Rationale
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has gained significant attention in recent years for its dual role in describing language and providing critical tools for resisting power dynamics Its effectiveness in revealing the interplay between language and power across diverse contexts has led to increased interest from language researchers globally.
Language stands as one of humanity's most significant inventions, serving as a vital communication tool for expressing thoughts, emotions, and attitudes As a social phenomenon, language reflects societal dynamics and practices From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), language is intricately linked to social structures, functioning as a socially-conditioned process within society (Fairclough, 2001).
Language plays a crucial role in politics, serving as a powerful tool for leaders to achieve their objectives The intricate relationship between language and power is evident in political speeches, which not only convey messages but also reflect the speaker's ideology and authority Through linguistic practices, politicians effectively communicate their agendas and influence public perception, highlighting the significant impact of language in the political arena.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) investigates social inequality by examining how discourse contributes to the dominance exerted by elites and institutions, leading to various forms of inequality, including political, cultural, class, ethnic, racial, and gender disparities (van Dijk, 1993) A significant aspect of this analysis is the exploration of gender as a critical social issue, reflecting the dynamics of dominance and inequality within different cultures.
The violation of women's rights is a critical global issue that has prompted numerous speeches, including notable remarks by Hillary Clinton Her 1995 speech stands out as a seminal address on the topic, while her 2013 speech serves as a reflection on the earlier one and has gained significant attention.
Numerous researchers have explored the connection between language and power by analyzing political speeches; however, most have focused on individual speeches This thesis aims to address this gap by examining two speeches simultaneously, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between language and power in political discourse.
The selection of Hillary Clinton's two speeches on women serves as the focal point for this study, allowing for an analysis through the lens of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).
Aims of the study and Research Questions
Aims of the study
Hillary Clinton's speeches on women in 1995 and 2013 reveal the evolution of feminist discourse and the underlying power dynamics through Fairclough's framework In her 1995 speech at the UN Fourth World Conference on Women, Clinton emphasizes the importance of women's rights as human rights, challenging patriarchal ideologies and advocating for gender equality on a global scale Conversely, her 2013 address reflects a more institutional approach, highlighting the progress made while acknowledging persistent inequalities, thus revealing the complexities of power structures within modern feminism Both speeches illustrate how language can reinforce or contest dominant ideologies, demonstrating the ongoing struggle for women's empowerment in different socio-political contexts.
- Find out changes in the way power and ideologies are shown in two speeches.
Research questions
To achieve the aims of the study, the following research questions have been posed:
1 How are ideologies and power lexically, syntactically and macro-structurally shown in two speeches on women by Hillary Clinton in 1995 and 2013?
2 Are there any changes in the way ideologies and power are shown in two speeches? If yes, what changes are they?
Scope of the study
This critical discourse analysis focuses on the written elements of two political speeches, examining relevant situational contexts to provide necessary background knowledge The study is primarily linguistic in nature, rather than political or social, and aims to conduct linguistic research for academic purposes through the analysis of these political speeches.
Design of the study
The study consists of three parts illustrated as follows:
Part A is the INTRODUCTION of the study which presents the rationale, scope, aims, methodology, and design of the study
Part B is the DEVELOPMENT which is made up of three chapters
Chapter 1: Theoretical background and literature review
This chapter gives an overview of CDA – its history, role, concepts, and procedure
Chapter 2 : Methodology of the study
This chapter provides a detailed description of the methodology, which includes research methods applied for data collection, the types of the data, and the analysis procedure of the study
Chapter 3: A critical discourse analysis of two speeches on women by Hillary
The CDA procedure, as outlined by Fairclough (2001), is utilized to analyze two speeches, revealing the intricate connections between power, ideology, and language This analysis aims to uncover both the similarities and differences in the representation of power and ideology across the two speeches.
Part C is the CONCLUSION which summarizes the major findings of the study, draws important conclusions, and offers suggestions for further research.
Significance of the study
This study theoretically supports Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) theories by revealing the ideologies and power dynamics embedded in language From a linguistic perspective, CDA analysts can uncover hidden meanings within texts Practically, this research contributes to the completion of my Master’s degree in English Linguistics Additionally, by analyzing two speeches concurrently, this study offers a novel approach to political speech analysis through the lens of CDA.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE
An overview of CDA
Before the 1970s, linguistic research was mostly concerned with the formal aspects of language, which are believed to theoretically be isolated from specific instances of language use (Chomsky, 1957)
The focus on the relationship between language and context, particularly in pragmatics, marked a significant shift towards understanding speakers' pragmatic and socio-linguistic competence In the 1970s, text and discourse analysis emerged, emphasizing the role of language in shaping power dynamics within society Prominent linguistic researchers, including Kress and Hodge (1979), Van Dijk (1985, 1993), and Fairclough (1995a, 1995b; with Wodak, 1997), significantly contributed to the foundational principles and procedures of what is now recognized as Critical Linguistics (CL).
