Rationale
In recent decades, significant economic and social transformations have occurred globally, driven by the efforts of various organizations and individuals Daily activities such as signing contracts, creating policies, and enacting laws aim to enhance people's lives and improve the world However, disparities persist, particularly regarding gender equality, as women often face discrimination and ill-treatment While human rights are frequently discussed, they often appear to be primarily focused on men, leaving women marginalized Thankfully, numerous forums and conferences have emerged where courageous advocates actively champion women's rights and strive for equality.
Nowadays, women‟s rights around the world are an important indicator of understanding global well-being It has been recognized and agreed that successful development also involves gender equality
The 1995 World Conference on Women in Beijing aimed to promote equality, development, and peace for women globally In her influential speech, "Women's Rights are Human Rights," Hillary Clinton emphasized the importance of recognizing women's rights as an integral part of human rights She declared it was time to break the silence surrounding these issues and called for collective action to safeguard women's rights, urging the world to acknowledge the interconnectedness of gender equality and human dignity.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) serves as a vital tool for exploring the relationship between language and power, highlighting its effectiveness in conveying ideas and ideologies As Fairclough noted, CDA presents both an opportunity and a challenge for critical language study, offering significant insights into issues that are crucial for the future of humanity.
The research titled “A Critical Discourse Analysis of ‘Women’s Rights are Human Rights’ by Hillary Clinton” focuses on her impactful speech delivered at the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in China on September 5, 1995 This analysis aims to explore the significance of Clinton's address in advocating for women's rights as fundamental human rights, highlighting its relevance and implications in the context of gender equality and social justice.
Significance of the study
CDA, or Critical Discourse Analysis, is an emerging field of linguistic research in Vietnam that has garnered increasing interest from linguists in recent years These researchers are focused on uncovering how power and ideology are intertwined with language, as well as exploring the broader relationship between language and society However, to elevate CDA as a preferred approach among linguists examining language-society dynamics, further research and studies in this area are essential.
This study advocates for the application and advancement of Critical Discourse Analysis in linguistic research, aiming to support English language learners who often struggle with authentic discourses These challenges typically arise from difficulties in interpreting the author's underlying assumptions By fostering awareness of the ideological meanings within discourse, learners can achieve a deeper understanding of authentic texts, particularly in the political realm.
Scope of the study
Numerous forums and conferences have highlighted the fight for women's rights, emphasizing the importance of advocacy This study specifically examines Hillary Clinton's impactful speech asserting that "Women's rights are Human rights."
Research assumptions
Analyzing the speech in the light of CDA, the researcher assumes that:
- The discourse embeds ideology and power
- The speaker‟s ideology can be uncovered by the analysis of vocabulary, mood and modality, transitivity, thematic structure and macrostructure.
Aims of the study and research questions
The study is aimed at:
- finding out the ideology embedded in the discourse,
- pointing out the expression of ideology in the discourse,
- raising critical awareness of the ideology of the discourse on women‟s rights for English language learners and others concerned with women‟s rights
This analysis aims to demonstrate how power and ideology are constructed through language, highlighting the significance of language and the role of Critical Discourse Analysis The study will specifically address key research questions to deepen understanding in these areas.
- What are the ideologies embedded in the discourse?
- How are these ideologies linguistically expressed in the discourse?
- Why are the ideologies embedded in the discourse?
Design of the study
The study consists of three parts:
Part A: Introduction: This part includes the rationale, scope, research assumptions, aims and research questions, and design of the study
Part B: Development: This part includes three chapters:
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) theories, defining CDA and exploring its key concepts and principles It also examines the role of Systemic Functional Grammar in CDA, highlighting its significance in understanding discourse.
This chapter explores the evolving social context of women's roles, contrasting historical perspectives with contemporary positions It highlights Hillary Clinton's significant contributions to the fight for women's rights, emphasizing her advocacy and impact Additionally, the chapter introduces a framework of Critical Discourse Analysis to further examine these themes.
Analysis procedure which sets the basis for the analysis of the speech “Women‟s rights are human rights” will be introduced and explained
Chapter 3: A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Speech “Women’s Rights are Human
This chapter applies Fairclough's Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and FSG theory to examine Hillary Clinton's speech, focusing on the interplay of language and power within the text.
This part summarizes the major findings, provides concluding remarks, gives implication to teaching and learning translation and makes recommendations for further study
Theoretical background
What is Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)?
Many CDA practitioners, including Chouliaraki, Fairclough, Gee, Luke, Van Dijk, and Wodak, analyze social practices by examining social relationships and their implications for status and power, drawing from critical approaches.
