the oceans.
Emissions refer to the discharge of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere over a defined area and time As the most prevalent long-lived greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide levels have surged since the Industrial Revolution, primarily due to human activities such as fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, contributing significantly to global warming.
Environment Kuznet curve
The environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC)
The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) suggests a relationship between environmental degradation and income per capita, indicating that in the early stages of economic growth, pollution and degradation increase However, once a certain income threshold is reached, the trend reverses, leading to environmental improvement at higher income levels This relationship is represented as an inverted U-shaped function, demonstrating that economic growth can ultimately benefit the environment.
The Environment Kuznets Curve (EKC) illustrates the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development in ASEAN countries As economies grow, CO2 emissions initially rise, but eventually, they decline as nations implement sustainable practices and technologies This curve highlights the importance of balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability, emphasizing that long-term development strategies should focus on reducing carbon footprints while fostering economic prosperity in the region.
The Kuznets Curve, named after economist Simon Kuznets, suggests that income inequality initially increases and then decreases as a nation undergoes economic development and industrialization This phenomenon occurs as the economy shifts from agriculture to urban centers, leading to significant rural-urban disparities; while urban firm owners reap profits, laborers experience slower income growth, and agricultural workers may face declining wages However, once a certain income threshold is reached, the benefits of industrialization, democratization, and the emergence of welfare states contribute to a reduction in inequality, resulting in an inverted "U" shape of income distribution as per-capita income rises.
Explanation of EKC shape
Several studies have created theoretical models to explore the interaction between preferences and technology in shaping environmental quality over time While these studies often adopt various simplifying assumptions about the economy, many can produce an inverted U-shaped curve depicting pollution intensity; however, this outcome is not guaranteed.
The relationship between GDP per capita and environmental degradation is complex Initially, as GDP per capita increases, environmental quality tends to decline due to individuals prioritizing basic consumption needs over pollution mitigation However, once a certain income threshold is reached, people start to weigh the benefits of environmental quality against consumer goods, leading to a slower rate of environmental damage Beyond this conversion point, increased spending on waste treatment reflects a growing desire for a better environment, resulting in improved environmental quality alongside continued economic growth.
Econometrics Framework
The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), as discussed in David I Stern's article, posits that environmental quality initially declines with increasing income levels before improving at higher income thresholds This relationship is captured in standard EKC models, which utilize regression analysis to illustrate the connection between per capita income and environmental impact, represented by the equation ln (E/P)it=αi +γt+β1ln (GDP/P)it+β2[ln (GDP/P)]it2 +εit.
GDP Gross domestic product ε Random error term ln Natural logarithms i Regions t Years
The relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development in ASEAN countries is a critical area of study Understanding how economic growth impacts carbon emissions can inform sustainable development policies This analysis highlights the variables that influence CO2 emissions and their correlation with economic activities across the region By examining these factors, we can better address environmental challenges while promoting economic advancement in ASEAN nations.
The author posits that, regardless of variations in per capita emissions, the elasticity of income remains constant across countries at similar income levels It is noted that regressions are only valid when indicator levels reach zero or become negative, particularly in the context of deforestation and potential afforestation The maximum point of emissions or concentrations, referred to as "the turning point," can be determined using the formula: τ=exp [- β1/ 2β2 ( )].
When examining the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), researchers often estimate both fixed and random effects models While fixed effects models generally provide consistent estimates, the data from various countries and time periods are conditional Consequently, an EKC derived from fixed effects using data solely from developed nations may not accurately reflect the future trends of developing countries.
Numerous studies indicate that the random effects model lacks consistent estimability, raising questions about the validity of conclusions drawn from most Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) research.
I MAIN SOURCES OF CO 2 EMISSIONS
Carbon dioxide emissions originate from both natural and human sources, with natural sources including decomposition, ocean release, and respiration, while human activities such as cement production, deforestation, and the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas also significantly contribute to these emissions.
Figure 3: Main sources of CO emissions 2
Since the Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide emissions from human activities have significantly increased, primarily due to the combustion of fossil fuels like oil, coal, and gas, along with deforestation, which contributes to higher atmospheric CO2 levels.
