Rationale of the research
In today's fast-paced technological landscape, online news has become a crucial source of information, often perceived as objective and impartial However, the existence of varying accounts of the same events across different news outlets raises questions about the neutrality and reliability of journalistic reporting This phenomenon suggests that media may wield manipulative power and present biased perspectives Critical discourse analysis (CDA) reveals that the language used in news reports is inherently loaded with values and ideologies, as noted by Fowler (1991) This influence is particularly evident during periods of political tension, where media is strategically utilized by various factions to shape public perception, enhance their image, and rally support against adversaries (Nhung, 2012) To fully grasp the complexities of news reporting, including the underlying social dynamics and ideologies, employing CDA is essential.
The relationship between Vietnam and China is marked by complexity and tension, despite their geographical proximity and historical ties Ongoing efforts aim to foster cooperation between these two nations, yet political disputes over overlapping sovereignty claims in the South China Sea, known as the East Sea in Vietnam, often disrupt this connectedness This enduring conflict has garnered significant attention from politicians, journalists, and scholars, particularly in recent media coverage As a Vietnamese citizen, I find this issue particularly concerning, and there has been a lack of analysis regarding the language used in online news about the dispute Consequently, I conducted a study examining the East Sea dispute in Chinese and Vietnamese online media coverage in English, utilizing critical discourse analysis to understand how media institutions shape their representation of this contentious reality for their audiences.
Scope of the research
This study focuses on online news reports regarding the East Sea dispute from May 1, 2014, to July 16, 2014 While a broader data range typically enhances the reliability of research findings, this analysis is limited to twelve selected reports from Global due to time constraints and the scope of a minor thesis.
Times, Xinhua Agency News of China and the Vietnamplus, Vietnamnet of Vietnam
This linguistic study is strictly academic and does not reflect the author's personal political views The research is impartial and does not endorse any political parties or seek to influence political beliefs.
Aim and objectives of the research
The study primarily aims to analyze Chinese and Vietnamese online media coverage of the East Sea dispute under the light of critical discourse analysis
To achieve this aim, the following objectives are set:
to investigate the manner in which the conflict and main participants are approached and represented in the media discourse
This article investigates the connection between journalists' underlying ideologies and the grammatical and lexical features present in news reports It highlights how these language elements reveal a significant relationship between media language and political objectives.
In order to realize these objectives, the study is intended to answer the following questions:
What are the underlying ideologies of each side with respect to the issue of the dispute?
News agencies encode ideologies in their discourse through the influence of the values held by journalists and media institutions These values shape the reporting of news, leading to diverse perspectives on contentious issues and the parties involved Consequently, the ideologies presented by different news agencies can vary significantly.
Significance of the research
This study aims to offer both theoretical and practical benefits Theoretically, it seeks to enhance understanding of critical discourse analysis Practically, the findings are intended to assist researchers and readers in developing a critical awareness of the news encountered in everyday life.
Research methodology
To carry out this study, the following procedures and techniques involving both qualitative and quantitative research method will be employed
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) will be utilized to reveal underlying ideologies within the text This analysis will follow the three stages outlined by Norman Fairclough (2001) and incorporate Halliday's Systemic-Functional Grammar to enhance understanding.
This study analyzes twelve genuine news reports in English sourced from prominent news agencies in China and Vietnam Among these, five reports are derived from China's leading authoritative media outlets, including the Global Times and Xinhua News Agency, while the remaining seven reports are gathered from Vietnam's top influential media organizations.
Vietnamplus, Vietnamnet The news reports in the research are selected in a range of time from May 1, 2014 to July 16, 2014
For further description of the research method, see chapter 2.
Design of the research
The study consists of three parts They are:
Part A – Introduction – presents the rationale, scope, aim and objectives, significance, general methodology, and design of the study
Part B – Development – constitutes the main part and consists of three chapters
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), including its definitions, principles, and various approaches It highlights Fairclough's three-dimensional framework and Halliday's Systemic-Functional Theory, with a particular focus on transitivity Additionally, the chapter presents an overview of related studies in the field.
Chapter 2: Methodology and analytical procedures
This chapter presents the background to the dispute After that, the methodology and data analysis procedures are mentioned
Chapter 3: A critical discourse analysis of online news about the East Sea dispute
The CDA procedure addressed by Fairclough and Halliday‟s Systemic-functional theory are used to analyze the news reports to find out the connection between ideologies and language use
In conclusion, this study highlights the key findings related to transitivity and overwording in online media coverage of both sides, identifying both commonalities and differences Additionally, it provides suggestions for future research directions to further explore these linguistic features.
LITERATURE REVIEW
An overview of CDA
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) originated from Critical Linguistics (CL) in the 1970s, with contributions from linguists such as Fowler et al (1979) and Kress and Hodge (1979) It was further advanced in the early 1990s by scholars like Norman Fairclough (1989), Ruth Wodak (1989), and Teun A van Dijk (1998) CDA has since evolved into a significant branch of discourse analysis, shifting the focus of linguistic research from formal properties to the functional use of language.
Discourse, whether written or spoken, is shaped by linguistic structures but is also deeply influenced by social contexts, reflecting existing social structures and practices (Fairclough, 2001; Titscher et al., 2000; Weiss and Wodak, 2003; Wodak and Weiss, 2004; Jørgensen and Phillips, 2002) Furthermore, language plays a reciprocal role in society, as it can shape, maintain, or alter social relationships (Titscher et al., 2000; Fairclough, 2001; Wodak and Meyer, 2001; Jöger and Maier).