In the 1990s, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) emerged as a unique linguistic theory, fundamentally altering the understanding of language (Kress, 1990, as cited in Wodak & Meyer, 2001, p 5) To this day, some linguists continue to use the terms Critical Linguistics (CL) and CDA interchangeably.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) examines discourse as a tool for shaping social reality, as noted by Leeuwen (1993) Rogers (2004) emphasizes that CDA encompasses not only the description and interpretation of discourse within its context but also an explanation of its functions This distinguishes CDA from other discourse analysis methods Wodak and Fairclough (1997) further assert that CDA views language as a social practice, focusing on how social variables like power abuse, dominance, and inequality are expressed, perpetuated, and challenged through texts and conversations in social and political contexts.
1.3 Some main directions in CDA
1.3.1 Van Dijk‘s Van Dijk (1988) does not see the discourse as an isolated textual and dialogic structure, but as a complicated communicative event embedding the social context Therefore, discourse, in his view, is not only simply investigated at phonological, morphological, grammatical and semantic level, but deeply approached by higher level properties such as coherence, themes, topics and the whole schematic and rhetorical dimensions of the texts
He also focuses on the ideology analysis of discourse and proposes a framework of discourse analysis as follows (1988b, p.61-63):
- Examining the context of the discourse: historical, political and social background of a
- conflict and its main participants
- Analyzing the groups, power relations and conflicts involved
- Identifying positive and negative opinions about US and THEM
- Making explicit the presupposed and the implied
- Examining all formal structures: lexical choice and syntactic structure, in a way that helps to (de)emphasize polarized group opinions
Van Dijk emphasizes the significance of news discourse in the press, applying his theory to real-world national and international news reports His analytical method focuses on three levels of news discourse production: structure, production, and comprehension processes, all of which are intertwined with their social context This relationship is examined through two analytical levels: microstructure, which addresses semantic relations, syntactic, lexical, and rhetorical elements that contribute to text coherence, and macrostructure, which involves analyzing thematic structures and the overarching schemata of news stories.
As Wodak and Ludwig (1999) state, language "manifests social processes and interaction" and "constitutes" those processes as well (p.12) Viewing language this way entails three things at least
Discourse inherently encompasses power dynamics and ideologies, as no interaction is free from prevailing power relations and the influence of values and norms Additionally, discourse is historical, linking current communicative events with those from the past, both synchronically and diachronically Furthermore, interpretation plays a crucial role, as highlighted by Wodak (2002), who emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary and multi-methodical approaches that utilize diverse empirical data and contextual information Consequently, individuals' interpretations of the same communicative event can vary significantly based on their unique backgrounds and knowledge.
The overall framework of this approach is seen in the four levels of contexts as follow (Wodak, 2002, p.68):
- The immediate language or text internal co-text;
- The inter-textual and inter-discursive relationships between utterances, texts, genres, and discourse;
- The extra-linguistic social/socio-logical variables and institutional frames of specific
- The broader socio-political and historical contexts, which the discursive practices are embedded in and related to
CDA has evolved significantly over the years, with Norman Fairclough emerging as a key figure in its development He argued that early contributions to critical linguistics (CL) overlooked the diverse interpretive practices of audiences, assuming that readers interpret texts in the same way as analysts Additionally, Fairclough noted that while earlier works provided detailed grammatical and lexical analyses, they often neglected the inter-textual relationships between texts.
"the linguistic analysis is very much focused upon clauses, with little attention to higher-level organization properties of whole texts" (p.28)
Fairclough (1995b) acknowledged the limitations of earlier critical linguistics (CL) while emphasizing its significant achievements, which highlight the evolution of theory over the years Today, critical discourse analysis (CDA) is not confined to a singular research direction but represents a collective perspective that includes various approaches However, as van Dijk (1998a) notes, the shared perspective and overarching goals of CDA allow for the identification of conceptual and theoretical frameworks that are closely interconnected.
This study adheres to Fairclough's (2001) framework, emphasizing the analysis of language as discourse and social practice through the interplay of texts, processes, and their social conditions It considers both the immediate situational context and the broader institutional and social structures Fairclough proposed a Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) procedure consisting of three key stages: Description, Interpretation, and Explanation, which have been adapted for this research.
This stage focuses on the text's formal properties, reflecting the unique choices made by individuals To uncover hidden meanings, embedded messages, and the speaker's ideology, Fairclough (2001) proposes a set of ten primary questions, along with sub-questions, addressing vocabulary, grammar, and textual structures (Refer to Appendix 3)
1 What experiential values do words have?
2 What relational values do words have?
3 What expressive values do words have?
5 What experiential values do grammatical features have?
6 What relational values do grammatical features have?
7 What expressive values do grammatical features have?
8 How are (simple) sentences linked together?
9 What interactional conventions are used?
10 What larger-scale structures does the text have?
Fairclough (2001) identifies three key terms—experiential, relational, and expressive—that highlight the formal features of texts Experiential values reveal how a text producer's experiences shape the content, allowing insights into their worldview through formal assessments Relational values indicate the perceived social dynamics between the text producer and the audience Additionally, expressive values reflect the producer's evaluations of the reality being represented Fairclough also introduces the concept of connective value, emphasizing the role of formal features in linking different parts of a text.