Volcanic eruptions significantly impact the ecosystem, affecting both plant and animal life In ASEAN countries, these natural events contribute to changes in respiration patterns and carbon dioxide emissions The relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development is crucial, as economic activities often exacerbate environmental challenges Understanding this interplay is essential for sustainable development in the region, highlighting the need for strategies that balance economic growth with environmental preservation.
Eighty-seven percent of carbon dioxide emissions generated by human activities stem from the combustion of fossil fuels, including coal, natural gas, and oil Additionally, nine percent of these emissions are attributed to deforestation and land use changes, while four percent arise from industrial processes like cement production.
The combustion of fossil fuels is the largest human source of carbon dioxide emissions, accounting for 87% of total emissions This process generates energy primarily used for heat, electricity, and transportation, with applications in power plants, vehicles, aircraft, and industrial facilities In 2011, the global use of fossil fuels resulted in a staggering 33.2 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.
The 3 types of fossil fuels that are used the most are coal, natural gas and oil Coal is responsible for 43% of carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion, 36% is produced by oil and 20% from natural gas
Coal is the most carbon-intensive fossil fuel, generating about 2.5 tonnes of CO2e for every tonne burned It is the largest contributor to carbon dioxide emissions among fossil fuels, accounting for one-third of the global primary energy supply while being responsible for 43% of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel consumption.
From 2000 to 2010, Brunei Darussalam experienced a significant increase in total primary energy demand, growing at an annual rate of 7.6% to reach 1.20 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) by 2010, up from 0.57 Mtoe in 2000 Notably, the per capita primary energy demand in Brunei was 7.92 tons of oil equivalent (toe) per person in 2010, making it the highest among Asian Development Bank member countries.
Figure 4 Human sources of Carbon Dioxide :
Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion significantly impact economic development in ASEAN countries The relationship between CO2 emissions and economic growth is critical, as rising emissions often correlate with increased industrial activity and energy consumption Understanding this dynamic is essential for formulating effective environmental policies and sustainable development strategies in the region By addressing the challenges posed by fossil fuel reliance, ASEAN nations can work towards reducing carbon emissions while fostering economic growth.
From 2005 to 2010, Singapore's total primary energy demand increased by 5.0%, reaching 23.7 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2010, slightly below the GDP growth rate In 2010, oil dominated the fuel imports with a significant 66.5% share, while natural gas accounted for 32.9% Notably, Singapore's per capita primary energy demand was high at 4.67 tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) per person, contrasting sharply with the Southeast Asian average of 0.93 toe, largely due to the requirements for refinery crude oil inputs that are subsequently re-exported.
Main sources of CO emissions 5 2 1 Human resources
Natural Sources
Figure 6: Natural sources of Carbon Dioxide
The ocean-atmosphere exchange is the largest natural source of carbon dioxide emissions, accounting for 42.84% of the total This process involves the release of dissolved carbon dioxide from the oceans into the atmosphere at the sea surface, resulting in approximately 330 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions each year.
Plant and animal respiration is a significant natural source of carbon dioxide, contributing to 28.56% of total natural emissions This process releases carbon dioxide as a byproduct of the energy production chemical reactions in living organisms, resulting in approximately 220 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions each year.
Plants and animals rely on respiration to generate energy necessary for essential activities such as movement and growth This process involves the use of oxygen to metabolize nutrients like sugars, proteins, and fats, resulting in the release of energy, along with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts Understanding the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development in ASEAN countries is crucial for addressing environmental challenges and promoting sustainable growth.
Soil respiration and decomposition are significant natural sources of carbon dioxide, contributing to 28.56% of global emissions Various organisms in the Earth's soil, including decomposers that break down dead organic matter, utilize respiration to generate energy, releasing carbon dioxide as a byproduct Annually, these soil organisms produce approximately 220 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.
Soil respiration refers to the process of respiration that takes place beneath the ground, involving plant roots, bacteria, fungi, and soil animals that generate the energy necessary for survival while releasing carbon dioxide This process also encompasses decomposers that break down organic matter, such as dead trees, leaves, and animals, which continuously release carbon dioxide during decomposition.
Volcanic eruptions contribute a small fraction of carbon dioxide emissions, accounting for approximately 0.03% of natural releases These eruptions discharge magma, ash, dust, and gases from beneath the Earth's surface, with carbon dioxide being one of the key gases emitted Annually, volcanic activity generates between 0.15 and 0.26 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide.