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) serves as a method for examining the relationship between language use and social variables, particularly focusing on the dynamics of power and the conflicts surrounding it within discourse Through CDA, the underlying ideologies related to power relations can be revealed in various forms of communication.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) systematically examines the complex relationships between discursive practices, events, and texts, and the broader social and cultural structures that shape them It investigates how these elements are influenced by power dynamics and struggles, revealing the ideological underpinnings of discourse Additionally, CDA explores how the obscurity of these relationships contributes to the maintenance of power and hegemony in society.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is defined by scholars such as Van Dijk, Wodak, and Meyer as a form of discourse analysis that examines how social power dynamics—including abuse, dominance, discrimination, and inequality—are expressed and challenged within social and political contexts As Wodak and Meyer (2001) note, CDA investigates how these power relations are constituted and signaled in discourse Van Dijk (2008) further emphasizes that CDA serves as a crucial diagnostic tool for evaluating social and political dominance.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a comprehensive approach to language analysis that explores the intricate relationships between language, power, and ideology By providing detailed descriptions, explanations, and critiques, CDA seeks to challenge and uncover the underlying assumptions and meanings within discourse.
“naturalized” language used in the discourse, then reveal the power or struggles over power as well as ideologies hidden
Although the pioneers in CDA such as Fairclough, Wodak, and Van Dijk contributed different methods for CDA, they all shared the same viewpoints of CDA‟s principles
CDA‟s primary interest is to address social problems It does not rely solely on any particular discipline or discourse theory but a multidisciplinary approach and methodology to reveal such problems
Power relations are discursive That is CDA explains how social relations of power are exercised and negotiated in and through discourse
Discourse constitutes society and culture It means that the language use in discourse can contribute to reproducing and transforming social structures and practice, including relations of power
Discourse is ideological because linguistic features and structures are not arbitrary but purposeful in a particular social context By means of discourse, power relations are produced, exercised, and reproduced
Discourse is historical in the sense that texts attain their meanings by existing in specific social, cultural and ideological contexts, time and space
A socio-cognitive approach is needed to understand how relations between texts and society are mediated
Discourse analysis is interpretive and explanatory
Discourse is a form of social action
1.1.3.1 Van Dijk’s socio-cognitive approach
Van Dijk‟s approach to CDA is a socio-cognitive approach It is concerned with the relationship between discourse, cognition and society
Discourse is a multifaceted communicative event that transcends mere textual or dialogic structures, encompassing a rich social context It involves various participants, each with distinct characteristics, and includes both the processes of production and reception.
Social cognition plays a crucial role in linking discourse structures with social structures, revealing the social representations, attitudes, and ideologies of social actors Van Dijk defines social cognition as the mental representations and processes of group members that influence their actions, speech, writing, and understanding of others' social practices To explore this connection, he developed a socio-cognitive framework comprising social analysis, cognitive analysis, and discourse analysis.
Van Dijk emphasized the importance of recognizing how mental representations in discourse often reflect an "Us versus Them" mentality He observed that speakers typically portray their own group positively while depicting opposing groups negatively To address this ideological dichotomy in discourse, he proposed a framework aimed at clarifying these contrasting representations.
1 Examining the context of the discourse: historical, political or social background of a conflict and its main participants
3 Identifying positive and negative opinions about Us versus Them
4 Making explicit the presupposed and the implied
5 Examining all formal structures: lexical choice and syntactic structure, in a way that helps to (de)emphasize polarized group opinions (Van Dijk, 1998: 61-63)
1.1.3.2 Fairclough’s systemic functional grammar approach
Fairclough's approach, as discussed by Jűrgensen and Phillips (2002), emphasizes the dialectic relationship between language and society, highlighting how language both reproduces and transforms knowledge, identities, and power relations, while also being influenced by social practices and structures This perspective is socially constitutive and shaped, as noted by Fairclough and Wodak (1997) Fairclough (2003) identifies three key aspects of this dialectical relationship: social events (texts), social practices (orders of discourse), and social structures, leading to a comprehensive framework that includes the analysis of text, discursive practice, and sociocultural practice.
1 Text analysis is concerned with linguistic analysis pertaining to four criteria: vocabulary, grammar, semantics and cohesion-organization above the sentence level (Fairclough, 2003) Halliday‟s Systemic functional linguistics is exploited for detailed textual analysis
2 As Fairclough (2003) defined, “discursive practices” involves the production and consumption of texts Thus, the second analysis – analysis of discursive practice – is an analysis of how texts are produced, received and interpreted
In other words, this stage of analysis depends on background information the participants have, which affects the text production and consumption process
3 The sociocultural analysis is concerned with economy, politics and culture of a communicative event (Fairclough, 2003)
(The detailed framework with three stages will be discussed later in Part 1.2)
Fairclough's three-dimensional framework closely resembles Van Dijk's ideology analysis; however, Van Dijk emphasizes that social cognition serves as a mediator between discourse and society In contrast, Fairclough focuses on how text production and consumption mediate the relationship between discourse and social structures (Wodak and Meyer, 2001).
Fairclough's three-dimensional framework offers a systematic approach for textual analysis, making it particularly beneficial for novice analysts By providing a step-by-step analysis and a comprehensive list of suggested questions, this framework simplifies the analytical process Consequently, the researcher selected Fairclough’s framework as the foundation for her thesis.
Fairclough‟s three-dimension framework of CDA
The first stage of text analysis focuses on the formal properties of a text, emphasizing vocabulary, grammar, and textual structure (Fairclough, 2001:21) Fairclough identifies three key values influencing these formal features: experiential value, which reflects the text producer's personal knowledge and beliefs about the world; relational value, which reveals social relations within the text; and expressive value, which evaluates aspects of reality or social identities (Al Ghazali, 2007: 4) To uncover the ideologies embedded in a text's formal properties, Fairclough (2001: 92-93) proposes ten main questions, supplemented by sub-questions, guiding analysts in their exploration of the discourse producer's naturalized language use.
This stage examines the interplay between text and interaction, viewing text not just as a final product but also as a valuable resource for interpretation The characteristics of the text, along with its situational and intertextual contexts, provide essential cues for interpretation, relying on a foundation of shared common-sense assumptions, known as Member Resources (MR).
The six major elements of Meaning Representation (MR) include a distinction between situational context and intertextual context Situational context refers to external cues such as the physical environment, participant characteristics, and prior dialogue, which require an understanding of social orders In contrast, intertextual context necessitates knowledge of the interactional history, as outlined by Fairclough (2001).