He also stresses that any given formal feature may simultaneously have two or three of these values
Macrostructures of discourse differ from microstructures, which involve the local elements like words, clauses, and sentences The search for macrostructures is based on the belief that a well-structured discourse conveys an overarching idea that the author intends to communicate When a text is effectively formed, this central idea is also grasped by the audience during reading or listening According to Van Dijk (Wodak & Meyer, 2001), 'semantic macrostructures' represent the global meanings or topics that encapsulate the essential information of a discourse and contribute to its overall coherence These macrostructures reflect the collective understanding that language users develop during both the production and comprehension of discourse.
The formal features of texts embody three key values linked to social practices, which can be influenced by power dynamics concerning content, relationships, and subjects These features have structural effects on knowledge, beliefs, social relationships, and identities However, it is important to note that one cannot directly deduce societal structural effects solely from a text's formal characteristics The significance of these textual features materializes only through social interactions Consequently, a thorough analysis is essential to understand the discourse processes and their reliance on underlying assumptions.
Interpretations arise from both the content of the text and the perspectives of the interpreter The text's formal features serve as cues that trigger aspects of the interpreter's member resources (MR), which encompass background knowledge, values, beliefs, and assumptions According to Fairclough, these resources also include the interpretative procedures applied to the text This process of interpretation can be visually summarized in a diagram.
Interpretative procedure (MR) Resources Interpreting
Phonology, grammar, Surface of utterance vocabulary
Semantics, pragmatics Meaning of utterance
This stage emphasizes discourse as both a social practice and process, illustrating its dependence on social structures and the cumulative effects it can have on them, whether reinforcing or transforming these structures.
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
Research questions restated
As presented previously, the study seeks the answer to the following research questions:
1 How are ideologies and power lexically, syntactically and macro-structurally shown in two speeches on women by Hillary Clinton in 1995 and 2013?
2 Are there any changes in the way ideologies and power are shown in two speeches? If yes, what changes are they?
Methods of the study
The data in the study tend to be discussed from the viewpoint of CDA framework given by Fairclough (2001) with three stages of analysis: Description, Interpretation and Explanation
This thesis employs a descriptive qualitative research approach, utilizing key methods such as literature review, supervisor consultations, and document analysis In descriptive research, manipulation is unnecessary, as accurate and relevant information is gathered directly from the existing conditions of the phenomena under study.
Referencing to publications is chosen as the first and foremost techniques because it provides theoretical background and empirical bases for discussions and conclusions in the study
Engaging in discussions and consultations with the supervisor significantly contributes to the successful completion of the study The supervisor's insightful suggestions and constructive feedback not only motivate the researcher but also guide them in the right direction.
The study utilizes textual data derived from a speech transcript, making document and material analysis an essential technique for effective interpretation.
Data of the study
The data of the study is the underlying power and ideologies embedded in two speeches on women delivered by Hillary Clinton in 1995 and 2013
On September 5 th , 1995, Hillary Clinton, the American First Lady at that time, delivered a speech called ―Women‟s rights are human rights‖ at the United Nations
The 4th World Conference in Beijing, China, brought together representatives from over 180 countries and thousands of human rights advocates to witness a pivotal speech that ignited a global movement for human rights.
Hillary Clinton's impactful remarks at the Beijing conference were only possible after overcoming significant opposition, particularly from her husband Bill Clinton's White House The administration was hesitant to allow her attendance due to the delicate political climate and ongoing efforts to normalize relations with China following the 1989 Tiananmen Square massacre They feared that her advocacy for women's rights would provoke the sensitive Chinese government and jeopardize diplomatic relations Additionally, they contended that as First Lady, she should refrain from criticizing foreign governments while visiting their country, as it was deemed undiplomatic.
The arrest of prominent American-Chinese human rights activist Harry Wu worsened the situation, leading Hillary Clinton to announce she would not deliver her speech unless the Chinese government released him Ultimately, Wu was released, allowing Clinton to attend the event in Beijing, where she delivered a pivotal speech that significantly advanced international women's rights advocacy.
Her determination and consistency in overcoming obstacles made her highly anticipated presence and speech at the conference impactful She emphasized that women's issues are fundamentally human issues, urging governments, organizations, and individuals to champion gender equality and combat abuses against women The speech resonated deeply, garnering loud applause and capturing the attention of global leaders, citizens, and media Delivered during a diplomatic mission in China, a country often resistant to these ideals, her message gained even greater significance on the world stage.
At the 2013 Women in World Summit in New York, nearly two decades after the historic Beijing women's conference, Hillary Clinton provided a comprehensive assessment of global women's equality, highlighting both the significant advancements achieved and the ongoing challenges that remain as the 20th anniversary approaches.
Both speeches emphasize women's rights and the human rights violations they face, with the 2013 speech building on the foundation laid in 1995 The later address highlights the importance of empowering women and ensuring their full and equal participation in political, economic, and social advancements Clinton's calls for global women's rights in these speeches reveal the intricate relationship between language and power, showcasing how linguistic forms can convey deeper ideologies.
