Questions de recherche
La plus grande question qui s‟est posée à nous alors était la suivante :
Comment utilisent les journalistes du Monde les procédés linguistiques dans les titres des articles pour un tel nombre de lecteurs ?
Hypothèses
Linguistic and discursive processes present in newspaper article titles resemble those found in other types of discourse, including modalities of enunciation and thematization However, to craft engaging titles in "Le Monde," journalists must not rigidly adhere to the theoretical processes outlined Instead, they creatively combine these techniques with additional strategies that have yet to be explored in existing theory.
Objectifs
- Étudier la théorie de l‟analyse du discours et des théories d‟énonciation
- Savoir comment ces théories sont appliquées dans le discours de la vie quotidienne, dans les titres des articles de journaux en commun et ceux du ô Monde ằ en particulier
- Connaợtre la tendance d‟utilisation des procộdộs linguistiques dans chaque rubrique de quelques journaux franỗais de nos jours.
Méthodologie
To address research questions, we utilized two corpora based on article titles, hypothesizing that linguistic and discursive tools are represented within them Initially, we compiled a first corpus consisting of intriguing titles from various sections of newspapers and magazines consulted between May and October 2015 This approach provided us with a comprehensive overview of the strategies employed by journalists in titling various aspects of life, which will serve as foundational concepts for our theoretical framework.
The second corpus presented in the appendix consists of a collection of 120 article titles sourced from twelve sections of the digital newspaper lemonde.fr To ensure objectivity, the titles were randomly selected based on their publication dates, with ten titles chosen from various years for each section.
It is undeniable that the initial corpus does not encompass all strategies; therefore, the main corpus will enable us to verify existing strategies and uncover new ones.
The research method employed in this study is descriptive, which allows the researcher to present and describe a particular situation, providing a precise image of a phenomenon Descriptive research is linked to statistical research hypotheses that focus on states rather than changes in states (Nguyen Quang Thuan, 2007, p.38) Through the selected titles, we will create a combined overview of discourse analysis units and enunciative theories, offering a broader perspective through statistics and the percentage of each unit used in press titles.
Plan du mémoire
Par rapport aux questions posées afin de résoudre la problématique, nous avons divisé notre recherche en trois parties principales
The first chapter will explore the theoretical framework surrounding discourse analysis and enunciative theories found in the initial corpus approach, focusing on the modalities of enunciation and the utterance Additionally, several titles utilize the formula "subject-predicate" or quotation marks that are not part of the modalities Therefore, we will also address thematizations and modes of citation in a subsection that is on par with the two sections discussing modalities.
Before delving into the analysis of the corpus, it is essential to first provide a brief overview of the newspaper "Le Monde" in the second chapter This will help contextualize the environment in which the articles and their headlines operate We will clarify our selection process and its outcomes The final subsection will focus exclusively on analyzing the titles of the articles within the corpus, utilizing the theories discussed earlier We will also explore additional strategies employed by journalists in crafting the chosen headlines.
Our research focuses on newspaper article titles, which, as concise phrases, adhere to a specific type of discourse This choice is driven by the abundance and diversity of titles in the French press They capture our attention, leave an impression, and draw the eye.
To better understand this discourse, it is essential to draw on the most relevant theories, particularly enunciative theories and discourse analysis tools.
Discourse analysis involves unpacking the text to reveal the intricate layers of meaning that lie beneath the surface of words, reflecting a complex history As noted by Courtine (1989), this process allows us to explore the deeper connections and implications embedded within language.
The discourse analysis (DA) is an essential element in the social and human sciences, distinguishing itself from content analysis by focusing not on what a text conveys but on how it conveys that message It examines enunciative markers, the relationship between the sender and the recipient, and the contractual dynamics that bind them within a specific context.
Marandin (1979, p.18) : ô ce qui distingue l‟analyse du discours d‟autres pratiques d‟analyse du texte, c‟est l‟utilisation de la linguistique ằ
The term "speech," central to this discipline, varies in meaning depending on the context and is a complex concept that requires clarification In everyday life, it can refer to a solemn statement made during special events in front of a large audience Additionally, it may carry a negative connotation, suggesting that someone gives many speeches but fails to take action.
