Future energy improved sustainable and clean options for our planet

Future Energy Improved, Sustainable and Clean Options for our Planet Third Edition Edited by Trevor M Letcher University of Kwazulu-Natal Durban, Kwazulunatal, South Africa Laurel House, Stratton on the Fosse United Kingdom Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved Chapter “Nuclear Fission” is a reprint from second edition Chapter “Nuclear Fusion” is subject to crown copyright No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein) Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-08-102886-5 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Candice Janco Acquisition Editor: Marisa LaFleur Editorial Project Manager: Sara Pianavilla Production Project Manager: Divya KrishnaKumar Cover Designer: Christian J Bilbow Typeset by TNQ Technologies To my grandchildren, Amy and Finn Taylor List of Contributors Rosalind Archer Geothermal Institute/Department of Engineering Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; email: r.archer@auckland.ac.nz Karl W Bandilla Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States; email: bandilla@princeton.edu Amarjeet Bassi Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada Vitezslav Benda Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Prague, Czechia; email: benda@fel.cvut.cz Hasan Berkem Sonder Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom Subhamoy Bhattacharya Surrey Advanced Geotechnical Engineering (SAGE) Laboratory, University of S.Bhattacharya@surrey.ac.uk Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom; email: Jeremy Boak Retired, Oklahoma Geological Survey, Mewbourne College of Earth and Energy, University jeremyboak@comcast.net Hans Böhm of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, United States; email: Energy Institute at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria Ray Boswell National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA, United States; email: ray.boswell@netl.doe.gov Christian Breyer Department of Electrical Engineering, Lappeenranta, Finland; email: christian.breyer@lut.fi LUT University, Carlos Henrique de Brito Cruz São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Physics Institute, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil; email: brito@fapesp.br Liana Cipcigan Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom xxi xxii List of Contributors Timothy Collett United States Geological Survey, Denver, CO, United States Luís Augusto Barbosa Cortez Center for Energy Planning, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil Andrew Crossland Advance Further Energy Ltd, Retford and Infratec, Wellington, New Zealand Arno de Klerk Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; email: deklerk@ualberta.ca Christian Doetsch Fraunhofer-Institut für Umwelt, Sicherheits- und Energietechnik UMSICHT, Oberhausen, Germany; email: christian.doetsch@umsicht.fraunhofer.de Mark Dooner University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom; email: mark.dooner@estoolbox.org Agnieszka Drobniak Indiana Geological and Water Survey, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States Andy Ford School of the Built Environment and Architecture, London South Bank University, London, United Kingdom; email: andy.ford@lsbu.ac.uk Matthew Gill Dalton Nuclear Institute, Manchester University, Manchester, United Kingdom Aaron Gillich School of the Built Environment and Architecture, London South Bank University, London, United Kingdom David Greenwood School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon Tyne, United Kingdom Rajender Gupta Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; email: rajender.gupta@ualberta.ca Steve Hancock XtremeWell Engineering Inc., Calgary, Canada Nawshad Haque CSIRO Nawshad.Haque@csiro.au Dennis R Hardy Energy, Clayton, VIC, Australia; NOVA Research Inc., Alexandria, VA, United States email: List of Contributors xxiii Yulin Hu Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada Paul Jaffe United States Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, United States; email: paul.jaffe@nrl.navy.mil Kejun Jiang Energy System Analysis Research Center, Energy Research Institute, Beijing, China; email: kjiang@eri.org.cn Richard Kembleton EUROfusion, Garching, Germany; email: Richard.kemp@ukaea.uk Ånund Killingtveit Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; email: aanundk@outlook.com Robert Kleinberg Columbia University Center on Global Energy Policy, New York, NY, United States; United States Boston University Institute for Sustainable Energy, Boston, MA, Vinoj Kurian Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Sung-Rock Lee KIGAM, Seoul, South Korea Trevor M Letcher Department of Chemistry, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; Laurel House, Stratton on the Fosse, United Kingdom; email: trevor@letcher.eclipse.co.uk Johannes Lindorfer Energy Institute at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria; email: lindorfer@energieinstitut-linz.at Francis Livens Dalton Nuclear Institute, Manchester University, Manchester, United Kingdom Giorgio Locatelli University of Leeds, School of Civil Engineering, Leeds, Yorkshire, United Kingdom; email: g.locatelli@leeds.ac.uk Stephan