This study critically analyzes the 1995 speech in comparison to the 2013 speech, aiming to uncover the underlying intentions and ideologies It also seeks to identify any changes in how the speaker exerts power and expresses their beliefs over time.
Analysis procedure of the study
The study is attached to CDA approach and is carried out following some basic stages:
The initial phase of the research involves conducting a comprehensive literature review to develop a clear understanding of the issues pertinent to the research topic This process includes gathering, analyzing, and interpreting a variety of reference materials, studies, and articles related to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and the thesis theme.
In the second stage, we will gather essential information from the speeches on women delivered by Hillary Clinton The collected data will be meticulously analyzed using suitable analytical tools to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the introduced aspects.
A thorough analysis and investigation are conducted to uncover the underlying ideologies and hidden meanings in two speeches It is crucial to compare these speeches to assess their similarities and differences, specifically examining how the 2013 speech aligns with, supports, develops, or contrasts with the 1995 speech.
Negative terms – Women rights violations
The situational context that affects the choice of vocabulary
The effect of the discourse (the choice of vocabulary) at the institutional level and societal level
Personal pronouns: the use of ‗we‘ and
Voice : the use of active and passive
The situational context that affects the choice of voice and personal pronouns
The effect of discourse (the choice of voice and personal pronouns) at the institutional and societal level voice
Large - scale structure : list of macro-structure statements
The situational context that affects the use of large-scale structure
The effect of discourse (the choice of large-scale structure) at the institutional and societal level
A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF THE TWO
Description
Fairclough's Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) framework emphasizes three key aspects of language: Vocabulary, Grammar, and Textual structures This framework includes a selective set of 10 main questions and sub-questions In this study, the analysis focuses on two specific speeches, aiming to highlight the most significant features relevant for critical analysis, based on the researcher’s expertise.
According to Faiclough (2001), description is the initial stage of text analysis, focusing on linguistic features such as vocabulary, grammar, and interaction structure The choice of words and grammatical structures serves as a tool to convey ideological and communicative implications Analyzing vocabulary is crucial, as Van Dijk (cited in Wodak R and Meyer, 2001) emphasizes that lexical meanings, or "local meanings," arise from the interplay between individual understandings and shared societal beliefs These meanings significantly shape the attitudes and opinions of recipients, making them easily recalled and reproduced Van Dijk further categorizes lexical selection into positive and negative terms, reflecting in-group and out-group dynamics, which are instrumental in asserting power and ideology through positive self-presentation and negative out-presentation.
Fairclough (2001) discusses the role of lexical selection in shaping ideology, viewing it as a reservoir of ideological influence He categorizes vocabulary into three types of value: experiential, relational, and expressive In particular, he highlights the significance of experiential vocabulary value, focusing on classification schemes rather than simplistic in-group and out-group distinctions.
The analysis of two speeches highlights contrasting classification schemes: one focused on "Women Rights," emphasizing terms that advocate for equal treatment of women, and the other on "Women Rights Violations," which includes vocabulary that illustrates mistreatment of women A detailed examination of the lexical choices in both speeches supports this strategy, with a comprehensive list of vocabulary usage provided in Appendix 4.
The initial analysis of the two speeches reveals the speaker's strong advocacy for women's dignity, equality, and respect, alongside a critical stance on the violations of women's rights A vocabulary classification indicates that the 1995 speech employs a higher frequency of negative terms associated with "women's rights violations," encompassing various verbs, nouns, and adjectives.
In her 2013 speech, the emphasis on positive language significantly surpasses that of negative terms, contrasting sharply with her 1995 address, which primarily highlighted the ignorance and violations of women's rights While it is evident that the 2013 speech celebrates women's achievements, a deeper analysis of Clinton's word choices reveals important insights into her evolving perspective on gender issues.
1.2.1 The use of ―I‖ and ―we‖ pronouns Not only does the choice of lexicon play an important role in delivering power and ideologies embedded but grammatical features are said to mark the same point in the discourse In the discussion of relational values, the frequency of pronouns ―I‖ and ―we‖ used in two speeches is shown in the following table:
Table 1: Frequency of pronoun ―I‖ and ―We‖ in 1995 and 2013 Speech
The analysis of the provided table reveals that the pronouns "I" and "we" are the most frequently used in both speeches, with a notable preference for "we." While "I" distinctly refers to the speaker, Hillary Clinton, the context of each speech influences the choice of pronoun, highlighting how the setting impacts their usage.
―we‖ particularly directs A deeper investigation and interpretation will be taken to unveil the strategy of the way the speaker uses pronouns in her speech in the next parts
In her opening remarks at the conference, Hillary Clinton conveys her deep gratitude and pride for the invitation, recognizing it as a valuable opportunity to share her insights with the audience.
Earlier today, I participated in … Tomorrow, I will attend… (S 17, 19 )
Over the past 25 years, I have worked persistently on … Over the past two and a half years, I've had the opportunity… (Ss 26 -27)
I want to speak up for … (S 45)
At an international conference in Beijing, Hillary emphasized her identity as a member of the women's community, using inclusive language to connect with a diverse audience from various countries.