In the interpretative stage, key factors influencing how individuals produce and interpret discourse are considered, including textual features, context, and the background assumptions of the message received (MR).
The final stage examines the interplay between interaction and social context, focusing on how social factors influence the production and interpretation of social effects (Fairclough, 2001:21-22) Social structures shape media representations (MR), while MR also influences discourses; these discourses can either reinforce or transform MR, which subsequently impacts the underlying social structures.
At this stage, usually the underlying ideological perspectives are exposed
Halliday‟s systemic functional approach and CDA
Systemic functional grammar (SFG) is a language approach that emphasizes purposeful language use within specific social contexts By analyzing the formal features of a text through a systemic functional lens, one can uncover the producer's intentions and the underlying ideologies and social structures present in the discourse This analytical method is essential for critical discourse analysts, making SFG a common framework in critical discourse analysis (CDA).
In Systemic functional linguistics, language is structured to perform three metafunctions:
The ideational metafunction is essential for expressing both individuals' experiences of the external world and their internal consciousness According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2013), it is divided into experiential and logical metafunctions The experiential metafunction focuses on representing experiences and perceptions of the natural world, addressing the question, "What is going on?" This is realized through a transitivity system that categorizes experiences into six distinct process types.
The interpersonal metafunction focuses on the social dynamics between speakers and listeners, emphasizing the role of language in facilitating exchanges Through various expressions, speakers can communicate their comments, attitudes, and evaluations, effectively establishing, maintaining, or altering the social relationships with their interlocutors This aspect of language helps address the complexities of human interaction.
“How do we use language to exchange?”, it is realized mainly through mood and modality
The textual metafunction focuses on the verbal realm and the flow of information within a text, emphasizing the importance of creating relevance between different parts of the message and the broader context Effective communication requires individuals to present their experiences and interactions in a coherent manner To analyze how a text's content is organized, one can utilize the Theme/Rheme system, which aids in recognizing the thematic structure of the discourse.
Transitivity
Transitivity categorizes experiences into a limited number of process types, playing a crucial role in the ideational function of clauses These "processes," whether physical, relational, or stative, reflect our understanding of the world and are conveyed through language, as noted by Halliday (1970, cited in Zhang).
The selection of "processes" in a text holds significant ideological implications, as transitivity aids in identifying the social, cultural, ideological, and political factors influencing the choice of process types in discourse This analytical approach serves to uncover the writer's underlying meanings and motivations reflected in their linguistic choices.
Transitivity encompasses various process types, participants, and circumstances that provide context about actions The nature of participants in a clause is influenced by the type of process, highlighting the significance of verbal groups within those clauses (Thompson, 2004:89).
In Halliday's Introduction to Functional Grammar (2013), Halliday and Matthiessen present six process types, each comprising three essential elements: the process, the participants, and the circumstances The process is expressed through a verbal group, while the participants are represented by nominal groups, and any circumstances are conveyed using adverbial groups or prepositional phrases.
Material process: concerns actions, events taking place in the domain of
The concept of "outer experience" refers to the tangible actions performed by an entity, highlighting a process where something is actively done In this material process, two key participants emerge: the Actor, who initiates the action, and the Goal, which represents the individual or entity impacted by this action.
The mental process refers to the internal flow of events occurring within an individual's mind, encompassing activities such as perception (seeing, hearing), affection (liking, hating), and cognition (thinking, knowing, understanding) This process involves two key participants: the Senser, which is the conscious being experiencing the mental activity, and the Phenomenon, which represents the object or person that is perceived, felt, or thought about by the Senser.
The verbal process refers to the act of communication, encompassing key elements such as the Sayer, who is the speaker or entity producing the utterance; the Receiver, the individual receiving the message; the Verbiage, which constitutes the content of the communication; and the Target, the entity that is subject to verbal judgment.
The relational process encompasses the concepts of "being," "having," and "being at," which can be categorized into three types of relational clauses: intensive, circumstantial, and possessive These clauses can further be divided into attributive and identifying modes In the attributive intensive mode, a quality (Attribute) is assigned to an entity (Carrier), whereas in the identifying intensive mode, an identity (Identifier) is attributed to an entity (Identified) Additionally, the possessive mode delineates the relationship between a Possessor and the Possessed, indicating ownership or belonging.
Behavioral process: is the process of physiological and psychological behavior The obligatory participant is Behaver (a conscious entity that behaves)
Existential process: is the process of existing, indicating that something or some natural force exists.
Overview of related studies
The ongoing maritime confrontation between Vietnam and China has garnered significant media attention, yet critical discourse analysis of English-language news coverage from both Vietnamese and Chinese perspectives remains limited This study aims to explore the underlying ideologies of journalists from both nations in their reporting of the East Sea dispute, shedding light on the narrative frameworks and biases present in the media coverage.
Studies employing Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) reveal that media institutions tend to portray a positive self-image while negatively representing others, particularly when reporting on issues related to their own countries or allies.
He and Zhou (2015) examined the lexical choices in six news articles covering three safety accidents in China, published in China Daily and The Washington Post Their study revealed that the two newspapers portrayed the same events differently, reflecting their distinct ideological perspectives and national interests Specifically, China Daily employed derogatory terms for the terrorists responsible for the accidents while using more neutral language to describe government actions In contrast, The Washington Post utilized neutral terminology for the perpetrators but used derogatory language to characterize the government's response.
A study by Taiwo and Ota (2015) examined news coverage of the Bakassi Peninsula conflicts in Nigeria and Cameroon, revealing that each country's newspapers portrayed themselves positively while depicting the other as the aggressor Nigerian media highlighted human rights violations and injustices committed by Cameroonian security forces, whereas Cameroonian outlets characterized their forces as effective and adept at managing the conflict.
