CADRE THEORIQUE
Causalité
Causality can be understood as a direct and straightforward connection to a cause; however, this concept is quite broad and encompasses multiple fields, making it challenging to provide a comprehensive definition.
A Jackiewicz a même parlé de la “pluralité de points de vue” dans l’étude de la causalité
The concept of causality serves as both a research subject and an investigative tool, attracting interest from various disciplines such as physics, biology, medicine, philosophy, sociology, psychology, linguistics, and artificial intelligence, each adopting its own terminology and models (Jackiewicz, 1998) Jackiewicz has compiled tables that illustrate multiple definitions and criteria proposed across different fields to define causality While this research does not aim to fully explore the concept, these synthetic tables provide a valuable reference for gaining a clearer understanding of the term.
N 0 Auteur Définitions ou critères définitoires
Quatre causes: cause formelle, cause matérielle, cause efficiente, cause finale
2 De Descartes à Kant (1780/1781), à Meyerson, et à Brunschvicg (1922)
Le lien causal (passage objectif, mais non sensible entre la cause et l’effet) est reconstitué par l’intelligence (causa seu ratio)
Spinoza (1661-1677) defines an adequate cause as one whose effect can be clearly and distinctly perceived through itself, while an inadequate or partial cause is one whose effect cannot be fully understood without additional context This distinction highlights the difference between formal causes and those that lack complete explanatory power.
4 Hume (1739-1740) Succession régulière; impression subjective de connexion nécessaire
5 Russell (1912) Rejette la notion de cause en science moderne
Roman Ingarden (1948) distinguishes between direct and indirect causes, stating that if there is a defined time interval during which a certain cause C no longer exists and a certain effect E has not yet occurred, then E cannot be considered the effect of C Instead, E may be the effect of another cause C', which, in turn, is the effect of a different sequence of events.
The concept of direct causation arises when a specific cause, denoted as C, leads directly to an effect, referred to as C' This relationship is established when the time lapse between the cause and effect is negligible and all other conditions for a causal relationship are satisfied In such cases, we identify the cause as direct.
Critères d’identification des causes et des raisons:
(1) Hétérogénéité logique, (2) Connaissance avec ou sans observation (expérimentation), (3) L’allongement possible des chaợnes de causes et de raisons, (4) Rốgles d’interprétation et normes d’exécution
8 John Stuart Mill (1974) Notion de cause totale (“the whole cause”)
D Davidson (1982) identifies two levels of analysis: the first focuses on the direct causal relationship between events that can be observed without explanation, while the second involves a layered causal explanation that can be articulated in various theoretical languages, including competing frameworks.
Jean Largeault (1985, 1990) suggests that defining the concept of a cause may be futile, as it is instinctive to think of it as something that exerts influence He identifies two primary perspectives on causation: the idealist (or positivist) view and the realist approach.
11 Dretske (1988, 1993a) Causes déclenchantes et causes structurantes
12 Jean-Franỗois Bordron (1996) “Une cause ne peut ne pas agir Un agent peut suspendre toute action.”
Tableau 1.1: Définitions ou critères définitoires de la causalité (philosophie)
N 0 Auteur Définitions ou critères définitoires
13 Emile Durkheim (1897) Dans son étude sur les causes du suicide, il déclare inintéressante pour le sociologue la prise en compte des itinéraires individuels des suicidés, menant à des
“insolubles problèmes de casuistique” Seules sont valables les “vraies causes déterminantes” d’ordre social, mises en évidence dans des analyses statistiques
14 Serge Moscovici (1979) Distinction entre causalité primaire (les imputations: recours spontané, recherche des intentions) et causalité dérivée (les attributions: opération d’objectivation)
15 Uli Windisch (1982) Cinq formes logico-discursives de l’explication causale: la causalité segmentée, la causalité circulaire, la causalité contingente, la sursaturation causale, la causalité multiple
16 Albert Michotte (1946) Causalité perceptive Michotte étend le domaine de la causalité à la perception elle-même
Jean Piaget (1950) emphasizes that the perception of efficiency, which varies in its anthropomorphic and formalized aspects, is fundamentally linked to causality This connection provides a strong explanatory power and psychological impact, rooted in the scheme of one's own actions.