Pronoun ―We‖ 36 55 them She talks about the way women in every corner of the world join hands and come together, or the way they share common things:
To be more, being a woman, the speaker shares that she, like others, takes the responsibility to take care of family members, but their work is not valued:
We are primary caretakers for most of the world‟s children and elderly Yet much of the work we do is not valued… (Ss 36 - 37)
We come together in fields and factories, in living markets and supermarkets, in living rooms and board rooms (S 5)
….we come together and talk about our aspirations and concern (S 6)
… and we are here to find common ground so that we may bring dignity and respect to women … (S 9)
By gathering in Beijing, we are focusing world attention on issues that matter most in our lives … (S 10)
At this very moment, as we sit here, women around the world are giving birth, raising children, … (S.38)
We need to understand … We must respect….We must recognize… (Ss.48, 49, 51)
It is time for us to say here in Beijing… to discuss women‟s rights as separate from human rights (S.60)
But we also been reminded, in V-J Day,… We have seen peace prevail in most places
… We have avoided another world war But we have not solved older and deeply- rooted problems… (Ss 84, 85, 86, 87)
If we take bold steps to better lives of the women, we will be taking bold steps t better the lives of children and families, too (S.89)
We must move beyond rhetoric We must move beyond recognition … (Ss.98, 99)
In her 2013 speech, Hillary Clinton emphasized the importance of personal experience by using the pronoun "I" to connect with her audience, similar to her 1995 address She expressed her honor in attending the Women in the World Summit, where she shared her insights and experiences, highlighting the significance of women's empowerment and advocacy.
I did see some faces and I know that … (S.4)
I have always believed that … (S 8) And when I became Secretary of State, I was determined to … (S 10)
Hillary recognizes that women's issues are both national and international challenges, central to her mission and the concerns of many She understands that empowering women to realize their untapped potential and human rights is not solely her responsibility, but a collective duty This awareness prompts her to shift from using the pronoun "I" to a more inclusive perspective.
―we‖, which appears throughout the speech
But I knew to do that, I couldn‟t ….We had to reach out … We had to make the case…
…we are meeting at a remarkable moment of confluence (S 31)
We clearly see that … (S 45) We‟ve seen that … (S 89)
We are the richest and most powerful country in the world (S 133)
The active and passive voice in language provides flexibility in sentence construction, with passive forms influenced by social factors like gender, social status, and political bias This relationship indicates that passivization is connected to underlying ideological meanings, reflecting the speaker's or writer's intentions The passive voice is particularly favored when emphasizing the action rather than the doer.
Sometimes, the speaker or writer opts for passive ones for the purpose of avoiding pointing out the agent because of some particular reasons
The table below shows the number and percentage of active and passive sentences used in the two speeches chosen for analysis:
Times appeared Percentage (%) Times appeared Percentage (%)
Table 2: Frequency of active and passive voice in 1993 and 1995 Speech
In both speeches analyzed, active clauses significantly outnumber passive ones The 1995 speech features passive clauses at less than 20%, totaling 36 out of 209 clauses In contrast, the 2013 speech shows a marked decrease in passive usage, with only 8% of the 331 clauses being passive This decline in passive voice in the 2013 speech, compared to the 1995 speech, highlights a shift in the speaker's approach to conveying her intentions, which will be further explored in the study.
In the course of doing discourse analysis, macrostructure of the text cannot be ignored for it plays a fundamental role in communication and interaction
To grasp the speaker's ideological intention, it's crucial to analyze the macrostructure of their discourse Speakers cannot retain every detail, so they organize their thoughts around overarching themes Likewise, listeners focus on specific details to discern the speaker's main points, which significantly influence subsequent discourse and actions By examining the microstructure, we can uncover the social relevance of topics within interactions and the broader social context.
In examining the both speeches, a list of macro-structural statements in each speech can be done respectively as follows M stands for micro-statement in the speech
State the women‘s roles in and contributions to families and societies Assert her belonging to women community
Interpretation
In Fairclough's framework, the interpretation stage of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) examines the surface and utterance meanings, local coherence, text structure, and the underlying 'point' of a text While previous sections have covered key linguistic forms, this section will emphasize the connection between formal features and their interaction within the discourse.
As for the interpretation on context, there are two domains: situational context and inter-textual context
Specific communicative situations can lead to ideologically biased discourse To uncover the underlying ideologies and power dynamics within written language, it is essential to analyze the situational context, including the participants involved, the nature of the interactions, their relationships, and the role of language itself.
Both speeches address women's rights at a conference, focusing on informing and presenting political viewpoints However, their purposes differ significantly The 1995 speech highlights the ongoing violations of women's rights and calls for immediate action, while the 2013 speech reviews the progress made over nearly two decades and advocates for the continued respect and protection of women's rights Ultimately, the speaker emphasizes that "women's rights are human rights," urging individuals to stand against violations and advocate for those still suffering globally.
In addressing the question of who is involved, it's important to note that the context, location, and timing of the two speeches differ significantly, leading to varied subject positions Hillary Clinton, then the First Lady of the United States, delivered a pivotal speech at the 1995 United Nations 4th Conference on Women Plenary Session in Beijing, China This event was attended by representatives from the Chinese government, over 180 countries, various organizations, and thousands of advocates, all united in the mission to affirm that women's rights are indeed human rights.