Lux Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Department of Electrical Energy Storage, Freiburg, Germany Maria Mastalerz Indiana Geological and Water Survey, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States; email: mmastale@indiana.edu xxiv List of Contributors Mary Helen McCay National Centre for Hydrogen Research, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, United States; email: mmccay@fit.edu Benito Mignacca University of Leeds, School of Civil Engineering, Leeds, Yorkshire, United Kingdom Pegah Mirzania School of the Built Environment and Architecture, London South Bank University, London, United Kingdom Gavin M Mudd Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; email: gavin.mudd@rmit.edu.au Stalin Munoz-Vaca School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon Tyne, United Kingdom Paul Nieuwenhuis Cardiff sustainableautoman@gmail.com University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; email: Georgios Nikitas Surrey Advanced Geotechnical Engineering (SAGE) Laboratory, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom Luiz Augusto Horta Nogueira Center for Energy Planning, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil Alan Owen Centre for Alternative Technology, Madrynlleth, Pows Wales, United Kingdom; email: alan.owen@cat.org.uk Charalampos Patsios School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastleupon Tyne, United Kingdom; haris.patsios@newcastle.ac.uk Aiden Peakman Dalton Nuclear Institute, Manchester University, Manchester, United Kingdom; email: a.peakman@liverpool.ac.uk Robert Pitz-Paal German Aerospace Centre (DLR), Institute of Solar Research, Köln, Germany; email: Robert.pitz-paal@dlr.de Astrid Pohlig Fraunhofer-Institut für Umwelt, Sicherheits- und Energietechnik UMSICHT, Oberhausen, Germany Mahendra Pratap Directorate General of Hydrocarbons, Delhi, India Deepak Pudasainee Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada List of Contributors Daniel Cenk Rosenfeld xxv Energy Institute at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria Shahin Shafiee Department of Mechanical Engineering, Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX, United States Gláucia Mendes Souza Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo (USP), SP, Brazil Daniel A Vallero Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States; email: dav1@duke.edu Matthias Vetter Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Department of Electrical Energy Storage, Freiburg, Germany; email: matthias.vetter@ise.fraunhofer.de Nathan Vimalan Surrey Advanced Geotechnical Engineering (SAGE) Laboratory, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom Neal Wade School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon Tyne, United Kingdom Sara Walker School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon Tyne, United Kingdom Jihong Wang University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom Naval Research Laboratory, Materials Science & Technology Division, Washington, DC, United States; email: heather.willauer@nrl.navy.mil Heather D Willauer Johannes Wüllner Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Department of Electrical Energy Storage, Freiburg, Germany Chunbao (Charles) Xu Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada; email: cxu6@uwo.ca Koji Yamamoto Japan Oil, Gas, and Metals National Corporation, Tokyo, Japan Preface This third edition of Future Energy is a response to the interest shown in the first and second editions and to the new developments in the field Eight new chapters have been introduced, including topics such as • • • • • • • • small nuclear reactors; electric vehicle revolution; energy storage, energy from biomass; solar energy beamed from space; life-cycle assessment of renewables; integration of intermittent renewable energy; problems with metals and elements needed to support renewable energy; and a global overview of future energy The new book is divided into nine sections: • • • • • • • • • Introduction with a focus on carbon dioxide pollution; Fossil fuels (energy sources); Nuclear power (energy sources); Transport energy (energy sources); Energy storage; Renewable energy (energy sources); New possible energy options; Sustainabilty; The current situation and the future Discussions on the energy situation in countries around the world have been restricted to China as it is the most rapidly developing superpower, and it produces more energy than any other country on Earth China also produces more carbon dioxide than any other country The book looks at all types of energy that may be used in the future, including the sustainable types such as solar, wind, tidal, and wave energy Fossil fuel in all its forms, from coal, oil, shale oil, methane gas, and methane hydrates, occupies a prominent place in this book as these energy sources will be with us for many decades before we have expanded and developed renewable energy forms, built new nuclear fission plants, or possibly even developed new types of energy such as nuclear fusion and space solar power in which orbiting solar panels collect energy from the sun and beam it back down to Earth using lasers or microwaves This book, like the previous editions, has been produced