Following are the views of some practitioners on CDA
1.1.1 Components of CDA: Critical, Discourse, Analysis
In order to understand what CDA is, an overall understanding of the three components of CDA namely: Critical, Discourse, Analysis, is mandatory a Critical
Critical research involves maintaining a distance from the data, situating it within a social context, explicitly expressing a political stance, and engaging in self-reflection as scholars conducting research (Wodak, 2001:9).
Fairclough (2001:4) emphasizes that "critical" refers to the effort to reveal hidden connections, particularly those between language, power, and ideology This perspective highlights the importance of discourse in understanding these relationships.
Fairclough and Wodak (1997:259) point out “CDA sees discourse – language use in speech and writing – as a form of „social practice‟ ”
Chouliaraki and Fairclough (1999) define discourse as a specific viewpoint on different forms of semiosis, emphasizing that it represents moments of social practices intertwined with non-discursive elements This perspective highlights the interconnectedness of discourse and social actions, providing a framework for analyzing communication within various contexts.
Chouliaraki and Fairclough (1999) assert that discourse analysis encompasses both structural and interactional dimensions Structural analysis focuses on positioning discourse within the broader network of discourse orders and examining its selective drawing from these orders In contrast, the interactional perspective emphasizes how various genres and discourses are integrated within the text, highlighting the collaborative processes and articulatory efforts involved in the creation of meaning.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), as defined by Van Dijk (1998a), focuses on the study of written and spoken texts to uncover the underlying sources of power, dominance, inequality, and bias This field analyzes how these discursive elements are sustained and reproduced within particular social, political, and historical contexts.
Fairclough (1993) defines Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a method that systematically examines the complex relationships between discursive practices, events, and texts, and broader social and cultural structures It investigates how these elements are influenced by power dynamics and ideological struggles, while also exploring how the obscurity of these relationships contributes to the maintenance of power and hegemony in society.
In "An Introduction to Critical Discourse Analysis in Education," James Paul Gee asserts that language is intrinsically linked to social practices, influencing and being influenced by them He highlights that these social practices carry significant political implications, affecting aspects such as status, solidarity, the distribution of social goods, and power dynamics.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) primarily examines the relationship between language and power, striving to clarify the links between discourse practices, social practices, and social structures These connections may be unclear to individuals who lack expertise in this area.
Key concepts in CDA
To comprehend Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), it is crucial to familiarize oneself with key concepts such as ideology and power, as these elements play a significant role in interpreting and explaining texts.
According to Thompson (1990:12), “ideology refers to social forms and processes within which, and by means of which, symbolic forms circulate in the social world
Ideology is an important aspect of establishing and maintaining unequal power relation.”
Thompson's exploration of ideology focuses on how meaning is constructed and communicated through various symbolic forms Additionally, this study examines the social contexts that influence the usage and non-usage of these symbols.
The relationship between language and power is of great importance especially in modern times with a lot of significant social and economic changes
In Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), language derives its strength from how it is wielded rather than being inherently powerful Wodak highlights that CDA frequently adopts the viewpoint of marginalized individuals, scrutinizing the language employed by those in positions of power This analysis focuses on the individuals responsible for perpetuating inequalities and examines their potential to effect positive change in societal conditions.
CDA highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration to effectively comprehend the role of language in shaping and conveying knowledge, structuring social institutions, and wielding power.
Power is fundamentally rooted in the dynamics of social differences, influencing various social structures Language plays a crucial role in this context, as it not only signifies power but also conveys and challenges it, highlighting the ongoing struggles over authority and influence within society.
Principles of CDA
In CDA, there are certain principles outlined by CDA practitioners (Fairclough, 1995a;
Kress, 1991; Hodge & Kress, 1993; Van Dijk, 1998a; Wodak, 1996) They can be summarized as follows:
1 Language is a social practice through which the world is represented
2 Discourse/language use as a form of social practice in itself not only represents and signifies other social practices but it also constitutes other social practices such as the exercise of power, domination, prejudice, resistance and so forth
3 Texts acquire their meanings by the dialectical relationship between texts and the social subjects: writers and the readers, who always operate with various degrees of choice and access to texts and means of interpretation
4 Linguistic features and structures are not arbitrary They are purposeful whether or not the choices are conscious or unconscious
5 Power relations are produced, exercised, and reproduced through discourse
6 All speakers and writers operate from specific discursive practices originating in special interests and aims which involve inclusions and exclusions
7 Discourse is historical in the sense that texts acquire their meanings by being situated in specific social, cultural and ideological contexts, and time and space
8 CDA does not solely interpret texts, but also explains them
A key aspect of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is the significant role of context, which encompasses not only the analysis of the text itself but also the processes involved in its creation This includes examining the socio-political and economic conditions of society, all of which are essential for a comprehensive understanding of the discourse.
Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) in CDA
This part will discuss systemic functional grammar (SFG) and its importance in CDA
Systemic functional grammar (SFG), developed by Michael Halliday in the 1960s, is a model of grammar that emphasizes the social semiotic aspects of language It views language as a network of interrelated systems that offer various options for meaning-making Unlike formal grammar, which focuses on word classes like nouns and verbs in isolation, SFG prioritizes the functional aspects of language, concentrating on how meaning is constructed within context.
Systemic functional grammar (SFG) focuses on the choices available to speakers and writers, linking their intentions to the specific forms of language These choices are traditionally categorized by content and structure SFG analyzes language through three strata: semantics, phonology, and lexicogrammar, offering a comprehensive view that integrates both grammatical structure and vocabulary The concept of "lexicogrammar" encapsulates this integrated approach to understanding language.
Fairclough and Chouliaraki (1999) highlight the significance of systemic functional linguistics (SFL) in critical discourse analysis (CDA), stating that SFL shares a strong connection with CDA and offers valuable insights for textual analysis Their approach to CDA heavily relies on SFL as a primary tool for examining language and meaning in texts.
Fairclough also points out a “complementary relationship” between SFL and CDA:
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) focuses on the intricate relationship between language and various social elements, emphasizing the social nature of texts in its linguistic analysis This perspective makes SFL a crucial foundation for critical discourse analysis, leading to significant developments in the field.
According to Fairclough and Chouliaraki (1999:139), Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) perceives language as a semiotic system organized into strata This framework illustrates how meanings in the semantic stratum are linked to their spoken and written forms in the phonological and graphological strata.
Both meanings and expression interface with the extra-linguistics”
The relationship between strata is characterized by "realization," where each stratum delineates a potential, encompassing a range of possibilities including meaning potential (semantics), wording potential (lexicogrammar), and expression potential This interconnectedness of strata can be further expanded.
The context of situation can be defined by three key variables: field, tenor, and mode Field refers to the activity in which language is utilized, tenor encompasses the social actors involved and their relationships, and mode relates to the role language plays within the activity These variables correspond to the ideational, interpersonal, and textual meanings, also known as macrofunctions, which together shape the overall communicative context.
Thompson (1996:28) identifies these three kinds of meanings (functions):
1 We use language to talk about our experience of the world, including the worlds in our own minds, to describe events and states and the entities involved in them
2 We also use language to interact with other people, to establish and maintain relations with them, to influence their behavior, to express our own viewpoint on things in the world, and to elicit or change theirs (Interpersonal meaning)
3 Finally, in using language, we organize our message in ways which indicate how they fit in with the other messages around them and with the wider context in which we are talking or writing (Textual meaning)
In SFL, lexicogrammar is seen as functional grounded, shaped by the social functions it serves, and in particular built around the intersection of the “macrofunctions” of language
The grammatical system comprises three primary networks corresponding to its macrofunctions: transitivity, mood and modality, and information structure, which includes theme, rheme, and given-new distinctions At the lexico-grammatical level, the clause serves as the fundamental unit for analyzing meaning.
Experiential meaning is conveyed through the Transitivity system, which categorizes different types of processes in language This system serves to represent reality within linguistic frameworks, effectively answering the question, "What's going on?" Language plays a crucial role in expressing this experiential aspect of meaning through transitivity, highlighting the dynamic interactions and events in our experiences.
The system comprises various process types, participants, and contexts In English, there are six recognized process types: material processes, behavior processes, mental processes, verbal processes, relational processes, and existential processes.
The mayor dissolved the committee
Behavioral “behaving” Behaver, (Phenomenon) She cried softly
The boy loved the girl
You can imagine his reaction
Verbal “saying” Sayer, Target, Verbiage,
I explained to her what it meant
“attributing” Carrier, Attribute This bread is stale
Existential “existing” Existent Maybe there‟s some other darker pattern
Table 1: Overview of process type (Halliday, 1994:143)
Interpersonal meaning is conveyed through the Mood structure, which helps us understand how language facilitates exchanges In addition to Mood structure, Thompson (1996) identifies several areas for analyzing interpersonal meaning in texts, which are valuable for my textual analysis.
Modality Personal Interpersonal Evaluation Interactive Enacted roles (speech roles) Projected roles
Figure 1: Aspects of interpersonal management (Thompson, 1996:69)
In communication, speakers naturally assume specific roles, such as "questioner," while assigning corresponding roles, like "informant," to their listeners This dynamic interaction is essential for exchanging information and influencing behavior effectively.