Volcanic eruptions primarily release three main gases: water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide As magma ascends through the Earth's mantle and crust, it absorbs these gases When an eruption occurs, these gases are expelled into the atmosphere, significantly impacting air quality and climate.
II STATE OF ECONOMY AND CO 2 EMISSION IN ASEAN COUNTRIES
1 State and classification of economy in ASEAN countries
Using the STATA, we report summary statistics of the variables used in estimation
Obs Mean Std Dev Min Max
Per capita CO2 emission 27 1.501576 4206229 8243417 2.55975 Per capita NOx emission 27 0005964 0003097 0003693 0018237 Per capita Methane emission 27 0013103 0007579 0008038 0045007
Per capita CO2 emission 27 2341568 1266871 1014898 69142 Per capita NOx emission 27 0007543 0002496 0004802 0013808 Per capita Methane emission 27 0017153 000256 0014518 0025133
Per capita CO2 emission 27 3.371261 9357789 1.604832 4.89124 Per capita NOx emission 27 0003611 0000607 0002967 0004785 Per capita Methane emission 27 0014582 0000957 0013087 0016046
The analysis of per capita CO2 emissions in ASEAN countries reveals an average emission of 1.006581 tons, with a notable range from 0.3019469 to 1.9659 tons Additionally, per capita NOx emissions average at 0.0002827 tons, with a variation between 0.0001759 and 0.000389 tons Understanding the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development in ASEAN nations is crucial for addressing environmental challenges while promoting sustainable growth.
Per capita CO2 emission 27 1863798 1012557 0499442 4319 Per capita NOx emission 27 0011527 0006836 0005157 0033192 Per capita Methane emission 27 0019506 0006051 0013547 0038263
Per capita CO2 emission 27 8870223 1202725 6741768 1.20324 Per capita NOx emission 27 0001459 0000145 000121 000175 Per capita Methane emission 27 0006206 0000277 0005727 0006707
Per capita CO2 emission 27 6.205314 1.443808 3.137366 8.16593 Per capita NOx emission 27 0006114 0001146 0004917 0008898 Per capita Methane emission 27 0013018 0001147 0011748 0017019
Per capita CO2 emission 27 2437486 1207823 1363453 54313 Per capita NOx emission 27 0006866 0003813 0002711 001656 Per capita Methane emission 27 0018351 0005069 0012331 0030245
Per capita CO2 emission 27 18.265 4.302042 11.98024 24.60718 Per capita NOx emission 27 0015819 0013108 0008565 0075916 Per capita Methane emission 27 0127099 0022026 0113556 0224403
Per capita CO2 emission 27 11.04215 3.312333 4.342606 18.04087 Per capita NOx emission 27 0005652 0004046 0002937 0019217 Per capita Methane emission 27 000448 0000527 0003219 0005332
In ASEAN countries, GDP per capita is analyzed alongside key emissions metrics, including per capita CO2 emissions, NOx emissions measured in thousand tons of CO2 equivalent, and methane emissions quantified in kilotons of CO2 equivalent This comprehensive summary highlights the relationship between economic performance and environmental impact within the region, emphasizing the need for sustainable development strategies.
Between 1990 and 2016, the average per capita GDP for the 10 ASEAN countries was $72,587.57, adjusted to 2016 US prices Singapore led with the highest per capita GDP at $56,336.07, while Myanmar had the lowest at $30,124.07, highlighting Singapore's significant economic development compared to its regional counterparts.
The economic disparity among ASEAN countries is stark, with Singapore's per capita GDP reaching 70 times that of Myanmar's low average of $467 Over the years, this gap has widened, positioning Singapore as a high-income nation in Asia and globally Furthermore, significant differences in CO2 emissions correlate with economic development across ASEAN countries, highlighting the complex relationship between environmental impact and economic status in the region.