This paper focuses on the concept of "discourse" within the field of language sciences, which is a multifaceted notion shaped by various linguistic currents that both complement and sometimes contradict each other.
L’Analyse du discours (1991, p.15), Dominique Maingueneau cite au moins sept emplois du terme ô discours ằ depuis la fin des annộes 1960 :
Discours 1 : ộquivalent de la ô parole ằ (l‟usage de la langue par un individu donnộ selon des contextes) de l‟opposition ô langue / parole ằ de Saussure
Discours 2 : tout ộnoncộ supộrieur à la phrase, ộquivalent du ô texte ằ
From the perspective of enunciation theories and pragmatics, discourse emphasizes the dynamic nature of enunciation, highlighting its ability to influence and engage others in an interactive manner.
Discours 4 : ộquivalent de la ô conversation ằ, de l‟interaction orale
Discours 5 : l‟opposition de ô langue / discours ằ comme ô un systốme virtuel de valeurs peu spécifiées, à une diversification superficielle liée à la variộtộ des usages qui sont faits des unitộs linguistiques ằ
In discussions about various types of discourse, such as political, feminist, or administrative, the term refers to a system that presents a unified worldview through a collection of statements rooted in specific social or ideological positions.
In his work, L Guespin (1971, p.10; cited in Maingueneau 1991, p.11) defines the object of discourse by contrasting the concepts of utterance and discourse He states that an utterance consists of a series of sentences placed between two semantic pauses, representing interruptions in communication In contrast, discourse is viewed as the statement analyzed through the lens of the discursive mechanisms that shape it.
The field of discourse analysis is progressively integrating various disciplines such as enunciative theories, linguistic pragmatics, interaction theories, and argumentation This interdisciplinary approach enriches the study of discourse, with notable currents including enunciative, communicative, conversational, and pragmatic approaches For our project, we aim to explore these different currents, focusing initially on the enunciative approach to better understand press headlines.
1.2 Enonciation/Enoncé ou approche énonciative
Discussing enunciation inevitably brings to mind Emile Benveniste, whose work synthesizes the concepts of enunciation and utterance Enunciation is defined as the activation of language through an individual act of use (Benveniste, 1970, p.12) It highlights the emergence of the subject within the utterance, the relationship with the interlocutor, and the speaker's attitude toward their statement In essence, enunciation is an act of creating, producing, and utilizing language, while the utterance is the outcome of that act Thus, these two terms contrast as the process of crafting an object and the object that has been crafted.
Avant d‟entrer dans les deux premières sous parties, il me semble nộcessaire de mieux comprendre la notion de ô modalitộ ằ
Pour expliquer ce qu‟est la ô modalitộ ằ en sciences du langage, on a coutume de rappeler l‟opposition entre ô modus ằ et ô dictum ằ posộe par C Bally
In 1965, the concept of modality, referred to as "modus," is defined as the linguistic form of an intellectual, emotional, or volitional judgment that a thinking subject expresses regarding a perception or mental representation In contrast, the dictum represents the content itself A complete absence of modality corresponds to a judgment of reality, revealing the truth as it exists.
Les travaux dans ce domaine permettent de distinguer deux types de modalité :
The modalities of enunciation highlight the relationships between the participants in communication, revealing the relational characteristics that connect them These enunciation modalities can take various forms, including interrogative, declarative, and assertive.
CADRE THÉORIQUE
Présentation générale de l‟Analyse du discours
ô Faire de l‟analyse du discours, c‟est apprendre à dộlinộariser le texte pour restituer sous la surface lisse des mots la profondeur enchevêtrée des indices d‟un passộ ằ (Courtine, 1989, p.37)
Discourse analysis (DA) is an essential element in the social and human sciences, distinguishing itself from content analysis by focusing not on what a text says, but on how it conveys its message It examines enunciative markers, the relationship between the sender and receiver, and the contextual contract that binds them in a specific situation, as highlighted by J.