Zhang (2014) examined the political news reports on Iraq war in the New York
Using Fairclough's three-dimension framework and Halliday's functional grammar, the analysis uncovered various hidden ideologies in media representations The findings indicated that reporters constructed a favorable portrayal of the Bush administration, depicting it as a friendly nation and a liberator In contrast, the Iraqi community, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, was negatively characterized and labeled as an enemy.
In a 2012 analysis, Yang examined the news coverage of the Chinese government by the New York Times and China Daily, revealing distinct portrayals in each publication The study indicated that, despite some similarities, the New York Times often adopted an "anti-China" stance, contrasting with the portrayal found in China Daily.
Chinese government frame”, a “pro-government frame” is preferable in the China Daily
In his 2008 study, Chen employed Fairclough's framework and Halliday's three metafunctions to analyze New York Times news reports on Sino-Japan conflicts He examined linguistic features such as lexicalization, transitivity, and thematization to uncover the representations of China and Japan The analysis revealed that the New York Times often depicted China as aggressive, dominant, and violent.
In contrast, Japanese government and its people were depicted more rational and courteous
Ahmadian and Farahani (2014) conducted a comparative analysis of editorials from the Los Angeles Times and Tehran Times to explore ideological disparities in their coverage of Iran's nuclear program Their findings revealed a significant media bias, with each outlet portraying a favorable view of its own perspective while depicting the opposing side negatively.
METHODOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
The background to the event
On May 1, 2014, tensions escalated in the East Sea when China deployed the HD-981 drilling rig, claiming the waters near the Hoang Sa Archipelagos as its territory, prompting Vietnam to protest vigorously In response, Vietnam sent 29 ships to disrupt the rig's operations, but faced fierce resistance from Chinese vessels The situation intensified after several incidents, including China using water cannons on May 7, causing significant damage to Vietnam's side Following this, anti-China protests erupted in Vietnam on May 13 and 14, which escalated into riots targeting Chinese businesses and workers The conflict culminated on May 26 when a Vietnamese fishing boat was sunk after being rammed by Chinese ships.
Data collection
This thesis analyzes twelve genuine news reports in English sourced from leading news agencies in China and Vietnam It includes five reports from China's top three authoritative media outlets, namely the Global Times and Xinhua Agency News, alongside seven reports from Vietnam's most influential online media platforms.
Between May 1, 2014, and July 16, 2014, a selection of news reports from Vietnamplus and Vietnamnet was analyzed to examine the East Sea dispute Each incident was paired with corresponding reports from both sides to explore the similarities and differences in journalistic coverage This analysis reveals the underlying ideologies of the reporting parties.
The selected newspapers are influential representatives from China and Vietnam, chosen not only for their popularity but also for their positions within media management and control hierarchies This selection raises important questions regarding varying levels of news censorship and political manipulation that may affect each publication.
The Global Times, a state-run newspaper in China, is recognized as a reliable and authoritative source of information It offers valuable insights into China's perspectives on both domestic and international events.
As a prominent English-language newspaper in China, it is widely published and distributed across most cities in the country and in over 150 countries and regions worldwide, significantly influencing its readership.
Xinhua is considered as “official mouthpiece” of the Chinese Communist
Party It plays a unique role in creating China‟s national image and in articulating the Chinese government‟s policies with its ideological orientations (Li, 2010)
Vietnamnet is a leading online newspaper in Vietnam, recognized for its reliability as a source of information Operated by the Ministry of Information and Technology, it significantly influences readers' emotions and thoughts, serving as a potential medium for disseminating political ideologies (Nhung, 2012).
Vietnamplus of the Vietnam News Agency is directly under the Communist
Party management Therefore, it is considered as the “mouthpiece” of the Party
The thesis aims to explore the beliefs surrounding the actions of both sides and how these beliefs are communicated to a foreign audience through public diplomacy messages in online media Recognizing that news reports in native languages often serve to shape domestic opinion, the study focuses on English-language media as a crucial tool for informing international audiences about relevant issues.
Research method
This study employs Fairclough’s three-dimensional approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Halliday’s Systemic-Functional Theory to uncover the underlying ideologies of reporters in news articles Utilizing both quantitative and qualitative methods, the research intertwines Fairclough’s three stages—description, interpretation, and explanation—to demonstrate the direct connections between textual properties and the reporters' ideologies By analyzing these relationships, the study reveals how formal elements of news content reflect the beliefs and biases of the journalists involved.
Fairclough's approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) serves as a flexible guide rather than a strict blueprint, allowing researchers to adapt their focus based on specific research goals By utilizing Fairclough’s model, which includes ten questions to examine the formal properties of texts, researchers can concentrate on particular linguistic features that reveal how journalists encode their ideologies through language This analysis includes a detailed examination of transitivity in grammatical structures and a focused study of overwording in lexical choices.
Data analysis procedure
Fairclough's framework is applied through three distinct steps to analyze various criteria The first step, descriptive analysis, focuses on transitivity and overwording to reveal the underlying ideologies of journalists within the news The second step, interpretation, examines the situational context using Fairclough's guiding questions: What is happening? Who is involved? What are the relationships at play? and How does language influence the situation? Finally, the explanation stage explores the connection between interaction and social context, highlighting how discourse production and interpretation are shaped by social structures and the potential impact of discourse on those structures.
A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF ONLINE NEWS
Transitivity analysis
The analysis of news coverage regarding the Vietnam-China dispute reveals a consistent transitivity pattern between both nations Specifically, both Vietnamese and Chinese media predominantly utilize material processes, which constitute 61.9% and 44.9% of their coverage, respectively Following material processes, verbal processes are the second most prevalent, accounting for 17.2% in Vietnamese news and 32.9% in Chinese news Relational processes also feature prominently, making up 15.7% of Vietnamese coverage and 13.9% of Chinese coverage.
The frequent use of these three processes is justifiable, particularly in the context of relational processes These processes primarily illustrated the country's legitimate claim to ownership of the waters, which ultimately resulted in a conflict between the two nations as each asserted its legal rights.