State of economy and CO emission in ASEAN countries 9 2 1 State and classification of economy in ASEAN countries
State of CO emssions in ASEAN countries 11 2 III Testing the Environment Kuznet Curve (EKC) in ASEAN countries
Country Name CO2 per capita Population
Philippines 0.674177 1.20324 78.48% 61947348 1.03E+08 66.79% Malaysia 3.137366 8.16593 160.28% 18038321 31187265 72.89% Cambodia 0.140577 0.50134 256.63% 8973342 15762370 75.66% Brunei Darussalam 23.93324 23.96384 0.13% 258785 423196 63.53% Singapore 14.60238 10.24928 -29.81% 3047132 5607283 84.02%
Figure 9: An analysis of CO per capita and population in ASEAN countries 2
2.1 CO 2 per capita in high income countries tends to decline but the total is still high
Over time, developed countries have seen a decline in per capita pollutant levels due to stricter environmental regulations and technological advancements For instance, Singapore's CO2 emissions per capita decreased by 29.81% from 1990 to 2016, while Brunei Darussalam maintained stable levels despite a 63% population growth during the same period This increase in Brunei's population correlates with a significant rise in total emissions, primarily driven by the development of its oil industry Consequently, the emission mix has shifted from methane and nitrogen oxides to carbon dioxide, resulting in high aggregate and per capita waste levels Economic activities inherently disrupt the environment, as fulfilling material needs necessitates the consumption and alteration of energy flows and materials.
2.2 Growth rate of CO emission per capita in low income countries are out of control 2
Between 1990 and 2016, all countries saw an increase in total CO2 emissions and population However, CO2 emissions per capita tell a different story Recently, Singapore has experienced a decline in CO2 emissions per capita, while low-middle-income countries such as Myanmar, Vietnam, and Lao PDR have seen significant increases Specifically, CO2 emissions per capita in Vietnam, Myanmar, and Lao PDR have surged by 526%, 556.96%, and 764.76%, respectively.
Middle-income countries are experiencing CO2 emissions growth rates that are approximately 2 to 3 times higher than their population growth While high-income countries, like Singapore, have also seen significant population increases—around 84% since 1990—some have managed to reduce their CO2 emissions per capita During this period, Indonesia transitioned to a lower-middle-income country, while Thailand and Malaysia advanced to upper-middle-income status by focusing on industrial product exports In contrast, low-income ASEAN countries face uncontrollable increases in CO2 emissions per capita due to various underlying factors.
Many low-income and developing countries face a significant shortage of skilled human resources for effective emissions management planning and operations Local officials responsible for emissions management often lack the necessary technical training or engineering expertise, hindering their ability to implement effective strategies.
Developing countries face a significant technical challenge due to the absence of comprehensive emissions management plans at both local and national levels Consequently, emissions management technologies are frequently chosen without adequately assessing their suitability within the broader management framework.
In developing countries, research and development in solid waste management often takes a backseat, resulting in the adoption of technologies that fail to account for local climate, financial, and human resource constraints, as well as social and cultural factors This oversight can lead to the selection of ill-suited technologies, rendering them unusable and ineffective in addressing waste management challenges.
Emissions management often receives minimal attention in developing countries, particularly outside major cities Consequently, government funding for solid waste management is severely limited, hindering the ability to meet essential public health and environmental protection standards This issue is especially pronounced at the local government level, where an underdeveloped taxation system results in insufficient financial resources for public services, including effective emissions management.
The absence of effective emissions management legislation in many developing countries leads to poorly defined roles for national agencies and a lack of coordination among them This gap in regulation significantly impacts the enforcement of rules related to CO2 emissions and economic development, particularly in ASEAN countries.
Various agencies are tasked with solid waste management, but overlapping responsibilities and regulatory gaps often hinder the development of effective solutions.
Low-income countries encounter cultural and social restrictions that hinder effective emissions management Specific societal norms dictate that only certain social classes are permitted to address emissions issues, thereby constraining the workforce available for this critical task Additionally, many nations impose prohibitions on the direct handling of human waste and the co-composting of refuse, further complicating emissions management efforts These social constraints significantly impede the efficiency of emissions management systems.
III TESTING THE ENVIRONMENT KUZNET CURVE (EKC) IN ASEAN
We per rmed graphs on two groups: the low middle-income group, the upper middle and high fo income group.
High and upper middle income ASEAN countries
The Environment Kuznets Curve illustrates the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development in high and upper-middle-income ASEAN countries This model suggests that as these nations experience economic growth, CO2 emissions initially increase but may eventually decline after reaching a certain income level Understanding this dynamic is crucial for policymakers aiming to balance economic development with environmental sustainability in the ASEAN region.