That Clinton made her speech was unexpected by Chinese government; consequently, when she made it, they blocked it out from being heard within China
The speech initially appeared to target only the attendees of the conference; however, its significant impact led to widespread international dissemination Consequently, the audience expanded beyond just the representative leaders and participants, reaching women and advocates for women's rights globally.
In 2013, a significant speech was delivered at the Women at the World Summit in America, reaching audiences nationwide The addresses aimed to engage both conference attendees and the broader American public.
In analyzing the dynamics of power and social relationships, it's essential to consider the context in which a speaker operates Hillary Clinton's speeches in 1995 and 2013 illustrate her evolving subject position, transitioning from First Lady to Former Secretary of State and Senator This journey underscores her prominence in political power, establishing her as a credible speaker with significant authority Clinton skillfully tailors her discourse and language to resonate with her audience, strategically exerting her influence to convey her ideology and messages By positioning herself as a woman political leader, she not only asserts her own authority but also embodies the voice of women globally.
Language serves as a vital channel for conveying messages, as demonstrated in Clinton's 1995 speech advocating for women's rights and addressing human rights issues Similarly, the 2015 speech highlights women's achievements while emphasizing their untapped potential in the economy and politics In both instances, the speaker utilizes spoken words to advocate for gender equality and the protection of women's rights.
2.2 Interpretation of inter-textual context
Fairclough (2001) asserts that discourses and their associated texts have historical backgrounds and belong to specific historical series Understanding the inter-textual context involves determining the series to which a text belongs, which in turn establishes the common ground or presuppositions shared by participants.
Presupposition plays a crucial role in the interpretation stage of communication, reflecting the speaker's assumptions about the audience's prior knowledge and what remains unknown In her important speeches, Hillary Clinton strategically incorporates presuppositions to ensure her messages resonate with listeners, making her intentions more accessible and engaging.
The 2013 speech serves as a reflection on the 1995 address, inherently relying on its foundational themes Both speeches are lengthy and laden with presuppositions; thus, I aim to highlight specific instances where ideology is distinctly woven in, significantly influencing the audience's perception and understanding.
In 1995 speech, Clinton assumes that the listeners have understanding about the reality women have been mistreated over years S stands for ―sentence‖:
The great challenge of this conference is to give voice to women everywhere whose experiences go unnoticed, whose words go unheard(S.34)
Even now, in the late 20th century, the rape of women continues to be used as an instrument of armed conflict (S 56 )
As long as discrimination and inequities remain so commonplace everywhere in the world, … (S 92)
Discussions on women's discrimination have persisted for centuries, with conferences attracting hundreds of political leaders and human rights advocates These participants are acutely aware of the unequal rights and abuses faced by women and girls This foundational understanding enables them to grasp and interpret the ideologies presented by the speakers effectively.
The article emphasizes the belief that women deserve equal rights and opportunities, asserting that the protection and advancement of women's rights is a fundamental principle that must be acknowledged and respected.
Every woman has the right to define her own path in life, and it is essential to respect the unique choices she makes for herself and her family Each woman deserves the opportunity to fulfill her God-given potential However, true dignity for women can only be achieved when their human rights are fully respected and protected.
In his 1995 speech, Clinton highlighted the neglect and abuse faced by women and girls, emphasizing their vulnerability Fast forward to 2013, the speaker reiterated that the harsh treatment of women continues to persist, underscoring the ongoing struggle for gender equality and the need for societal change.
Explanation
The objective of the explanation stage is to illustrate discourse as a social practice influenced by social structures, highlighting its capacity to either uphold or transform these structures This relationship is mediated by media representations (MR), which shape discourse, while discourses simultaneously impact MR, leading to changes in social structures (Fairclough, 2001)
This article examines how the discourse of speakers functions within social processes at both institutional and societal levels, highlighting its ideological influence on power relations and struggles.
At the institutional level, there exists a conflict between advocates for women's rights and governments and organizations that have committed violations against these rights.
The context and setting of a speech are crucial, especially in confrontational situations involving sensitive diplomatic matters In such scenarios, speakers are often expected to focus on constructive remarks while steering clear of harsh criticisms that could escalate tensions between nations The speaker initially succeeded by highlighting women's contributions and expressing solidarity with them However, the audience was taken aback when she shifted to a detailed account of the severe treatment of women and the ongoing violations of their rights.
The article explores the contrast between advocating for women's equal rights and highlighting the pervasive inequalities they face Clinton emphasizes global abuses, such as wartime rape in Bosnia and the tragic burning of brides in India over dowry disputes, while underscoring the significant gender discrimination in China, which has faced international scrutiny Although her speech displeased the Chinese government, it did not lead to diplomatic fallout; instead, it garnered her respect from global leaders and human rights advocates Clinton successfully conveys a powerful message, urging not only China but all nations to recognize women's rights as human rights, showcasing her capability to address foreign relations challenges directly and influence change.