Marandin (1979, p.18) : ô ce qui distingue l‟analyse du discours d‟autres pratiques d‟analyse du texte, c‟est l‟utilisation de la linguistique ằ
The term "discourse" is central to this field and varies in meaning depending on the context, making it a complex notion that requires clarification In everyday life, it often refers to solemn statements made during special events in front of large audiences Additionally, it can carry a negative connotation, suggesting that while someone may give many speeches, they do not take meaningful action.
This study focuses on the complexities of discourse within the field of language sciences The concept of discourse is shaped by various linguistic currents that both complement and sometimes oppose each other, highlighting the intricate nature of communication.
L’Analyse du discours (1991, p.15), Dominique Maingueneau cite au moins sept emplois du terme ô discours ằ depuis la fin des annộes 1960 :
Discours 1 : ộquivalent de la ô parole ằ (l‟usage de la langue par un individu donnộ selon des contextes) de l‟opposition ô langue / parole ằ de Saussure
Discours 2 : tout ộnoncộ supộrieur à la phrase, ộquivalent du ô texte ằ
From the perspective of enunciation theories and pragmatics, discourse emphasizes the dynamic nature of enunciation, highlighting its ability to influence and engage others in an interactive context.
Discours 4 : ộquivalent de la ô conversation ằ, de l‟interaction orale
Discours 5 : l‟opposition de ô langue / discours ằ comme ô un systốme virtuel de valeurs peu spécifiées, à une diversification superficielle liée à la variộtộ des usages qui sont faits des unitộs linguistiques ằ
In discussions about various types of discourse, such as political, feminist, or administrative, the term refers to a framework that provides a unified worldview through a collection of statements rooted in specific social or ideological positions.
In his discourse, L Guespin (1971, p.10; cited in Maingueneau 1991, p.11) defines the object of discourse by contrasting it with the concept of enunciation He explains that enunciation consists of the sequence of sentences placed between two semantic pauses, which represent interruptions in communication In contrast, discourse is viewed as the statement analyzed through the lens of the discursive mechanisms that shape it.
The field of discourse analysis, as discussed below, is progressively opening up to various disciplines, including enunciative theories, linguistic pragmatics, interaction theories, and argumentation This intersection enriches the field with different currents, the most notable being enunciative, communicative, conversational, and pragmatic approaches For our project, we will focus on one of these extensions, specifically the enunciative approach, to better understand newspaper headlines by integrating these diverse currents.
Enonciation/Enoncé ou approche énonciative
Discussing enunciation inevitably brings to mind Émile Benveniste, whose work synthesizes the concepts of enunciation and utterance Enunciation is described as the activation of language through an individual act of usage (Benveniste, 1970, p.12) It highlights the emergence of the subject within the utterance, the relationship with the interlocutor, and the speaker's attitude toward their statement In summary, enunciation is an act of creating, producing, and utilizing language, while the utterance is the result of that act Thus, the two terms contrast like the creation of an object and the object itself.
Avant d‟entrer dans les deux premières sous parties, il me semble nộcessaire de mieux comprendre la notion de ô modalitộ ằ
Pour expliquer ce qu‟est la ô modalitộ ằ en sciences du langage, on a coutume de rappeler l‟opposition entre ô modus ằ et ô dictum ằ posộe par C Bally
In 1965, the concept of modality, referred to as "modus," is defined as the linguistic form of an intellectual, emotional, or volitional judgment expressed by a thinking subject regarding a perception or representation in their mind In contrast, the "dictum" represents the equivalent content A complete absence of modality reflects a judgment of reality, presenting the truth as it exists.
Les travaux dans ce domaine permettent de distinguer deux types de modalité :
The modalities of enunciation highlight the relationships between exchange participants and reveal the relational characteristics that connect them These modalities can take various forms, including interrogative, declarative, and assertive, each playing a crucial role in communication dynamics.
There are two types of modalities in statements: logical modalities, which relate to the speaker's stance on truth, falsehood, and likelihood, and evaluative modalities, which reflect the speaker's subjective judgments on emotions such as beauty, sadness, and joy.