Pm Pv Pr Pmen Px
Figure 3: The distribution of processes in Vietnamese news and Chinese news
Vietnamese and Chinese news often reflect opposing viewpoints, highlighting tensions and disruptions between the two nations This is evident in the focus on material and verbal processes, as both countries primarily report on conflicting actions and events in disputed areas, rather than exploring subjective feelings or perspectives.
A notable observation is that the behavioral process is absent in the analyzed news articles This absence is understandable, as journalists typically prioritize the intense confrontations between opposing sides, rather than focusing on the physiological and psychological behaviors of those involved.
The analysis reveals a notable disparity in the use of material and verbal processes in the press coverage of Vietnam and China, with Vietnamese news employing material processes at a rate of 61.9%, compared to 44.9% in Chinese news—indicating a variance of nearly 1.5 times Conversely, Chinese media utilize verbal processes almost twice as much as their Vietnamese counterparts This suggests that Vietnamese online news focuses on narrating the actions and events of disputes through a material lens, portraying journalists as eyewitnesses detailing the confrontation In contrast, Chinese journalists prioritize reporting authoritative statements about the maritime dispute, aiming for a more objective perspective rather than sharing personal experiences.
The analysis reveals that newspapers in both countries primarily focus on reporting actions and events, with writers adopting a seemingly objective third-person perspective However, a closer examination of the distribution of the three most frequently used processes indicates that the news reports may lack true objectivity, suggesting underlying biases in the presentation of information.
The analysis of material processes in journalism from Vietnam and China reveals a striking similarity, with both countries predominantly portraying the opposing party as the main actor In Vietnamese news, China is depicted as the aggressor, responsible for 53.2% of the aggressive actions reported Conversely, Chinese media attributes the regional tensions to Vietnam, which accounts for 48.3% of the provocative actions highlighted This suggests that both nations' news coverage primarily emphasizes the activities of their adversaries in the contested waters.
Take the following sentences as examples when the writers presented their country‟s opponent:
(1) …the Vietnamese side deployed a large number of vessels to forcefully disrupt and obstruct China's operations, and rammed Chinese government vessels (news.xinhuanet.com/english)
(2) Vietnam slammed a Chinese oil company's launch of an oil rig
(3) …thousands of people smashed and looted foreign plants in industrial zones (globaltimes.cn)
(4) Vietnam's actions have violated international laws, infringed on China's sovereignty and jurisdiction, and endangered navigational freedom
Figure 4: The distribution of Actors in the material processes
(5) China has so far deployed many vessels, up to 80 at peak time…
(6) Chinese ships encircled and intentionally rammed at, fired high-pressure water cannons on Vietnamese coast guard and fisheries surveillance vessels… (english.vietnamnet.vn)
(7) Vietnamese fishermen were beaten with two badly injured and their tools were destroyed (english.vietnamnet.vn)
China's recent unlawful activities in the East Sea have significantly violated Vietnam's sovereignty, contradicting international law and norms, and undermining global trust in the region.
The analysis of examples (1-4) and (5-8) reveals a notable similarity in how journalists utilize material processes to portray the opposing party The use of powerful action verbs like "deployed," "rammed," "slammed," "smashed," and "looted" highlights the aggressive and confrontational tone adopted in these depictions.
Vietnam has been portrayed in Chinese online media as an aggressive nation exhibiting irrational behavior that disregards legal norms This narrative positions Vietnam as the instigator of conflict, characterized by a series of anti-Vietnam actions described as "encircled."
“(intentionally) rammed”, “fired”, “beat”, “destroyed”, China was displayed on Vietnam‟s media coverage as a bully neighbor who is belligerent and could act brashly, illegally in the rule-based community
However, when portraying their own country, writers rendered the opposite images
Chinese news predominantly focuses on two key themes regarding China's actions: peaceful measures to safeguard its sovereignty and citizens (57.1%) and routine drilling operations in the Sea (28.6%) These themes reflect the journalists' ideologies, emphasizing China's image as calm and sensible while prioritizing regional stability through diplomacy over violence.
(9) Taking into consideration the overall bilateral relations and peace and stability in the South China Sea, China has exercised great restraint towards Vietnam's actions (news.xinhuanet.com/english)
(10) It would be the last way to organize nationals to withdraw from Vietnam…to protect our nationals (globaltimes.cn)
Over 25% of the material processes describing China's oil drilling activities suggest that journalists perceived China's operations as legal, reinforcing the notion that these waters are part of China's territorial domain.
Vietnamese online news consistently portrays the country as a peace-loving nation that prioritizes the respect of its sovereign rights, with 60.4% of reported material emphasizing this perspective The coverage highlights Vietnam's flexibility in seeking peaceful resolutions to disputes while also acknowledging the importance of a firm and assertive stance on sovereignty issues.
(11) The Vietnam Fisheries Surveillance Force has exercised their utmost restraint (english.vietnamnet.vn)
(12) Vietnam will take all necessary and proper measures to defend its legitimate rights and benefits and safeguard its sovereignty (en.vietnamplus.vn)
With respect to the role of participants as Goals taking place in the subject position (see Figure 5), there witnesses a different pattern
In Vietnam's news discourse, Vietnam is prominently featured, comprising 8.5% of the coverage Notably, the narrative often portrays Vietnam as a victim of China's irrational and hegemonic actions.
(13) [Boat DNa 90152] was deliberately encircled by 40 fishing vessels of China before it was attacked by the Chinese ship 11209 (en.vietnamplus.vn)
Figure 5: The distribution of Goals in the material processes
In Chinese news, foreign corporations resembling Chinese entities (6.1%) and Chinese citizens (4.1%) are identified as the primary victims of Vietnam's violent actions during riots against China's operations This portrayal suggests that Vietnam is perceived as an aggressive nation, acting recklessly and unwisely due to extreme nationalism.