Halliday (1994) provides a table to characterize the primary speech roles as follows
Commodity exchange Role in exchange
Would you like this teapot?
He is giving her the teapot
What is he giving her?
Table 2: Primary speech roles (Halliday, 1994:69)
The way a speaker communicates can reveal the roles they assign to themselves or others, particularly through the choice of names For instance, the manner in which a speaker addresses another person reflects their perception of that individual.
In textual analysis, modality is paid much attention to While the Mood is concerned with Yes/No, semantically there are intermediate stages – points between “yes” and “no” such as
“maybe” or “sometimes” or “supposedly” – which are expressed by modality
A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Speech “Women’s Rights are Human Rights”
Textual Description and Analysis
At the Beijing conference, Clinton asserts her right to represent women who cannot attend, highlighting the responsibility of her and other women present to advocate for critical issues affecting women and their families globally These issues include access to education, healthcare, employment, credit, fundamental legal and human rights, and full participation in political life.
Hillary Clinton acknowledges skepticism about the impact of women on societal progress, stating, “There are some who wonder whether the lives of women and girls matter to economic and political progress around the globe.” She emphasizes, however, that women's contributions are crucial for the development of families and, by extension, society as a whole.
Women worldwide are actively engaged in a multitude of roles, from giving birth and raising children to managing households and leading businesses Research shows that when women are healthy and educated, their families thrive Additionally, the absence of violence against women contributes to family well-being Furthermore, when women have equal opportunities to work and earn, it enhances the prosperity of their families.
And when families flourish, communities and nations will flourish.”
Despite women‟s contribution, there is still much inequality in every part of the world:
Women make up over half of the global population, yet they represent 70% of the world's impoverished individuals and two-thirds of the illiterate As primary caregivers for children and the elderly, their contributions are crucial, yet society often undervalues their work, as reflected by economists, historians, popular culture, and government leaders.
Women are facing severe health risks from preventable diseases, witnessing their children suffer from malnutrition due to poverty, and are often denied educational opportunities by male family members Additionally, they are coerced into prostitution, restricted from accessing bank loans, and excluded from participating in elections.
Human rights, essential to every individual's life, are frequently disregarded globally, with women being the primary victims of these violations.
Clinton emphasizes the importance of women breaking their silence and asserts that women's rights must be recognized as integral to human rights She calls for a united effort among women globally and stresses that there is no single way for women to lead their lives, advocating for respect for each woman's personal choices Clinton affirms that every woman deserves the opportunity to achieve her full potential and highlights that true dignity for women can only be attained when their human rights are upheld and protected.
Women like anyone else should be given the right to enjoy freedom, which is defined as
The right to assemble, organize, and engage in open debate is fundamental to a free society It involves honoring differing perspectives, even when they conflict with government views This right also encompasses the protection of citizens from arbitrary detention, mistreatment, and the infringement of their freedom and dignity due to the peaceful expression of their thoughts and opinions.
In general, on this occasion when women around the world gather here in Beijing, Hilary
Clinton highlights the vital role of women in both domestic and societal spheres, urging women to recognize their significance and advocate for their rights.
At the conference, she urges women to use their voices for those who cannot be present, emphasizing the importance of advocacy Clinton calls on individuals of all ages and races worldwide to unite in the fight against inequality and work together to create a more equitable world.
3.1.2.1 The use of personal pronoun
In her speech, Clinton effectively employs pronouns such as "I" and "We" to serve distinct purposes The use of "I" allows her to share personal experiences and express her ideas, enhancing the speech's persuasive impact For instance, she states, "Over the past 25 years, I have worked persistently on issues relating to women, children, and families," which underscores her commitment and credibility on these important topics.
Over the past two-and-a-half years, I have had the opportunity to learn more about the challenges facing women in my own country and around the world
I have met new mothers in Jakarta, Indonesia, who come together regularly in their village to discuss nutrition, family planning, and baby care
In Denmark, working parents express reassurance knowing their children are cared for in creative, safe, and nurturing after-school centers.
I have met women in South Africa who helped lead the struggle to end apartheid and are now helping build a new democracy
I have met with the leading women of the Western Hemisphere who are working every day to promote literacy and better health care for the children of their countries
In India and Bangladesh, women are securing small loans to invest in essential assets like milk cows, rickshaws, and thread, enabling them to establish sustainable livelihoods for themselves and their families.