in order to allow the reader to have a reasonable, logical, and correct understanding and insight into our future energy options The final decision as to which energy form should be developed in a country or region must take into account many factors including sustainability; the general safety and xxvii Index NaS batteries See Sodium-sulfur batteries (NaS batteries) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 263e264, 520e521 National Alcohol Program, 187 National Carbon Storage Atlas, 683, 684f National Development and Reform Commission, 695 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 476 National Ignition Facility (NIF), 553e554 Nationally determined contribution (NDC), 693 Natural fluid, 436 Natural gas, 10e11, 564e565, 638 combined cycle, 35e36, 676 drilling stressors, 596e599 fired power plants, 641 processing, 674e675 reforming, 479 synthesis gas from, 210e212 Naval reactors, 139 Nazi party, 562 NDC See Nationally determined contribution (NDC) Net present value (NPV), 153e154, 623 Netherlands, hydrogen usage in, 488 Neutron, 136 irradiation, 548e549 neutron-induced nuclear fission in 235U, 136, 136f New Lens, 731e732 New Policies Scenario (NPS), 729e730 New Zealand, hydrogen usage in, 488 NFPA See National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Ni-metal hydride batteries (NiMH batteries), 714e715 NiCd See Nickel cadmium (NiCd) Nickel (N) Ni/Al2O3 reforming catalyst, 211 nickel-based batteries, 657e658 Nickel cadmium (NiCd), 657e658, 714e715 Nickel iron (NiFe), 657e658 779 Nickel metal hydride (NiMH), 657e658 Nickelecadmium battery (NiCd battery), 247 See also Lithium-ion batteries NIF See National Ignition Facility (NIF) NiFe See Nickel iron (NiFe) NiMH See Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) Nissan’s technology, 183 Nitrogen bases, selective acid catalysis in presence of, 210 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 584 Nitrous oxides (NOx), 30, 331, 672e673 emission, 706f NMP See N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) Nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT), 391 Noncatalytic liquefaction, 205 Nonefossil fuel resources, synthetic fuel beginnings from, 566e568 history of methanol synthesis, 566e567 methanol synthesis from carbon dioxide, 567e568 Nonhydrogen-based heteroatom removal technology, 210 Nonhydrogen-based ring opening of multinuclear aromatics, 210 Nonmetals, 592 Nonproliferation risks, 144 “Nonsolar” energy source, 584 Normal distribution, 601 Norway, hydrogen usage in, 488 NPP See Nuclear power plant (NPP) NPS See New Policies Scenario (NPS) NPV See Net present value (NPV) NSSS See Nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) Nuclear energy See also Renewable energy (RE) fuel supply, 148 LCA of, 644e645 practicalities, 147e148 proliferation, 148 safety, 147 siting and public acceptance, 147e148 waste management, 147 Nuclear environment, 548e549 780 Index Nuclear fission, 135e136, 728 controlled fission reactions, 137e138 energy, 5, 10e11 irradiated fuel management, 142e145 nuclear fuel, 135 nuclear reactor technology, 138e142 practicalities of nuclear energy, 147e148 thorium, 146e147 Nuclear fuel, 135 reprocessing, 144 Nuclear fusion, 135, 543e544 approaches to fusion reactors, 552e554 characteristics of fusion power, 545e547 compatibility with existing infrastructure, 547 resources, 546e547 safety and waste, 545e546 economics of fusion energy, 554e556 energy, 11 power, 547e552 status of current research and prospects for fusion energy, 556e558 Nuclear power, 702 Nuclear power plant (NPP), 152e153, 347 economic evaluation, 152e154 life-cycle costs, 152e154 seismic resilience of, 347e351 battery storage with wind, 351 hydrogen production through offshore wind, 351e353 near shore wind farm performance during 2012 Tohoku earthquake, 347e350 wind farm stand up, 350e351 Nuclear reactor technology, 138e142 See also Small modular reactors (SMRs) advanced reactor technology, 140e142 development, 138 past, 138e140 present, 140 Nuclear regulation, 545 Nuclear steam supply system (NSSS), 151 O O&M See Operation and maintenance (O&M) Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), 111 Ocean tides, 361e362 OCGT See Open cycle gas turbines (OCGT) ODP See Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) “Off-grid” applications, 269e271 Offshore wind farms, economics of, 342e346 Offshore wind power, 337e342 current state of, 338 foundations of offshore wind turbines, 340e342 future direction, 346e353 offshore wind farm, 339 requirements, 337e338 wind turbines, 339e340 Oil, 21e22 oil-bearing mudstone, 71, 73 production by indirect liquefaction, 202 quality, 206e207 recovery by direct liquefaction, 200e201 refineries, 202 sands, 49, 50f bitumen production from, 54e57 bitumen transport by pipeline, 57e59 bitumen upgrader facilities, 60e62 bitumen upgrading and refining, 59e60 environmental footprint of oil sands production, 62e63 future, 63e64 occurrence of oil sands deposits, 51 physical and chemical properties of oil sands bitumen, 51e54 Oil shale, 67, 71, 82e88 extraction methods, 84e88 environmental concerns, 87e88 in-capsule retorting, 87 mining and surface processing, 85 in situ retorting, 86e87 future production of shale oil, 88 potential resources, 83e84 Oklahoma