(14) …at least two Chinese nationals were killed and more than 100 injured
(15) 16 other people described as Chinese were killed on Wednesday night in rioting (globaltimes.cn)
Overwording
Overwording, as discussed by Fairclough (2001) and Fowler (1991), refers to the excessive use of near synonyms or quasi-synonyms, while Jackson and Amvela (2004) expand this concept to include hyponyms and antonyms Despite variations in categorization, it is widely accepted that overwording serves to convey specific meanings that reflect the writer's focal ideology.
Overwording refers to the excessive repetition of words or phrases that convey a single concept, aimed at uncovering underlying ideologies.
The repetitive words and inter-related terms with high degree of frequency in a series of news analyzed are divided into six main themes for each side (See Tables 1 and
Table 1:The main themes in Vietnamese online news coverage
Table 2:The main themes in Chinese online news coverage
Key concept Time of occurrence Key concept Time of occurrence
China‟s illegal operation and disruptive activities 170 China‟s sovereignty over the waters 69
Vietnam‟s sovereignty over the waters 95 Vietnam‟s disruptive activities 66
Vietnam‟s legal operation and defense 49 China‟s legal operation 33
Viewpoints on China‟s activities of Vietnam and 42 China‟s peaceful measures and strategies 32 international community
Vietnam‟s peaceful measures and strategies 23 China‟s viewpoints on
Vietnam‟s activities 27 International law/Acts 16 International law/Acts 13
The media narratives from Vietnam and China focus on six key topics, emphasizing their nations' legitimate ownership of waters where citizens operate Any foreign intrusion into their exclusive economic zones is deemed illegal and provocative, reflecting a disregard for international law Despite aggressive actions from opponents, both countries prioritize peaceful resolutions, resorting to violence only as a last defense The storytelling varies based on the journalists' skills and ideologies, prompting a detailed analysis of these six concepts to illustrate how reiteration is used to convey their perspectives to readers.
The analysis of Tables 1 and 2 reveals that media coverage from China and Vietnam adopted distinct approaches to the same story Chinese media focused equally on asserting its sovereign rights over the disputed waters and addressing Vietnam's provocative actions, with occurrences noted 69 and 66 times, respectively This balanced reporting is strategic, as China faces global criticism for its claims and activities in the contested area Consequently, Chinese journalists aim to convince the international community of their legitimacy while also highlighting Vietnam's aggressive behavior to portray it as irrational.
Vietnam's news coverage predominantly focuses on China's illegal operations and disruptive activities, mentioned 170 times, highlighting a significant divergence in priorities between the two nations This emphasis reflects Vietnam's efforts to counter China's portrayal as a belligerent and law-breaking entity, supported by global advocacy for Vietnam's sovereign rights The topic of sovereignty was also prominently featured, appearing 95 times, underscoring Vietnam's undeniable legitimate claim to the waters in question.
Sovereignty is a critical focus for journalists, as evidenced by its mention in 95 instances in Vietnam's news and 69 times in China's news, highlighting its significance in both countries' media coverage.
Table 3: The frequency of inter-related words to sovereignty in Vietnamese online news coverage
Vietnam’s sovereignty over the waters 95
(Vietnam‟s/ its/ Vietnamese) waters sovereignty, sovereign rights, jurisdiction continental shelf of Vietnam, Vietnam‟s continental shelf mainland coast of Vietnam, its coast exclusive economic zone the East Sea
Hoang Sa (archipelago/area), Tri Ton Island, Ly Son Island
Table 4: The frequency of inter-related words to sovereignty in Chinese online news coverage
China’s sovereignty over the waters 69
(Chinese/ its/ territorial) waters sovereignty, sovereign rights, jurisdiction Xisha Islands, China‟s islands the South China Sea (waters) China‟s inherent territory, Chinese territory China‟s maritime rights disputed waters,controversial islands
The terminology used in discussions about territorial waters, including phrases like "Vietnamese continental shelf," "mainland coast of Vietnam," "Vietnam's waters," "Vietnam's exclusive economic zone," and "China's inherent territory," highlights the complex maritime claims in the region.
“Chinese territorial waters” (in China‟s news) To make that territorial claim more persuasive, the exact position of the zone was also described Take these following as examples:
(37) “The location was 80 nautical miles deep in Vietnam’s continental shelf and was 119 nautical miles to Vietnam’s Ly Son Island and 130 nautical miles to its coast.” (en.vietnamplus.vn)
(38) “…the waters where Chinese company operates is close to China's Xisha Islands, being only 17 nautical miles away from China's Zhongjian Island…” (news.xinhuanet.com/english)
Additionally, with any territorial violation, “sovereignty”, “sovereign rights” and
“jurisdiction” were always stated as an affirmation of their motherland‟s entitlement of the waters
(39) “China has irrefutable sovereignty over the Nansha Islands and their adjacent waters.” (globaltimes.com)
Vietnam possesses strong legal and historical evidence to assert its sovereignty over the Hoang Sa and Truong Sa archipelagos, along with its sovereign rights and jurisdiction over its exclusive economic zones and continental shelf.
The naming of maritime zones reflects national ownership, with Chinese media referring to the region as the "South China Sea" 14 times, while Vietnamese journalists prefer the term "East Sea," using it 16 times.
Likewise, the islands by which the oil rig was located were named Xisha in Chinese but “Hoang Sa” in Vietnamese (14 and 16 times respectively)
Apparently, the use of overwording indicates the reporters‟ political stance However, it is noteworthy that in Chinese news, there are three times “disputed” and
“controversial” was tagged as the attribute of the zone It shows the reporters‟ strong belief to China‟s legal ownership of the waters, to some degree, seemed to be shaken
Both sides firmly believe that the waters in question belong to their respective maritime territories, making their residents' activities legally justified Any actions taken by the opposing party within this zone are viewed as illegal and a threat to sovereignty and jurisdiction Consequently, it is evident that reporters from each side tend to portray their own position positively while negatively framing the opposing side.
Table 5: The frequency of inter-related words to China’s legal operation in
China's legal oil drilling operations involve comprehensive drilling field investigations and activities related to oil and gas exploration and development These operations are supported by civil vessels and government vessels tasked with escort and security missions to ensure safe and efficient drilling practices.