In linguistics, the distinction between "meaning" and "sense" is closely related to the concepts of "utterance" and "signification." Both utterance and meaning are context-dependent and contribute to what is referred to as the "said," a term coined by Oswald Ducrot (1984) In contrast, the utterance and sense focus solely on the semantic aspects tied to the linguistic components of the statement, forming what is known as the "saying." For instance, the utterance "It's hot here!" conveys the temperature of the location, but depending on the context, it can imply various meanings such as "It's cold outside," "Open the window!" or "I don't want to stay here anymore."
To distinguish between the modalities of enunciation and those of the utterance, it is essential to understand that enunciation modalities focus on the act of speaking, while utterance modalities pertain to the content being conveyed (Nülke, 1993, p 143) In communication, enunciation modalities impact the participants, whereas utterance modalities influence the message itself Both modalities coexist in discourse, akin to the front and back of a piece of paper However, when a singular enunciation modality is highlighted in a sentence, multiple utterance modalities may simultaneously emerge (Meunier).
We will first focus on the modalities of enunciation and provide an overview of the verbal and nominal forms of sentences that will be used for analyzing our corpus This includes an examination of the different types of sentences involved.
Dans la suite des travaux de A.-M Diller (1980), Kerbrat-Orecchioni
In 1991, sentences are categorized into three main groups that reflect the primary pragmatic functions of discourse: those that describe the world, those that question the world, and those that seek to change the world These correspond to three fundamental sentence types: declarative (assertive), interrogative, and imperative (injunctive) Additionally, a fourth type is often included to express the speaker's strong emotions: the exclamatory type, as exclamations involve a wide variety of structures.
The declarative sentence, typically ending with a period, is the most common yet least emotionally charged type of sentence It is primarily used to state facts or provide information Its structure often follows a canonical form of noun phrase followed by a verb phrase A declaration asserts the state of affairs as true or false From a syntactic perspective, these statements include an expressed subject and a verb that carries markers of person and tense.
In French, a sentence can be affirmative, such as "He is happy," or negative when it aims to deny something, utilizing a negative marker composed of two adverbs like "ne pas" or their variants, as in "He is not happy."
Among the four types of sentences, the declarative sentence is regarded as the fundamental model (canonical sentence), while the other forms are considered transformed sentences This is why these three forms can either maintain their structure and forms or be altered by rearranging groups of words and adding words that indicate their sentence type.
Interrogative sentences are typically categorized into two types: total questions (or closed questions) that require a simple "yes" or "no" answer, and partial questions (or open questions) that include a question word such as Who? What? Which? When? Where? Why? How? How many?
For the speaker, an interrogative sentence serves as a tool to pose questions or express requests, ideally leading to a response or action This initiatory speech act reflects the speaker's quest for information and anticipation of an answer or reaction As noted by Maingueneau, questioning someone places them in a position where they must choose to respond or not, while also defining the context in which their reply should be framed.
The pragmatic value of certain phrases depends on the context and the intent of the questioner For instance, this pragmatic value can be demonstrated verbally through intonation.
The act of questioning is a complex linguistic phenomenon, and asserting that it always demands a reaction or response is not entirely accurate There are instances where the speaker does not anticipate any reply or even a reaction from the listener, such as in the case of rhetorical questions An example of this can be found in Madame de Lafayette's "La Princesse de Clèves," where she poses the question, "But do men retain passion in these eternal commitments?"
PRÉSENTATION DU CORPUS
To effectively utilize all the tools of discourse analysis discussed in the theoretical section for corpus analysis, we created a table divided into several columns, each representing a specific element We included the title numbers from the press to facilitate easy reference for the reader and marked with a cross where the title contains the corresponding linguistic tool.
The table provides an overview of the strategies journalists use to craft article titles; however, it does not definitively indicate which specific techniques are employed Additionally, the corpus is not exhaustive and may not fully represent all newspapers, although it offers a more accurate reflection of titles within the fashion and gastronomy sectors, as our selection was focused in these areas.