example, 80 Index Olefin synthesis from carbon dioxide, 568e569 Oleic acid, 460e461 Open cycle gas turbines (OCGT), 641 Open fuel cycles, 142e144, 143f advantages and disadvantages, 144 Open Hydro, 367 Open pit mining, 54, 587 Open-hole with cavity, 103 Operating costs, 269 Operating expenditure (OPEX), 159, 343e344 Operation and maintenance (O&M), 159, 284e285, 326 Operational costs, 155e156 Operational expenditure See Operating expenditure (OPEX) OPEX See Operating expenditure (OPEX) Organic-rich sedimentary rock, 73 Otto cycle engines, 178e180 biofuels for, 178e181 Otway Project, 687 “Outlines of Hydrogen Roadmap”, 488 Overnight capital cost, 157e158 Overnight cost See Capital expenditure (CAPEX) Oxidation, 205 Oxy-firing, 40e41 Oxyfuel combustion, 677 Oxygen, 201 P Packed bed thermal energy storage system (PBTES system), 298e299 Packing factor, 535 Pad, 77 PAE See Power added efficiency (PAE) PAFCs See Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFCs) PAHs See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Palmitic acid, 460e461 Palmitoleic acid, 460e461 Parabolic dish engine systems, 423e424 Parabolic trough power plants, 417e420 781 direct steam generation, 419 molten salt applications, 420 parabolic trough collector field in Californian Mojave Desert, 418f Paraffinic antisolvents, 52 Paraffinic naphtha, 55e56 Parasitic power, 637 Paris Agreement, 693, 711, 727, 729e733, 740 Partial oxidative reforming, 211 Partial upgrading, 58e59 Particle and trace elements emission control, 37e38 Particulate matter (PM), 29, 584 PM 2.5 emission, 706f Particulates, 30e31 Passivated emitter and rear contact technology (PERC technology), 393 PBTES system See Packed bed thermal energy storage system (PBTES system) PCS See Power conversion system (PCS) Peak oil, 199 Peat, 25e26 PEM See Proton exchange membrane (PEM) PEMFC See Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) n-Pentane, 52e53 PERC technology See Passivated emitter and rear contact technology (PERC technology) Petra Nova CCS, Houston, USA, 42 Petra Nova Project, 686e687 Petroleum, 203, 639 petroleum-derived transport fuel, 200 refineries, 59 PGEs See Platinum-group elements (PGEs) PGM See Platinum grade metals (PGM) Phase-calibrated transmitter, 530 PHES See Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) PHEV See Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFCs), 498 782 Index Photobiological production, 480 Photoelectrolysis, 480 Photolysis system, 480 Photovoltaics (PVs), 375, 382e386, 521, 729e730 cells, 386e389 earth on elliptic orbit round Sun, 376f economy issues, 410e411 installation, 649e650 modules, 390e401 crystalline silicon technology, 392e395 emerging technologies, 399e400 parameters degradation and service life, 400e401 thin-film solar cell and module technology, 395e398 solar energy, 375e382 systems, 247, 401e409 balance of system, 407e408 configuration types, 407f factors affecting bankability and insurability, 258e260, 259f operation, maintenance, and diagnostics, 409 photovoltaic systems connected to grid, 405e408 stand-alone photovoltaic systems, 402e405 PHS See Pumped hydro storage (PHS) PHWR, 140 Physical based storage, 482 compressed gas, 482 cryogenic liquid hydrogen, 482 Physical coal cleaning, 34, 34f PICs See Products of incomplete combustion (PICs) Pipeline, 481 CO2, 678e679, 679f release experiment, 680f bitumen transport by, 57e59 Plant-level costs, 153 Plasmas, 548 Platinum grade metals (PGM), 510 Platinum-group elements (PGEs), 716 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), 229 Plutonium, 137, 543 Plutonium and Uranium Recovery by EXtraction (Purex), 144, 145f PM See Particulate matter (PM) Pollutant source, 605e606 Pollution control, 31 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 607 Polysulfide bromide flow, 263e264 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 498e499 “Pore filling” gas hydrates, 114 dissociation of, 120 Porous rock, 293 Portable power supply, 504 Portugal, hydrogen usage in, 488 Postcombustion capture, 41e42 carbon capture, 671e675 solvent-based, 673f cleaning, 32, 37e38 gaseous emission control, 37 particle and trace elements emission control, 37e38 Postponing of cash inflow, 157 Potassium, 420 Potassium hydroxide (KOH), 499, 575 Power beaming, 519e520, 531e533 conversion, 659e664 for energy storage systems, 660e663 electronics devices, 661 power-to-gas technologies, 501, 508 power-to-X technologies, 740 systems, 177, 499 technologies, 500e502 Power added efficiency (PAE), 532 Power conversion system (PCS), 284, 659e664 double-stage converters, 661e662, 662f multilevel converters, 662 power electronics devices for, 661 price comparison of PCS technology providers, 662e663 single stage converters, 661, 662f Index Power generation, 462 See also Electricity; Energy Power tower See Central receiver systems Precombustion, 670 capture, 40 carbon capture, 676, 676f coal upgrading, 32e35 dry beneficiation, 33 drying of lignites and sub-bituminous coal, 33 UCC preparation, 34e35 wet beneficiation/coal washing, 32e33 Pressure core studies, 118 transient testing, 436 Pressurized water reactor (PWR), 139e140, 151e152 pressurized water-cooled reactor, 137, 138f Pretreatment, 448e449 Prius Hybrid Flexible-Fuel Vehicle, 183 Process