China asserts its authority over its territorial claims, emphasizing its right to conduct "oil and gas exploration and development activities." The frequent use of phrases such as "China's legal drilling operation" and "legitimate oil drilling," appearing 24 times, reinforces the notion that China adheres to legal norms Additionally, the presence of civil vessels performing routine tasks and government vessels engaged in "escort and security missions," mentioned 9 times in the news, is deemed justifiable within its territorial waters.
Vietnam's actions are perceived as illegal disruptions to the operations of Chinese companies, portraying the country as hostile and irrational The article emphasizes this viewpoint through the repeated mention of "armed" or "military" vessels, alongside strong action verbs and negative connotations like "rammed," "slammed," "smashed," and "rampaged," highlighting the aggressive nature of Vietnam's activities.
The article highlights the intense portrayal of Vietnam's turmoil, emphasizing terms such as "damage," "collision," and "disruptive" to illustrate the country's severe disruptions Additionally, the frequent use of related terms like "atrocity," "rioting," and "rioters" underscores the brutality and fervent nationalism of Vietnamese citizens This repetition clearly indicates the reporters' negative stance towards Vietnam.
Table 6: The frequency of inter-related words to Vietnam’s disruptive activities in Chinese online news coverage
Armed military vessels have been deployed to target and disrupt potential threats, often resulting in damaging collisions These ships have rampaged through hostile waters, slamming into obstacles and engaging in attacks that lead to significant disruption Rioting and acts of atrocity can arise in such tense environments, with vessels often cast into the role of both protectors and aggressors The ongoing conflict creates a cycle of obstruction, where military actions impede normal activities and escalate tensions among rioters and civilians alike.
A summary of the findings
This article utilizes Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework and Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar to explore the intricate relationship between language, ideology, and political stance The analysis reveals the underlying ideologies that shape perceptions of "us" in political discourse.
The online media coverage from both sides aimed to shape readers' perceptions by highlighting their own positive portrayals while undermining the opposing side This article will summarize the similarities and differences in how journalists from the two countries utilized transitivity and overwording to express their ideologies.
Reporters predominantly utilized material clauses, followed by verbal and relational clauses, to convey their narratives In material clauses, attention was drawn to the “aggressive” and “irrational” actions of the opposing party, labeled as the instigator of regional tensions, while emphasizing their own side's legal and peace-loving maneuvers A strategy of self-victimization was often employed to highlight the illegal and reckless nature of the opponent's actions, thereby tarnishing their image Verbal clauses exhibited a bias, with a majority of voices expressing favorable sentiments towards their own side, often excluding the perspective of the “other.” Similarly, relational clauses reflected this bias, focusing on the legitimacy of each side's actions in the contested waters, reinforcing their claims to legality.
The actions of the opposing side were characterized as "wrongdoings," highlighting their obstruction of the law and showcasing a blatant disregard for international regulations This portrayal paints them as warmongers, lawbreakers, and regional troublemakers, emphasizing their illegitimacy and lack of respect for established legal frameworks.
Both sides emphasized six key themes regarding their legitimate rights and operations in the disputed area, highlighting a preference for peaceful measures in response to provocative activities and a commitment to respecting international law Both parties demonstrated a tendency to assert their sovereignty by using specific names for the contested region, with Vietnam particularly focusing on its designated nomenclature.
“East Sea” and “Hoang Sa Archipelagos” to refer to the zone, China insisted on the
“South China Sea” and “Xisha Islands” Another similarity is in the lexical choices used to depict each side Positive or neutral lexis was likely to be employed to portray
In analyzing the contrasting perspectives, our side employed positive lexicalization, while their side was characterized by negative lexicalization This distinction was evident through the use of strong verbs and negatively connoted words, which highlighted the law-breaking actions attributed to the opposing party Conversely, these actions were perceived as entirely legal from the opponent's viewpoint.
The discussed common features reveal the ideologies of news reporters, who aim to depict their own countries positively to garner global support in water ownership disputes Conversely, opponents are often portrayed negatively as aggressive and unlawful actors within a rule-based international community.
The differences between the online media coverage of both sides mainly lay in the proportion of their attention paid to each matter
Vietnamese online news coverage tends to emphasize material processes to portray China's actions as "disruptive" and to position Vietnam as a victim of Chinese aggression, reflecting journalists' ideologies aimed at discrediting China This approach seeks to garner international disapproval of China's operations and claims, while also attempting to distance Vietnam from the narrative However, a deeper investigation reveals the reporters' biases, as third-party voices are often used to depict China as isolated in its territorial disputes, highlighting global disapproval In contrast, the portrayal of Vietnam is supported by external voices that view China's actions as belligerent The focus of coverage differs significantly; Chinese narratives prioritize claims over territorial waters and the legitimacy of oil drilling, while Vietnamese reports emphasize the illegality of China's operations This strategy serves two purposes: reinforcing Vietnam's rightful claim to disputed waters and depicting China as aggressive and irrational.
The lexical choices in the media coverage from China and Vietnam reveal distinct priorities in conveying their ideologies Chinese online media emphasizes both sovereign rights over contested waters and Vietnam's provocative actions, aiming to persuade the international community of its legitimacy while portraying Vietnam as aggressive and law-breaking In contrast, Vietnamese news focuses primarily on China's illegal operations and disruptive activities, depicting China as a warlike nation to garner international support Notably, Chinese journalists express uncertainty regarding jurisdiction by referring to "the disputed waters," a nuance absent in Vietnamese coverage.
The analysis reveals a notable disparity in how two political parties are portrayed in the news, indicating a clear connection between news reporting and political ideologies This suggests that journalists and media institutions may be subject to political manipulation.
In conclusion, language serves as a powerful tool for asserting control and shaping ideology, significantly influencing readers' thoughts and behaviors This manipulative potential is particularly pronounced in newspapers, where language can be strategically employed to convey ideological messages Consequently, it is crucial for readers to remain vigilant and recognize how specific language choices in news articles can reveal underlying ideological representations.