I have met doctors and nurses in Belarus and Ukraine who are trying to keep children alive in the aftermath of Chernobyl.”……
Clinton had numerous opportunities to engage with women from diverse backgrounds, allowing her to understand their unique challenges and difficulties She believes that both she and individuals globally share a responsibility to advocate for these women and amplify their voices.
As an American, I advocate for women facing significant challenges, including those raising children on minimum wage, struggling to afford healthcare and childcare, and living in fear of violence, particularly domestic abuse.
Interpretation of the relationship between the productive and interpretive processes
Chouliaraki and Fairclough (1999) emphasize that while ideologies are embedded in texts, they cannot be directly extracted due to the subjective nature of interpretation, which varies based on the interpreter's perspective This section aims to assist readers in revealing the speaker's underlying ideology during their speech delivery.
Situational context interpretation relies on external cues, including physical environment features, participant characteristics, and prior statements, while also being influenced by individual mental representations that shape how these cues are understood.
In terms of situational context, the following questions are taken into consideration:
“What‟s going on?”, “Who‟s involved?”, “What relationships are at issue?” and “What‟s the role of language in what‟s going on?”
This speech focuses on the vital roles of women in families and societies, emphasizing the need for collective action to advocate for women's rights It calls for the involvement of women and individuals of all ages globally to work together towards creating a better world.
This is a speech so the subject positions are the speaker, Hillary Clinton and the audience including Mrs Gertrude Mongella - the founding president of the Pan-African Parliament,
UN Assistant Secretary General and Secretary General of 4th World Conference on Women in Beijing, China (1995)
Hillary Clinton is the keynote speaker at a conference attended by global leaders, highlighting a sense of unity and equality among participants, as there is no social distance between the speaker and the audience.
What’s the role of language?
Language has been used in an instrumental way to give information, to persuade people and to call for cooperation It is informative, directive, expressive and commissive
3.3 Explanation of the relationship between discourse processes and social processes
Fairclough (2001) emphasizes that the purpose of the explanation stage is to illustrate discourse as an integral element of social processes This involves analyzing how discourse is shaped by social structures and understanding its cumulative effects, which can either reinforce or transform these structures.
At the World Conference on Women, Hillary Clinton aims to highlight the diverse experiences of women globally while underscoring their vital roles in families and societies She calls for a collective effort to elevate women's voices and protect their rights, emphasizing that this is essential for creating a world free from gender discrimination.
The discourse at the societal level highlights the relationship between political leaders and the public, revealing that women's roles are often underappreciated Many women lack the opportunity or confidence to advocate for themselves due to various barriers The speaker aims to raise awareness about the significant contributions women make to society, emphasizing their right to respect and equality Consequently, the speaker assumes a controlling and authoritative position in this dialogue.
Based on the analysis of the speech, what is said and inferred from the language can be summarized as follows:
The speaker emphasizes a clear classification of vocabulary that reflects their understanding of women's contributions to families and society, as well as the challenges they face This vocabulary structure is rooted in ideological perspectives that advocate for the protection of women's rights.
The speaker's grammatical choices reveal her power and ideology, particularly through the use of personal pronouns like "I" and "we," which foster solidarity and encourage collective action for women's equality Additionally, the speaker's strategic use of mood and voice subtly reinforces her influence over others.
The high percentage of material process in transitivity and topical theme in thematization serve the speaker‟s aim of describing actions and events and creating reliability
The speaker's ideology is reflected in the macro-structure of the discourse, which is organized with arguments supported by personal experience as evidence.
Hillary Clinton's speech serves as a powerful platform to advocate for women's rights globally, highlighting their vital roles both at home and in society She emphasizes the need for increased awareness and immediate action to enhance women's status and secure the rights they rightfully deserve.
The application of the results of CDA research is important as an underlying aim of CDA is to produce enlightenment and emancipation for those less powerful in society
Human rights, particularly women's rights, are fundamental entitlements that every individual deserves Despite this, many still fail to recognize the importance of women's rights, perpetuating societal inequality In her speech, Hillary Clinton emphasizes the vital role women play in both families and society, urging global action from individuals of all ages to support women in their fight for equal rights.
Language serves as a powerful tool for various groups to express and convey their ideologies effectively.
3 Implication and recommendations to teaching and learning translation
Critical social science aims to enhance awareness of societal structures, their origins, and potential futures, enabling individuals to shape and reshape their lives This foundational motivation also drives Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).
Critically analyzing discourse, especially in translation, is essential for enhancing English learners' awareness of word choice and the implicature conveyed by the speaker or writer This deeper understanding aids in grasping the intended message more effectively.