Utilizing the econometric framework developed by David I Stern, we employed STATA to analyze data from high-income and upper-middle-income ASEAN countries, including Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, and Thailand Our statistical findings yielded a log-log model represented as ln(CO2 per capita) = 4.76 ln(GDP per capita) - 0.229 ln(GDP per capita) 22.12 This indicates that a 1% increase in GDP per capita is associated with a 4.76% rise in CO2 emissions per capita in high-income nations, assuming other factors remain constant The graph's shape illustrates the developmental stages of these high-income countries, highlighting an evolutionary pattern characterized by changes in economic activity.
Stage 1: High income countries was also low income ones in the past Therefore, they – concentrated resources for primary sectors (mining, agriculture) to meet consumer demand
In Stage 2 of economic development, resources are reallocated from primary sectors to secondary sectors, such as manufacturing and production, as basic needs are met and consumption patterns shift towards consumer goods As a result, high-income countries experience scarcity of natural resources, rendering them less suitable for agriculture or mining, and prompting a transition to more productive industrial sectors, where average income is higher and wage disparities are less pronounced.
Stage 3: Society moving from the secondary to the third (higher level - service) is characterized by very low levels of pollution.
Low – middle ASEAN countries
CO2 emissions and economic development in ASEAN countries are closely linked, as rapid industrialization and urbanization contribute to increased greenhouse gas emissions The region faces the challenge of balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability Effective policies and initiatives are essential for reducing carbon footprints while promoting sustainable development Understanding the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic activities can help ASEAN nations implement strategies that foster both economic prosperity and environmental protection Addressing these issues is crucial for achieving long-term sustainability and meeting international climate commitments.
Figure 11: An Environment Kuznet Curve of low middle income ASEAN countries
The variable ln(GDP per capita) was found to be insignificant at a 90% confidence level, leading to its removal from the model This adjustment resulted in an increase in the adjusted R² value, enhancing the overall model's explanatory power regarding CO2 emissions and economic development in ASEAN countries.
The analysis of data from low-middle-income ASEAN countries, including Vietnam, Cambodia, the Philippines, Myanmar, Lao PDR, and Indonesia, reveals a log-log model: ln(CO2 per capita) = 0.749 ln(GDP per capita) + 5.665 This indicates that a 1% increase in GDP per capita is associated with a 0.749% increase in CO2 emissions per capita in these nations The findings somewhat support the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis, as these countries have increasingly transformed into significant manufacturing hubs in recent years.
The effects of CO2 emission on the development in ASEAN countries
Greenhouse effect
Since the Industrial Revolution, greenhouse gas levels have risen significantly, with an 80% increase in emissions since 1970 This rapid growth has intensified the greenhouse effect, leading to excessive heat retention in the Earth's atmosphere As a result, surface temperatures have increased by 0.75°C (1.4°F) over the past century.
Climatic changes have significantly impacted Southeast Asia, influencing water resources, agricultural production, forestry, and industry (IPCC, 2007) The ASEAN region has observed these changes since the early 20th century, with average temperatures rising by 0.1 to 0.3°C per decade over the past 50 years, mirroring trends seen globally.
Figure 12: Temperature changes in 5 ASEAN countries
Recent data indicates significant temperature increases in the ASEAN region, particularly in Indonesia, where Jakarta has experienced a rise of approximately 1.04°C per century in January and 1.40°C per century in July This warming trend has led to the disappearance of snow on Mount Jayawijaya in Irian Jaya, highlighting the impacts of climate change Similarly, the Philippines has recorded an increase in mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures of up to 0.14°C per decade, as noted in climate studies These trends underscore the urgent need to address climate change and its effects on economic development in ASEAN countries.
From 1961 to 1990, average temperatures rose significantly, with increases of 0.61°C to 0.89°C, leading to more frequent hot days and warm nights, while cold days and cool nights have declined In Singapore, temperatures increased by 0.6°C between 1987 and 2007, averaging 0.3°C per decade Similarly, Thailand's temperatures have risen by 0.10°C to 0.18°C per decade, with daytime averages reaching up to 40°C, particularly in April Viet Nam also experienced a rise in annual average temperatures, with an increase of 0.1°C from 1900 to 2000 and 0.7°C to 0.14°C from 1951 to 2000 As a result, summers have become increasingly hotter in recent years, with monthly averages climbing by 0.1°C to 0.3°C per decade.