Hillary Clinton effectively represents the women's community, addressing the long-standing societal perception of women as inferior to men Women have historically faced significant barriers in education, employment, property rights, politics, and family planning By speaking at the conference, Clinton amplifies the voices of those who have been silenced, positioning herself as both a representative and a member of a group that constitutes half of the global population This approach fosters solidarity and a shared sense of purpose among the audience, allowing her to establish credibility and gain their trust Consequently, she successfully persuades the audience to resonate with her remarks and conclusions.
Approximately 20 years after the history speech, she was back addressing the same assembly on the same issues At that time, she was a former first lady, a former senator, and former Secretary of State Since leaving the State Department in early
In 2013, shortly before her impactful speech, she became actively involved with the Hillary & Chelsea Clinton Foundation, collaborating with the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to promote women's rights Throughout this period, she delivered numerous speeches advocating for women's empowerment and highlighted women's issues as a central focus of her work Her 2013 speech served as a reaffirmation of her commitment to women's rights, initially established in her 1995 address, while also emphasizing the political, economic, and societal advancements women have achieved over the years.
The 1995 speech marked her initial foray into political engagement, while the 2013 address solidified her status as a credible political leader The impactful nature of her 1995 speech, along with her significant contributions to women's rights, enhanced the appeal and persuasiveness of her 2013 remarks Speaking directly to an audience of political leaders, organizations, and human rights advocates, she reinforced her commitment to women's empowerment and established her leadership presence This speech has generated considerable discussion regarding her potential as a future presidential candidate.
In her speech, Clinton elevates her public image while passionately advocating for women's rights, positioning herself as a powerful representative of American women She emphasizes the need for greater equality, noting that while American women enjoy more rights and opportunities than many in other countries, they still deserve more Clinton calls for women's empowerment across various sectors, including politics, economics, and societal advancement Her message reinforces her influence as a women's rights activist and effectively resonates on a global scale.
This article has extensively examined textual descriptions and analyses to reveal the underlying ideologies and power dynamics within discourse In this section, we will summarize the key points and offer implications and suggestions for future research.
Summary of findings
This study utilizes Fairclough's (2001) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) framework, which includes three key stages: Description, Interpretation, and Explanation It focuses on two significant speeches by Hillary Clinton regarding women, delivered in 1995 and 2013 The analysis demonstrates how Clinton effectively uses discourse to convey her power and ideologies By applying the theoretical framework, the study uncovers the intricate relationship between power, ideology, and language in her speeches.
It is safe to say that the speaker has taken careful preparations and considerations in the use of language that leads to her success of her speeches
To some extent, I managed to seek the answer to research questions posed previously, which will be summarized as follows:
In her speeches, the speaker effectively contrasts vocabulary related to women's rights and violations, highlighting her strong condemnation of mistreatment and oppression in 1995 By using negative terms, she underscores the harsh realities faced by women globally In contrast, her 2013 speech reflects a shift towards positive language that emphasizes equal rights and opportunities, showcasing her satisfaction with advancements in women's empowerment This lexical choice illustrates her advocacy for equality and her firm disapproval of discrimination against women, calling for continued action to promote women's advancement.
The speaker's power and ideologies are conveyed through grammatical features, particularly the use of pronouns like "I" and "we." By utilizing "I," Clinton demonstrates her understanding of the issues at hand, showcasing her competence and self-confidence as a political leader This pronoun choice reflects her commitment to addressing women's problems both nationally and globally In contrast, the frequent use of "we" in her speeches fosters a sense of solidarity and collective support, uniting people in the fight for gender equality and equal treatment for women.
In analyzing the use of voice in speeches, it is evident that active forms are generally preferred over passive constructions However, a comparison of speeches from 1995 and 2013 reveals a higher frequency of passive voice in the former This shift can be attributed to the speech's purpose; by employing passive clauses, Clinton emphasizes the plight of mistreated women, subtly critiquing the Chinese government, the conference's host, for its inadequate respect and protection of women's rights.
It can be stated that the First Lady of America proves her skill, wisdom and tactfulness in performing diplomatic purposes
Macro-structures significantly influence how power and ideologies are conveyed in discourse The 1995 speech highlights the urgent issues surrounding women's problems and critiques the severe abuses they endure, while the 2013 speech focuses on celebrating achievements and advocating for the continued advancement of women's rights Both speeches emphasize the importance of women's empowerment in economic, political, and societal development, calling for decisive actions to protect and promote women's rights.
The analysis of both speeches reveals similarities in the portrayal of power and ideologies, but the situational context significantly influences the speaker's impact The 1995 speech, delivered in Beijing, China—a country known for its authoritarian regime and gender discrimination—was made under considerable pressure, as she faced disapproval even from her own government This challenging environment heightened the emotional resonance of her words, making the speech particularly powerful In contrast, the 2013 speech took place in New York, her home country, with an audience primarily composed of Americans This familiar setting, combined with her established credibility and the legacy of her 1995 address, bolstered her persuasive power, allowing her to effectively communicate the vital message that "human rights are women's rights, and women's rights are human rights, once and for all."