The percentages in the last row of the Totals table (Appendix 3) highlight current trends in titles: thematization and nominalization are favored by 45% of the studied titles, while declarative sentences dominate at 73.3% A quick glance at articles from other generalist newspapers reveals that these are also commonly used tools However, among the less frequently employed techniques, there were no titles utilizing indirect speech or free indirect speech The reasons for this can be inferred from the theories associated with these forms.
Indirect discourse often conveys a biased perspective, reflecting the journalist's viewpoint rather than neutrality Choosing an appropriate introductory verb that aligns with the context and speaker's intent can be challenging Additionally, stylistically, indirect reported speech tends to be longer and less impactful, making it less effective in capturing attention In contrast, direct speech, marked by quotation marks and punctuation, offers a more varied typography, which can engage readers more effectively.
Free indirect discourse is frequently employed in literature and occasionally appears in newspaper articles, though it is rarely found in headlines This form of reported speech is considered the most challenging to master One of the titles in our corpus initially appeared to belong to free indirect discourse.
An Argentine in Athens: Here, the crisis is always someone else's fault (No 38) The absence of quotation marks around the statement suggests a shift in the press's language, which has become more liberated and less reliant on traditional grammar rules This is evident in title No 38, where the typographical standards of direct speech are not adhered to However, the omission of quotation marks may also indicate that the newspaper is adopting the Argentine's words as its own.
In our analysis of a list of one hundred and twenty titles, we uncovered additional linguistic concepts that had not been previously considered or included in our theoretical framework This examination of the corpus revealed various new techniques employed in title creation within newspapers We will therefore discuss both the functionality of the previously presented tools and the new insights gained from our findings.
ANALYSE DU CORPUS
The distinction between sentence types is typically indicated by punctuation: a period for declarative sentences, a question mark for inquiries, and an exclamation point for imperative and exclamatory sentences However, these rules are somewhat altered in newspaper article titles.
All titles, whether in declarative form, canonical, nominal, or direct speech propositions, should never end with a period This guideline is part of typographic conventions for titles, as emphasized by J Andrộ: "a period should not be placed at the end of a title."
Claude Bartlone avance ses pions sur l’échiquier du Grand Paris (N° 19)
Dans les pays riches, des dizaines de millions d’enfants pauvres (N° 68)
La plupart des phrases interrogatives suivent toutes les règles nécessaires de ponctuation et d‟inversion sujet-verbe :
Faudra-t-il nourrir les ours polaires pour sauver l’espèce ? (N° 69)
Pourtant il existe des titres qui ne veulent pas les rétablir, comme l‟exemple de manque de point d‟interrogation :
Comment la forờt mộditerranộenne renaợt de ses cendres (N° 1)
Il y a de même les cas ó les questions finissent par les points de suspension :
L'accord donné par l'Europe à la nomination de l'ancien secrétaire adjoint à la défense américain, Paul Wolfowitz, à la tête de la Banque mondiale constitue-t-il à vos yeux…(N° 5)
To rephrase a question directed at readers, journalists avoid using an interrogative structure (such as "is it that") and do not alter the order of the subject and verb The outcome is a question that closely resembles the form most commonly used in spoken language.
Il faut réduire les inégalités ? (N° 48)
One way to pose questions in French is reflected in the titles, where interrogative sentences feature infinitive verbs as the sole verbs used.
Sauver ou brûler les festivals d’été ?, par Bernard Faivre d’Acier (N° 42)
Elliptical constructions can be seen as instances where a modal auxiliary is absent; the context provides the nuances of obligation or possibility This context also sheds light on the nature of the subject, whether it pertains to the speaker, the person being discussed, or people in general, as well as the temporal situation (past, present, or future).
Dans le cas des titres de journaux, les questions fermées jouent le rôle de non seulement aborder et interroger mais d‟abord d‟affirmer un fait dans l‟article :
Les dinosaures ộtaient-ils ô des amants autant que des guerriers ằ ? (N°
Titles often fulfill their purpose of brevity by omitting necessary elements, which can lead to incomplete sentences that do not follow the typical subject-verb-complement structure While this may obscure the function of certain elements in the context, it does not hinder our understanding; rather, it enhances clarity and directness in communication.