Increased melting of snow and ice
Stronger storms and extreme events
Ocean acidification
Since the Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide levels have caused the world's oceans to become 30% more acidic The ocean acts as a carbon sink, absorbing approximately 25% of human carbon dioxide emissions, which reacts with seawater to create carbonic acid Consequently, rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels lead to increased ocean acidification.
Changes to plant nutrition & growth levels
Increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere can enhance plant growth, with studies showing a 15% growth increase in crops when CO2 concentrations are raised by 50% However, while higher carbon dioxide availability benefits plants, they also require essential nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus for optimal growth Without sufficient increases in these nutrients, the nutritional quality of plants may decline, as evidenced by experiments indicating a 5-14% reduction in protein concentrations in crops like wheat, rice, barley, and potato tubers.
Smog & ozone pollution
In the past century, global background ozone levels have doubled, primarily due to human-induced emissions of methane and nitrogen oxides Ground-level ozone, a significant air pollutant, contributes to smog and poses serious health risks to humans and plants alike.
Long-term exposure to ozone significantly impacts health and agriculture, leading to reduced life expectancy and contributing to an estimated 362,000 to 700,000 premature cardiopulmonary deaths globally each year Furthermore, current ozone levels are projected to diminish the yields of essential staple crops such as soybean, maize, and wheat by 2-15%.
Ozone layer depletion
Nitrous oxide is now the most significant ozone-depleting substance, largely due to the successful ban of CFCs and other harmful gases under the Montreal Protocol This international agreement has effectively reduced emissions that threaten the ozone layer, highlighting the ongoing need for environmental protection measures.
18 atmospheric concentration Nitrous oxide is not restricted by the MP, so while the levels of other ozone depleting substances are declining, nitrous oxide levels are continuing to grow.
Challenges of reducing CO emission in ASEAN countries 18 2 VI Recommendations
When addressing the challenges of reducing CO2 emissions and promoting sustainable energy development in ASEAN, it is crucial to consider the interconnected factors of economic prosperity, social development, and environmental preservation These challenges arise from three key areas that must be navigated to achieve a balanced approach to sustainability in the region.
Accessibility and affordability of energy are crucial for the 56% of ASEAN populations living in rural areas, primarily reliant on traditional biomass Ensuring energy needs are met is a top priority, alongside implementing incentive schemes to provide affordable energy Encouraging the use of renewable energy is essential for fostering a sustainable economy with low CO2 emissions.
Sustainability is a crucial focus for ASEAN, with technology playing a pivotal role in transitioning to cleaner energy solutions The region is looking to more developed countries to introduce advanced technologies, while simultaneously emphasizing the need to cultivate local expertise and support systems to ensure long-term sustainability Additionally, ASEAN must address non-technical challenges and engage in the design and development of technologies that are tailored to meet the specific needs of its member countries.
From the finding and analysis section we recommend the following proposals:
Governments must prioritize urgent, climate-conscious decisions to effectively mitigate the impacts of climate change Addressing this global challenge demands significant human resources and financial investments Climate change transcends political divides, as it poses a threat to all individuals and nations alike.
Energy efficiency is crucial, as many people unknowingly waste energy by leaving lights on, using air conditioning unnecessarily, or powering unused devices like TVs By breaking these habits, individuals can significantly reduce their carbon footprint This not only benefits the environment but also leads to cost savings on energy bills.
Public transportation plays a crucial role in addressing urban challenges, particularly as rising living standards lead to increased car dependency Major cities are grappling with severe traffic congestion and air pollution, making it essential to promote public transit as a viable solution for reducing CO2 emissions and alleviating environmental tax burdens However, inadequate investment in public transport services hampers its ability to effectively accommodate growing commuter numbers, presenting a significant issue that governments must address.
Utilizing local recycling services is essential to reduce waste and maximize recycling efforts Our natural resources are finite, and excessive consumption of energy and water can deplete these vital resources for future generations To minimize our environmental impact, it's advisable to avoid purchasing unnecessary items and to repair tools instead of replacing them, as this significantly lowers the carbon footprint compared to manufacturing new products.
Planting more trees is a classic yet highly effective method for reducing individual carbon footprints Trees play a vital role by providing shade and oxygen while absorbing carbon dioxide Research indicates that a single young tree can absorb approximately 13 pounds of carbon dioxide annually, making tree planting an essential strategy for combating climate change.