Limitations of the study and Recommendations for further study
This study marks the researcher's first foray into critical discourse analysis of political speeches, highlighting both its achievements and inherent limitations Due to constraints in time and resources, the analysis is restricted to certain textual features, overlooking significant aspects such as modality and the use of pathos to engage the audience emotionally Additionally, the research compares two speeches by the same speaker, indicating a gap for future exploration Future studies could focus on analyzing speeches addressing the same issue from different speakers, thereby uncovering similarities and differences in the portrayal of power and ideology.
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1 Hillary Rodham Clinton: Remarks to the U.N 4th World Conference on Women
Plenary Session Retrieved from http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/hillaryclintonbeijingspeech.htm
2 Hillary Clinton: Helping women isn‟t a “nice” thing to do Retrieved from http://www.thedailybeast.com/witw/articles/2013/04/05/hillary-clinton-helping- women-isn-t-just-a-nice-thing-to-do.html
Hillary Clinton’s Remarks to the U.N 4th World Conference on Women Plenary Session
(1) Thank you very much, Gertrude Mongella, for your dedicated work that has brought us to this point, distinguished delegates, and guests:
I would like to express my gratitude to the Secretary General for inviting me to the significant United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women This event is a celebration of the vital contributions women make across all areas of life, including their roles as mothers, wives, sisters, daughters, learners, workers, citizens, and leaders in the home, workplace, and community.
Women unite daily across the globe, gathering in diverse spaces such as fields, factories, markets, and homes In these moments—whether playing in parks, washing clothes, or chatting at the office—we share our hopes and concerns, often focusing on our families and children Despite our differences, our shared experiences highlight the commonalities that bind us Together, we strive to create a future that honors and empowers women and girls worldwide, ultimately fostering strength and stability within families.
Gathering in Beijing highlights critical global issues impacting women and their families, including access to education, healthcare, employment opportunities, and credit It emphasizes the importance of basic legal and human rights, as well as the necessity for women to engage fully in the political landscape of their nations.
Some may question the purpose of this conference, but they should listen to the voices of women in their communities The significance of women's lives to global economic and political progress cannot be overlooked Observing the diverse women present—homemakers, nurses, teachers, lawyers, policymakers, and entrepreneurs—highlights their crucial roles Conferences like this are essential for urging governments and societies to confront the world's most pressing issues It was, after all, the women's conference in Nairobi a decade ago that brought the crisis of domestic violence into the global spotlight for the first time.
Today, I attended a World Health Organization forum focused on the collaborative efforts of government officials, NGOs, and citizens to tackle health issues affecting women and girls Tomorrow, I will join a gathering of the United Nations Development Fund for Women, where we will discuss successful local programs that provide hardworking women with access to credit, enabling them to enhance their lives and support their families.
Empowering women through health, education, and freedom from violence is crucial for the prosperity of families, which in turn leads to thriving communities and nations When women are given equal opportunities to work and contribute to society, the positive impact extends beyond individual households to benefit everyone Therefore, it is essential for every individual, family, and nation to engage in this vital conversation.
For the past 25 years, I have dedicated myself to addressing issues affecting women, children, and families Recently, in the last two and a half years, I have gained deeper insights into the challenges that women face both in my country and globally.
I have encountered inspiring mothers in Indonesia who gather to discuss nutrition and baby care, working parents in Denmark who find peace in safe after-school programs for their children, and women in South Africa who are pivotal in building a new democracy post-apartheid Additionally, I have met dedicated leaders in my hemisphere advocating for children's literacy and health, as well as women in India and Bangladesh using small loans to establish livelihoods Furthermore, I have spoken with healthcare professionals in Belarus and Ukraine striving to support children affected by the Chernobyl disaster.
The conference aims to amplify the voices of women globally, highlighting the often-overlooked experiences and perspectives of those whose contributions remain unrecognized Women represent over half of the world's population, constitute 70% of the impoverished, and account for two-thirds of the illiterate As primary caregivers for children and the elderly, their essential work is frequently undervalued by economists, historians, popular culture, and government officials.
Women worldwide are actively engaged in various roles, from giving birth and raising children to managing businesses and leading nations However, they also face significant challenges, including preventable diseases, child malnutrition due to poverty, and denial of education by male family members Additionally, many women are coerced into prostitution, denied access to financial resources, and excluded from participating in the electoral process.
We have a duty to advocate for those who cannot speak for themselves As an American, I aim to represent the struggles of women in my country—those raising children on minimum wage, unable to afford healthcare or childcare, and facing threats of violence, often within their own homes.
I advocate for mothers striving for quality education, safe neighborhoods, and clean environments; for older women, including widows, whose skills and experiences are overlooked after raising families; for those working night shifts as nurses, hotel clerks, or fast food chefs to be present for their children during the day; and for all women who struggle to manage the countless demands placed upon them daily.
Today, I voice the struggles of women globally who are denied basic rights such as education, healthcare, property ownership, and autonomy, solely due to their gender It is essential to recognize that the majority of women worldwide engage in work both at home and in the workforce, often out of necessity.