Le travail à perpétuité ? Créativité, flexibilité, mobilité … (N° 31)
Madame Lagarde au FMI : une fausse bonne idée ? (N° 36)
The imperative and exclamatory sentences represent only 11.7% of the total 120 titles in the corpus, with imperatives accounting for 7.5% and exclamations for 4.2% Similar to interrogative sentences, both of these types are identified by their distinct punctuation.
La thalassothérapie, c’est seulement au bord de la mer ! (N° 40) Fumeurs, allez en Corse ! (N° 55)
Pourtant quelques titres nous font hésiter de leur identification en type de phrase :
Regardons la réalité en face (N° 56)
From a grammatical perspective, there is no exclamation point or verb conjugated in the imperative form However, from a discourse analysis standpoint, the absence of a subject for the verb in the imperative mood becomes significant As noted by Riegel et al (2009, p 665) in the theoretical section, this absence warrants further examination.
In addition to assertive and exclamatory sentences, nominal sentences, which lack verbs, deserve special attention These verb-less statements are often favored for crafting titles for books, meetings, recipes, and even newspaper articles.
Elles sont souvent accompagnées de la thématisation, cela forme un stéréotype de titre de structure : o ô A, A’ ằ ou ô A : A’ ằ comme
Autriche: l’Europe contre Jửrg Haider (N° 22)
Le numérique, une nouvelle chance pour les littéraires (N° 102)
Elle peut avoir plusieurs dộrivations, par exemple celle de ô A, A’, A’’ằ ou ô A : A’: A’’ ằ dans le titre n° 34 :
Claire, 24 ans, neuf stages d’affilée, et rien au bout (N° 101) Alcatel : 1994-2004 : un groupe totalement transformé (N° 34)
In certain instances, the elements A and A' in a structure may appear graphically distinct, yet they remain semantically connected The components placed between A and A' provide additional information about A, and in most cases, they share the same lexical category.
Tom Waits, la passion animale du blues (N° 41)
Pourtant, il y a aussi des cas ó ils n‟en sont pas
Terence Stamps, fascinant malgré lui (N° 49)
Ou on peut aussi mélanger tous les deux cas
On a trouvé … Patrice Martin, le Petit Prince qui glissait sur l’eau (N° 79)
Une question se pose quand nous trouvons les titres dans lesquels il existe le verbe qui garde la forme infinitive
Courir la nuit, dans la forêt, avec des zombies (N° 97) ô Perdre son temps sur Internet ằ, nouveau cours d’une fac amộricaine (N° 106)
Initially, we believed that these were noun phrases; however, upon re-examining their definition, we found that a noun phrase is constructed without a verb, centered around a noun, leading us to dismiss this hypothesis.
The concept of a "bare" sentence, which lacks conjugated verbs except in subject or complement clauses, is explored by A Goosse (1997, p 626) This type of sentence is referred to as "avverbale." However, it is important to note that sentences with an infinitive as the predicate, such as "Why not go there?" do not qualify as averbale (ibid, p 626).
In her 2007 article "Les marqueurs de prédication dans la phrase averbale en français," Florence Lefeuvre provides a detailed definition of an averbale sentence She describes it as a syntactic structure that includes a modality—such as assertion, exclamation, interrogation, or injunction—and an averbale predicate, which can be adjectival, substantival, pronominal, adverbial, or prepositional Lefeuvre identifies three possible types of organization for these sentences: the predicate may be linked to an explicit or implicit subject through modality, or it may simply be presented by the modality itself.
We find it acceptable to refer to them as "infinitive phrases." For instance, examples 97 and 106 focus on the verb in the infinitive form, highlighting actions such as "to run (at night)" and "to spend (one's time online)."
3.2 Les modalités de l’énoncé 3.2.1 Les marqueurs modaux
The classification of modal markers into three types—verbal, adjectival, and adverbial—facilitates their identification in newspaper article titles As shown in Appendix 3, the use of modality types in headlines is relatively infrequent, with only twenty-four instances recorded across all three forms.