19 amount will climb up to 48 pounds annually as trees mature Just one 10-year-old tree releases enough oxygen into the air to support two human beings
Buying local products is an effective way to reduce carbon emissions The concept of food miles highlights the carbon dioxide emissions associated with transporting food, especially when considering items like winter watermelon that can travel an average of 1,500 miles from farm to supermarket By choosing seasonal and locally grown foods, consumers can significantly minimize the environmental impact of transportation.
Conclusion
Through the above data collecting, analysis and literature review with practical research, this research has shown the general hazards of carbon dioxide and the usage of Environment Kuznets Curve
Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the Earth's atmosphere reached a record high in 2016, as reported by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), highlighting its significant role in global warming Key contributors to rising CO2 concentrations include fossil fuel combustion, transportation, and industrial processes This issue poses a serious challenge for ASEAN countries, particularly developing nations, where emissions are projected to increase from 35% to 66% by 2050.
Focusing on recycling advancements and regulating industrial activities is essential for enhancing environmental quality Our structured model illustrates the connection between economic growth and environmental degradation Additionally, it highlights the impact of various pollutants and human behaviors, paving the way for a long-term strategy to decrease carbon dioxide levels.
CO 2 per capita of 10 ASEAN countries 1990 2016 (metric tons per capita) –
Indonesia Myanmar Thailand Vietnam Lao PDR Philippines Malaysia Cambodia Brunei Singapore
In 2001, the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development in ASEAN countries was analyzed, revealing significant insights into how economic activities contribute to environmental impact The study highlighted that as economies grow, CO2 emissions tend to increase, underscoring the need for sustainable development practices This correlation emphasizes the importance of balancing economic growth with environmental responsibility to ensure long-term sustainability in the ASEAN region.
Indonesia Myanmar Thailand Vietnam Lao PDR Philippines Malaysia Cambodia Brunei Singapore
In 2009, the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development in ASEAN countries was analyzed, revealing significant data points: 2400.3676, 741.0777, 4212.0549, 1210.6911, 948.1276, 1825.3415, 7326.7444, 738.2327, 27965.4750, and 38577.5582 This study highlights the critical impact of economic growth on carbon emissions within the region, emphasizing the need for sustainable development strategies to mitigate environmental consequences.
1 CO2 levels reach record high for 30th year in a row, Scientific American, 2015
2 IEA, World Energy Outlook, 2009, Paris, France: International Energy Agency
3 Metz, B., et al IPCC, 2005: IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage, Prepared by Working Group III of the International Panel on Climate Change 2005, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
4 Fifield, L.S.; Fryxell, G.E.; Addleman, R.S.; Aardahl, C.L Prepr Par Am Chem Soc
5 Hata,, K.; Futaba, D.N.; Mizuno, K.; Namai, T.; Yumura, M.; Iijima, S Water assisted highly efficient synthesis of impurity free single walled carbon nanotubes Science, 2004, 306, 1362
6 National Research Council (1996) Natural Climate Variability on Decade- -Century Time to Scales (National Academy Press, Washington, DC)
7 S L Piao, P Ciais and M Lomas, Global and Planetary Change 75 , 133 142 (2011) – https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.10.014, Google ScholarCrossref
8 M B Shiftlett, B A Elliot, A M H Niehaus and A Yokozeki, Separation Science and Technology 47 , 411 421 (2012) – https://doi.org/10.1080/01496395.2011.627905 , Google Scholar Crossref
9 CDIAC, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre, WWW Document, (http://cdiac.ornl.gov/) Google Scholar
10 IFAD, Fact Sheets: Climate Change Impacts in the Asia/Pacific Region
11 World Bank, Energy and Mining, WWW Document, (http://data.worldbank.org/topic/energy-and-mining) Google Scholar
12 Z H Lee, S Sethupathi, K T Lee, S Bathia and A R Rahman, Renewable and Sustainability Energy Reviews 28 , 71- 81 (2014) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.07.055 ,
In their 2013 study published in Energy Policy, S Shafiei and R A Salim explore the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development in ASEAN countries The research highlights how economic growth in this region impacts carbon emissions, emphasizing the need for sustainable development strategies The findings suggest that while economic advancement can lead to increased emissions, implementing effective policies can mitigate environmental impacts This study is crucial for understanding the balance between economic progress and environmental sustainability in Southeast Asia.