Limitation and recommendation for further studies
One significant limitation of this study is its small-scale database, as it is based solely on twelve news reports Consequently, the findings cannot be generalized to represent the broader characteristics of Vietnamese and Chinese news coverage regarding the dispute.
Due to the researcher's constraints in time and expertise, this study has focused on specific textual features of language Future research could explore additional aspects of news discourse, including passivization, nominalization, sentence modes, and thematization.
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APPENDIX 1: THE 10-QUESTIONS MODEL OF THE DESCRIPTION
1 What experiential values do words have?
What classification schemes are drawn upon?
Are there words which are ideologically contested?
Is there rewording or overwording?
What ideologically significant meaning relations (synonymy, hyponymy, antonymy) are there between words?
2 What relational values do words have?
Are there markedly formal or informal words?
3 What expressive values do words have?
5 What experiential values do grammatical features have?
What types of process and participants predominate?
Are processes what they seem?
Are sentences active or passive?
Are sentences positive or negative?
6 What relational values do grammatical features have?
What modes (declarative, grammatical question, imperative) are used?
Are there important features of relational modality?
Are the pronouns we and you used and if so, how?
7 What expressive values do grammatical features have?
Are there important features of expressive modality?
8 How are (simple) sentences linked together?
What logical connectors are used?
Are complex sentences characterized by coordination or/ subordination? What means are used for referring inside and outside the text?
9 What interactional conventions are used?
Are there ways in which one participant controls the turns of others?
10 What larger scale structures does the text have?
China urges Vietnam to respect its sovereign rights over Xisha Islands
On May 9, 2014, China reiterated its call for Vietnam to acknowledge China's sovereignty and jurisdiction over the Xisha Islands in the South China Sea, urging the cessation of provocative actions.
During a regular press briefing, Foreign Ministry Spokeswoman Hua Chunying emphasized that the Xisha Islands are an integral part of China's territory, asserting that there are no disputes regarding this region.
The waters of China's drilling operations are only 17 nautical miles from China's Xisha Islands, she said, adding that the operations are about 150 nautical mies from Vietnam
Chinese companies' operations in the waters surrounding the Xisha Islands are fully within China's sovereignty, and it is unacceptable for any nation to make irresponsible statements or obstruct China's routine oil drilling activities in its territorial waters.
From May 3 to 7, Vietnam dispatched 36 vessels, which rammed Chinese vessels up to 171 times
According to Yi Xianliang, deputy director-general of the Department of Boundary and Ocean Affairs of China's Foreign Ministry, the vessels present in the area are exclusively government and civil vessels from China, while Vietnam has deployed a significant number of armed vessels.
During the recent confrontations, Chinese officials reported the presence of Vietnamese frogmen operating just 5 meters from Chinese government vessels Additionally, the Vietnamese side has deployed numerous fishing nets and large obstacles in the waters, creating security risks for Chinese vessels and facilities while also endangering safe navigation in the area.
Hua said Vietnam's actions have violated international laws, infringed on China's sovereignty and jurisdiction, and endangered navigational freedom
The ongoing disruptions by Vietnam are detrimental to regional peace and stability, prompting China to implement additional security measures to safeguard maritime operations and ensure safe navigation.
The US State Department, represented by spokeswoman Jen Psaki, expressed opposition to any provocative or unilateral actions that threaten peace and security in the South China Sea Additionally, the US criticized China's exploration activities, labeling them as "provocative and unhelpful" to the region's peace and stability.
Hua said the US has made irresponsible remarks over the maritime issues in recent days, which have encouraged some countries' provocative activities
She called on the United States to speak and act cautiously, stop making irresponsible remarks, and do more to safeguard regional peace and stability
Japanese Foreign Minister Fumio Kishida stated that Japan views China's drilling operations in the South China Sea as a threat to regional security He urged Beijing to provide clarity to Vietnam and the international community regarding the rationale behind its escalating maritime activities.
In response to Kishida's remarks, Hua said relevant Japanese officials should not make comments before figuring out basic facts
"Japan itself should respect the basic facts and international laws through concrete actions," she added
China formally protested to Vietnam following violent riots targeting Chinese companies, which were sparked by ongoing disputes in the South China Sea The unrest resulted in the deaths of at least two Chinese nationals and left over 100 others injured.
The riots have spread to central Vietnam, after thousands of people smashed and looted foreign plants in industrial zones in the country's south Tuesday
One casualty was caused in an overnight riot at an iron and steel complex in Ha Tinh Province, invested in by Taipei-based Formosa Plastics Group
Formosa reported that a strike by hundreds of Vietnamese workers at its plant escalated into violence, with workers attacking Chinese mainland employees and damaging offices and equipment, according to an AFP statement.
China 19th Metallurgical Corporation (MCC19), a contractor for construction of the plant, was one of the worst hit companies
"As we counted, the hospital has received 75 Chinese nationals, while the hospital says 101 are admitted," a high-ranking official with MCC19 was quoted by the Xinhua News Agency as saying
The official said the Chinese victims died before reaching hospital, and around 10 others still remain unaccounted for
Dang Quoc Khanh, a local official in the province, told state-run VTV that at least 149 people were injured, and police had arrested 76 people and opened an investigation
A worker from mainland China was discovered dead at a Taiwan-funded factory located in Binh Duong Province, southern Vietnam, according to David Chen, the former chairman of the Council of Taiwanese Chambers of Commerce in the region.
A staff member of a Chinese business association in Hanoi told the Global Times that there have been around 90 Chinese people injured in riots as far as they know
A recent report from Reuters indicates an increased death toll, citing a doctor from a hospital in Ha Tinh who confirmed that five Vietnamese workers and 16 individuals identified as Chinese lost their lives during rioting on Wednesday night.
However, Vietnam's foreign ministry spokesperson Le Hai Binh only confirmed one death in
Ha Tinh, and described media reports and accounts on social networking sites of higher casualties as "groundless," reported Reuters