water, 221 Products of incomplete combustion (PICs), 596 Project analogs, 152e153 Propane (C3H8), 97 Proppant(s), 77 sand, 79 Prosumers, 616e617, 622 Proton exchange membrane (PEM), 498, 506t, 738e739 Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), 496e498 Proximate analysis, 27 PTFE See Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Public acceptance of nuclear power, 163 Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES), 656e657 Pumped hydro storage (PHS), 280 Pumped storage, 321 Purex See Plutonium and Uranium Recovery by EXtraction (Purex) PVs See Photovoltaics (PVs) PWR See Pressurized water reactor (PWR) Pyrochemical processes, 145 Pyrolysis, 69e70, 205 783 Q Quantum dots, 712e713 Quest CCS Project (Canada), 671, 685e686 R R/P ratio See Reserves-to-production ratio (R/P ratio) Radar, 227 Radioactive elements, 584 Radioactive waste inventory, 144 management, 147 Range-extender hybrid electric vehicle (REEV), 229 Rapid transition, 731 Rare earth oxides (REOs), 721e722 production, 722f Rare-earth elements (REEs), 713e714, 721e722 RD&D See Research Development and Demonstration (RD&D) RE See Renewable energy (RE) RE-based liquefied SNG (RE-LNG), 740 Reaction chemistry, 211 Reactive fluid retorts, 85 Real option approach (ROA), 152, 160e161 Rebound effect, 615 Rechargeable batteries, 247 Recombination rate, 384 Recovery factors, 433 Rectification receiver, 532e534 Redox flow battery (RFB), 263 See also Lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion batteries) supplier of, 273 using vanadium, 274te275t using zincebromine, 276t REEs See Rare-earth elements (REEs) REEV See Range-extender hybrid electric vehicle (REEV) Refinery ratios, 719 Refining of bitumen, 59e60 refining-related stressors, 605e606 784 Index Reforming, 210e211 reactions, 210e211 Regenerative hydrogen fuel cell system (RHFC system), 502 Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships program, 687 Regulatory harmonization, 161 Reliability of battery storage projects, 258 Renewable electricity-based hydrogen, 740 Renewable energy (RE), 13, 176e177, 190e191, 729e730 See also Sustainable energy generation with battery storage, 621e622 LCA of, 642e644 sources, 351e352 strategy, 649e650 technologies, 712e715 energy storage batteries, 714e715 solar photovoltaic panels, 712e713 wind turbines, 713e714 Renewable hydrogen, 505 Renewable technologies, 327 RenovaBio law, 190e191 REOs See Rare earth oxides (REOs) Republic of Korea, 488 Republic of South Africa, hydrogen usage in, 489 Research Development and Demonstration (RD&D), 86 Reserves, 715e716 of metals, 716e718, 717t, 718f Reserves-to-production ratio (R/P ratio), 22e23, 23t Reservoir rock, 70e71, 681e682 simulators models, 438e439 stratigraphic and structural heterogeneity, 118 Residual tailings product, 56 ReSOC See Reversible solid oxide cell (ReSOC) Resource Management Act (1991), 442 Resources of metals, 716e718, 717t, 718f “Retina safer” regions of spectrum, 531 Retort zone, 86e87 Reverse water gas shift reaction (RWGS reaction), 567e570 Reversible solid oxide cell (ReSOC), 501, 501f RFB See Redox flow battery (RFB) RHFC system See Regenerative hydrogen fuel cell system (RHFC system) Ring opening of cycloalkane-containing molecules, 209e210 Risk, 599e600 ROA See Real option approach (ROA) Robotic systems, 550 RoR See Run-of-river (RoR) Rotational flows, 362e363 Roundtrip efficiency improvements, 306e307 Run-of-river (RoR), 321 Runoff regime, 317 Rural electric vehicles, 234e235 Russian federation, hydrogen usage in, 488 RWGS reaction See Reverse water gas shift reaction (RWGS reaction) S s-LCA See Social LCA (s-LCA) SAARC See South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Safety of battery storage projects, 258 engineers model, 545 of SMRs, 163 “Safety First” project, 258e260 SAGD method See Steam-assisted gravity drainage method (SAGD method) Salt caverns, 294 San Bernardino county community center, US, 272 Sand-hosted gas hydrates, 116 Sandwich module architectures, 524e527 SARA See Saturates-aromatics-resinsasphaltenes (SARA) Sask power, boundary dam, Canada, 42 SASOL See South African Coal, Oil and Gas Corporation (SASOL) Index Saturates-aromatics-resins-asphaltenes (SARA), 52 SC-CAES See Supercritical CAES (SC-CAES) “Scale-up by number-up” scaling, 509 Scenario, 696e697 emission, 705e706 energy, 700e705 setting, 697e699 Scf See Standard cubic feet (Scf) Scientific drilling, 118 Scotrenewables, 368 SCR See Selective catalytic reactor (SCR) Scrubbers, 37, 672e673 SCWR See Supercritical water-cooled reactor (SCWR) SDGs See Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) SDS See Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS) Sea Snail, 371 SeaGen, 367 Seals, 119 Seawater reverse osmosis desalination (SWRO desalination), 740 Security of SMRs, 163 Seismic resilience of nuclear power plant, 347e351 Selective acid catalysis in presence of nitrogen bases, 210 Selective catalytic reactor (SCR), 37 Selective noncatalytic reactor (SNCR), 37 Selenium (Se), 591e592, 711e712 Self-discharging, 265 Self-service EV car sharing scheme, 233 “Semiconductor silicon”, 392 Separator pressure, 437e438 SERT program See Solar Power Exploratory Research and Technology program (SERT program) SES See Socioeconomic status (SES) SFRs See Sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFRs) Shale, 68e69 gas, 71, 73e74, 81 oil, 67, 71 785 Shell, 86, 731e732 Shenhua Ordos CCS Project, 687 Ships, 176 Siemens MCT Seagen device, 366e367 Silica sand, 79 Silicoaluminophosphate catalyst (SAPO-34), 218e219 Silt, 68e69 Simulation models, 438e439 Single flash plant, 436e437 Single stage converters, 661, 662f Slagging, 27e29 Sleipner Project, 671, 678e679, 685e686 Slurry, 77e78 SMA, 662 Small modular reactors (SMRs), 151, 164e166 See also Nuclear reactor technology advantages and disadvantages, 152 economics and financing, 152e161 external factors, 161e164 cogeneration, 164 electric grid characteristics/market dimension, 162e163 EPZ, 164 public acceptance, 163 regulation, 161e162 safety and security, 163 modularization, 154e155 Small-scale CAES, 307e308 Smart grid solutions, 240 Smart region Pellworm, Germany, 271 “Smart storage” solution, 621 Smart-coordinated charging techniques, 238e239 Smart-grids, 625e626 Smelter/refinery production, 719e723 SMR See Steam methane reforming (SMR) SMRs See Small modular reactors (SMRs) SMSI See Strong metal-support interaction (SMSI) SNCR See Selective noncatalytic reactor (SNCR) SNG See Synthetic natural gas (SNG) Snøhvit Project, 671, 678e679, 685e686 786 Index SO See System operator (SO) SOC See State of charge (SOC) Social LCA (s-LCA), 633 Societal license to operate, 64 Socioeconomic status (SES), 586 Sodium, 420 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 591e592 Sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFRs), 139 Sodium-sulfur batteries (NaS batteries), 656 SOECs See Solid oxide electrolyzers (SOECs) SOFC See Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) “Soft costs”, 410 SOH See State of health (SOH) Soil, 597 Solar constant, 376 dish-engine systems, 424 energy, 3, 6, 317, 375e382, 583 generation, 237 Solar photovoltaic (Solar PV), 737e738 panels, 711e713 evolution of solar PV cell efficiency, 713f key materials, 713t plant in Qinghai, China, 272 Solar power, 409 Solar Power Exploratory Research and Technology program (SERT program), 520e521 “Solar Power Radio Integrated Transmitter”, 525e526 Solar Power Satellite by means of Arbitrarily Large Phased Array Antenna (SPS-ALPHA), 520e521 Solar power satellite system (SPS system), 519, 522, 536 Solar PV See Solar photovoltaic (Solar PV) Solar radiation data, 382 Solar thermochemical hydrogen (STCH), 480 Solar tower See Central receiver systems Solid fuels, 447e448 Solid oxide electrolyzers (SOECs), 738e739 Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), 183, 496, 498e499, 502f, 506t Solid waste, 31e32, 221 Solvent extraction processes, 145 Solvent-refined coal process I, 206e207 Sorbents, 483 Sorption, 674 Source rock, 70 South African Coal, Oil and Gas Corporation (SASOL), 562 South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), 305 Space solar, 519e520 architectures, 527e529 CASSIOPeiA solar power satellite, 529f SPS 2000 Japanese concept, 528f SunTower concept, 528f key technologies, 529e534 laser-based space solar concept explored, 530f rectification receiver, 532e534 relative atmospheric opacity, 531f transmitter efficiency, 532 performance metrics, 534e536 additional figures of merit and qualities of interest, 535e536 collect/transmit area-specific mass, 534 combined conversion efficiency, 535 mass-specific transmitted power, 534e535 solar power satellite systems, 536 perpendicular to orbital plane architectures, 522e523 perspective, 520e522, 522f power, 11 sandwich module architectures, 524e527, 525f “Spacetenna”, 524 Spark-ignited engines See Otto cycle engines Specialty metals, 711e712 Specific power, 534e535 Spent fuel, 142e145 SPS system See Solar power satellite system (SPS system) Index SPS-ALPHA See Solar Power Satellite by means of Arbitrarily Large Phased Array Antenna (SPS-ALPHA) SRV See Stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) Stand-alone photovoltaic systems, 402e405 direct-coupled system, 402e403 stand-alone systems with energy accumulation, 403e405 Standard cubic feet (Scf), 97 Standard well logging suites, 117e118 Standardization, 154e155 Starch, 201 State of charge (SOC), 254, 254f State of health (SOH), 254, 254f State variables, 160e161 Stationary battery storage, 248 STCH See Solar thermochemical hydrogen (STCH) Steam gasification, 481 reforming, 211 turbine cycles, 415e416 Steam coal See Thermal coal Steam methane reforming (SMR), 211e212, 624e625 Steam-assisted gravity drainage method (SAGD method), 56e57 Stearic acid, 460e461 Stimulated reservoir volume (SRV), 78 Stirling engines, 415e416 Storage capacity, 683 cavern research, 308 CO2, 681e687 hydro, 321 hydrogen utilization, 482e483 Storm surges, 364e365 Strip mining, 587 ratio, 54 “Stripper” reactor, 673e674 Strong metal-support interaction (SMSI), 570e571 Structural integrity, 365 Subbituminous coals, 25e26, 33 787 Subsidence, 441 Subsurface production of oil sands, 56e57 Suction/drilled/driven pile anchors, 370 Sugarcane bioenergy context and advances in, 184e187 diversification and flexibility, 185e187 in bioenergy marketing, 186e187 in bioenergy production, 185e186 in bioenergy use, 187 Sulfur, 29 Sulfur dioxide (SO2), 584 emissions, 705f, 706 Sulfur oxides (SOx), 30, 672e673 Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), 460e461 Sun, 359, 375, 583 Earth on elliptic orbit round, 376f energy, 10, 12e13 Supercapacitors, 655 Supercritical (SC) boilers, 32 CO2, 682 systems, 443 Supercritical CAES (SC-CAES), 286e287, 290e291, 292f Supercritical water-cooled reactor (SCWR), 140e142 Surface processing, 84e85 Surface water, 593e594 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 728 Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS), 729e730 Sustainable energy, 12e13, 730e731, 737, 739e740 See also Tidal current energy BEN, 620e621 change by sector, 623e624 distributed energy and impact on demand, 616e617 DSR, 618, 619f electrification vs hydrogen, 624e625 energy efficiency in buildings, 615e616 energy use in buildings and attempts to reducing, 613e615 existing stock of buildings and energy use, 612 788 Index Sustainable energy (Continued ) future energy professionals, 626e627 future of business models in energy transition, 617e618 integrating solar PV with electricity storage, 622e623 local self-supply model, 621e622 local supply models, 618, 619f smart-grids and multiple energy vectors, 625e626 Sustainable/sustainability, 729 challenges in biofuels, 187e191 coal use and future directions, 43e45 future projections, 43e44 technologies for sustainable coal utilization, 44e45 Svartsengi power station, 568 Sweden, hydrogen usage in, 489 SWRO desalination See Seawater reverse osmosis desalination (SWRO desalination) SYMBIOZ concept, 240 Syngas, 40, 43, 562 Synthesis gas from biomass, coal and waste gasification, 212e213 from natural gas reforming, 210e212 Synthesis processes for fuels and chemicals, 740 Synthetic crude oil, 62 Synthetic fuel, 561 See also Transport fuel beginnings from nonefossil fuel resources, 566e568 carbon capture for synthetic fuel production, 574e576 carbon monoxide synthesis from CO2, 569e574 future, 576e577 global energy production from fossil fuel, 563e565 olefin synthesis from carbon dioxide, 568e569 synthetic liquid fuel beginnings from fossil fuels, 561e562 present, 562e563 Synthetic natural gas (SNG), 740 Synthetic oil, 207 transport fuel production by synthetic oil refining, 202e203 System integration, 255e258 energy management, 257e258 system topologies, 255e257 AC-coupled systems, 256e257 DC-coupled systems, 255 generator-coupled systems, 257 System operator (SO), 622e623 System theory, 254e255 T Table-top EV model, 227 TALSPEAK, 145 2-Tank molten salt systems, 418 Tar, 212 Taxation, 671 Taxes, 269 TBMs See Test blanket modules (TBMs) TBP-OK See Tributyl phosphate in kerosene (TBP-OK) TBR See Tritium breeding ratio (TBR) TCC See Total capital costs (TCC) TCF See Trillion cubic feet (TCF) TCIC See Total capital investment cost (TCIC) TCO See Transparent conducting oxide (TCO) Technological readiness level (TRL), 513 Tellurium (Te), 711e712 Temperature logging, 436 swing adsorption, 674 TES See Thermal energy storage (TES) Test blanket modules (TBMs), 557 Test wells, 124 1,2,4,5-Tetramethylbenzene, 219e220 Thermal coal, 21, 26 Thermal conversion, 201 Thermal drying, 33 Thermal energy, 636 Thermal energy storage (TES), 280, 657 A-CAES with, 288e289 A-CAES without, 288 Index Thermal stimulation, 120 Thermalization effect, 385 Thermochemical conversion, 201, 203 principles in direct liquefaction, 204e206 cycles, 480e481 techniques, 448 Thermodynamic(s), 12e13, 413e414 of CAES systems, 294e304 air compression, expansion, and assumptions, 294e295 assumptions, 295e296 equilibrium limitations, 569e570 Thermogenic gas, 98e99 Thermogravimetric analysis, 462 Thermolysis, 205 Thin-film fabrication, 395 module technology, 397 solar cell and module technology, 395e398 Third-generation biofuels production from algae, 459e462 anaerobic digestion, 461e462 HTL, 461 potential applications, 460f in situ transesterification, 460e461 Thorium, 146e147, 543 potential of thorium fuels, 146e147 properties, 146 Three-dimensional model of geothermal reservoir systems, 438e439 Tidal current energy See also Wind energy anchors and fixings, 369e371 forces applicable to gravity base object, 371f gravity base and anchors, 369e370 Sea Snail, 371, 372f suction/drilled/driven pile anchors, 370 biofouling, 372e373 devices, 366e368 Andritz Hydro Hammerfest, 367 Atlantis technologies, 368 international projects, 368 marine current turbines, 366e367 789 Open Hydro, 367 Scotrenewables, 368 Loch Lihnne rotor, 358f tidal current drivers, 358e365 amphidromic points, 361 astronomical drivers, 358e360 bathymetry and topography, 362 Coriolis forces, 360e361 creation of tidal currents, 360 meteorological forces, 361e362 mooring loads and structural integrity, 365 ocean tides, 361 tidal current velocity, 362e364 turbulence and storm surges, 364e365 wave action, 364 Tidal current velocity, 362e364 Tidal wave, 359 Tide mills, 357 Tight gas, 71 sandstone, 71 Tight oil, 71, 74, 81e82 Tin oxide SnO2 doped with fluorine (FTO), 395 Titanium (Ti), 714e715 Tohoku earthquake (2012), 347e348 near shore wind farm performance during, 347e350 Toluene, 596 Tomakomai CCS Project in Japan, 685e686, 686f Top-down approach, 152e153 Topography, 362 Toroidal geometry, 553 Total capital costs (TCC), 284 Total capital investment cost (TCIC), 154e155 Total system costs, 153 Total’s Lacq Pilot Plant (France), 677 Trace/toxic elements emission, 30e31 Traditional petroleum systems elements, 119 Transition metal carbide catalysts, 571 Transmission system demand, 237 Transmitter efficiency, 532 790 Index Transparent conducting oxide (TCO), 395 Transport, CO2, 677e681 Transport fuel, 11e12, 199, 447e448 See also Biofuels; Synthetic fuel alternative carbon feed-to-liquid process, 200e203 direct liquefaction, 203e210 environmental footprint of liquefaction, 220e222 future energy, 222e223 indirect liquefaction, 210e220 production by synthetic oil refining, 202e203 Transport integrated gasification (TRIG), 43 Traps, 119 Tributyl phosphate in kerosene (TBP-OK), 144e145 TRIG See Transport integrated gasification (TRIG) Trillion cubic feet (TCF), 73e74 Tritium, 544e547 Tritium breeding ratio (TBR), 549 TRL See Technological readiness level (TRL) Turbomachinery, 307 Turbulence, 364e365 Turkey, hydrogen usage in, 489 Two-degree scenario (2DS), 173 U U-CAES See Underwater CAES (U-CAES) “Uber” effects, 618 UCC See Ultraclean coal (UCC) UFC solutions See Ultrafast-charging solutions (UFC solutions) ULEVs See Ultralow-emission vehicles (ULEVs) Ultimate analysis, 27 Ultraclean coal (UCC), 32 preparation, 34e35 Ultrafast-charging solutions (UFC solutions), 239 Ultralow-emission vehicles (ULEVs), 623 Ultrasupercritical boilers (USC boilers), 32 Unconventional oil, 49, 51 extraction methods, 74e80 future production of mudstone-hosted hydrocarbons, 81e82 and gas, 4, 72e82 hydrocarbons in low-permeability rocks, 68e72 oil shale, 82e88 potential resources, 73e74 resources, 67e68 Underground fires, 594e595 Underground or shaft coal mining, 594 Underground power plants, 321 Underground storage, 308 caverns, 293e294 hard rock, 293e294 porous rock, 293 salt caverns, 294 Underwater CAES (U-CAES), 286e287, 292, 293f UNFCCC See United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Unfinished Symphony, 730e731 UNIDO See United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) United Arab Emirates, hydrogen usage in, 489 United Kingdom Built Environment electricity, 611e612 Green Building Council, 612 hydrogen usage in, 489 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 7, 694 United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), 484 United States Energy Information Administration (EIA), 13, 74, 563 United States of America, hydrogen usage in, 489e490 Upgrading of bitumen, 58e60 Uranium, 135, 543 Urban electric vehicles, 233e234 UREX+, 145 URSI See International Union of Radio Science (URSI) Index US Department of Energy (US DOE), 520e521 US Geological Survey (USGS), 716 US National Security Space Office (US NSSO), 520e521 US Naval Research Laboratory (US NRL), 520e521 US NSSO See US National Security Space Office (US NSSO) USC boilers See Ultrasupercritical boilers (USC boilers) USGS See US Geological Survey (USGS) V v-RES See Variable renewables (v-RES) V2G See Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) Vacuum electronics devices, 532 Valence band, 383 Vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB), 263e265, 271fe272f, 653e655, 714e715 Vapor(s), 596 vapor-dominated systems, 431e433, 439 Variable renewables (v-RES), 328e329 Vattenfall’s Schwarze Pumpe Pilot Plant (Germany), 677 Vehicle-to-grid (V2G), 237 interface systems, 238e239 Venezuelan deposits, 51 Vertical wells, 104 Very highetemperature reactor (VHTR), 140e141 Virtual Energy Storage, 620 Virtual power plants (VPP), 240 Viscosity of bitumen, 56 Vitrinite maceral, 26e27 VOCs See Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 584, 596 VPP See Virtual power plants (VPP) VRFB See Vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) 791 W WACC See Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) Wafer-based technology See Crystalline silicon technology Waste management, 147 waste-to-liquids process, 199 Wastewater, 31 Water (H2O), 56, 221, 315, 456e458, 476 electrolysis, 479e480 gas shift equilibrium, 210e211 reaction, 479 pollution, 31 splitting, 479 vapor, wateregas shift reaction, 40, 479 Wave action, 364 WEC See World Energy Council (WEC) “Wedges” concept, 669e670 Weighted average cost of capital (WACC), 153e154 Wellbore, 77 damage, 123 WEO See World Energy Outlook (WEO) Wet beneficiation/coal washing, 32e33 Wet CO2, 679 Wind, 583 power, 335 turbines, 247, 339e340, 345, 713e714 installation, 649e650 Wind energy, 3, 12e13, 737e738 See also Geothermal energy; Tidal current energy economics of offshore wind farms, 342e346 future direction on offshore wind, 346e353 floating wind farm, 346e347 seismic resilience of nuclear power plant, 347e351 offshore wind power, 337e342 renewables in context of limiting air pollution and climate change, 331e335 wind among renewables, 335e337 792 Index Wireless power transmission, 519e520, 532e533, 536 Wireline logging tools, 434 Wood, 176 World Energy Council (WEC), 730e731 World Energy Outlook (WEO), 729e730 X XTL See Justification for feed-to-liquids (XTL) Z ZAFCs See Zinceair fuel cells (ZAFCs) Zero carbon heat, 626 Zero-evacuation, 545 Zinc (Zn), 711e712 oxide batteries, 714e715 Zinc phosphide (Zn3P2), 712e713 Zinceair fuel cells (ZAFCs), 505 Zincebromine (Zn/Br), 263 flow batteries, 263, 266 redox flow batteries supplier using, 276t Zipper frac, 78 ZSM-5, 567