Tableau 1.2: Définitions ou critères définitoires de la causalité (sociologie et psychologie)
En statistiques, mathématiques et Intelligence Artificielle (IA)
N 0 Auteur Définition ou critères définitoires
18 Patrick Suppes (Suppes 81) (approche bayésienne)
Définit formellement trois notions causales: cause prima facie, cause fallacieuse et cause véritable (genuine cause); citons la définition de la première:
“l’événement B est une cause prima facie de l’événement A si et seulement si (i) l’événement B se produit avant A; (ii) la probabilité (conditionnelle) que
A se produise lorsque B s’est produit est supérieure à la probabilité (non conditionnelle) de l’arrivée de A”
Le cours des phénomènes offre une causalité-spectacle qui consiste en concomitances ou en consécutions plus ou moins constantes Indépendamment de l’homme il n’y a pas de cohérence causale dans l’univers
Causes are events or factors that alter the likelihood of future occurrences Discussing causality involves examining nature's predictive capabilities.
21 Roger Schank, Robert Abelson (1975, 1977) (IA)
Distinction entre le résultat, la raison, la permissibilité, puis l’empêchement et l’initialisation
Tableau 1.3: Définitions ou critères définitoires de la causalité
N 0 Auteur Définition ou critères définitoires
Jean Ullmo (1967) defines causality in its broadest sense as the attribution of events and phenomena to identifiable objects that are capable of producing them, with laws governing their manifestation and progression over time.
23 Mario Bunge (1971) Une relation causale doit satisfaire aux conditions suivantes:
The relationship must involve at least two distinct systems, with causes and effects consistently linked together There should be a positive or zero time lag between the cause and its effect, and the feedback from the determined to the determinant should be minimal Additionally, there should be no spontaneous effects, and the causes and effects must have a one-to-one relationship.
Tableau 1.4: Définitions et critères définitoires de la causalité (physique)
En logique naturelle et argumentation
N 0 Auteur Définition ou critères définitoires
24 Jean Blaise Grize (1990) Distinction entre une liaison causale, établie dans une explication, et un lien logique de raison à conséquence qui correspond à une justification (deux valeurs de parce que)
Causal links facilitate three types of arguments: first, they connect two successive events through a causal relationship; second, they aim to identify a cause that may have determined a given event; and third, they highlight the effects that should result from a given event.
26 Christian Plantin (1990, 1996) “La connaissance causale intervient sous diverses formes en argumentation, et il faut distinguer les argumentations établissant une relation causale des argumentations exploitant une relation causale.”
“L’argumentation est dans la cause qu’il construit”
Tableau 1.5: Définitions ou critères définitoires de la causalité
Dans les encyclopédies et dictionnaires
N 0 Source Définition ou critères définitoires
Causalité, principe suivant lequel “tout ce qui arrive a une cause par laquelle il arrive”
Causation: désigne l’opération même de la cause, l’effectivité de la production de l’effet
Cause efficace: fait d’un ờtre exerỗant une action, la cause efficiente est la cause à proprement parler”
Regardless, the "cause" always answers the question of "why," a multifaceted inquiry that allows for a wide range of classifications and the ability to adapt the typology of various causes according to the requirements of each philosophical perspective.
29 Le Robert: Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue franỗaise (1991)
Causalité: rapport de la cause à l’effet qu’elle produit
Causation: rapport entre cause et effet; pouvoir d’agir en tant que cause
Cause: (1) ce qui produit un effet; (2) ce par quoi un événement arrive, une action se fait; (3) ce pour quoi on fait quelque chose
30 Encyclopaedia Universalis, Causalité (philosophie) par Bertrand Saint-Sernin (1993)
“Le principe de causalité peut être envisagé de deux points de vue radicalement différents; ou bien on suppose que notre raison saisit la réalité et le mot
"Causality" refers to a set of relationships among things, encompassing their permanence, succession, and interactions It can also signify not just an inherent property of these things but rather a way of understanding phenomena that we experience, which may be significant or outdated.
Tableau 1.6: Définitions ou critères définitoires de la causalité (encyclopédies et dictionnaires)
N 0 Auteur Définition ou critères définitoires
31 James D McCawley (1968) Mise en évidence d’un prédicat CAUSE qui entrerait dans la signification des verbes de causation de changement:
Immediate components of a causative situation consist of two micro-situations connected by a causal relationship Nedjalkov identifies several types of causation: factitive causation, which implies necessity; permissive causation, indicating possibility; prohibitive causation, representing prevention or prohibition; contact causation, which involves physical interaction; indirect causation, occurring without direct contact; and discursive causation, which involves communication.
33 Masayoshi Schibatani (1976) voir aussi James D
“a The relation between the two events is such that the speaker believes that the occurrence of one event, the
Catégorisations des marqueurs de la causalité
Understanding a text relies on its semantic content and the reader's knowledge of the subject, as well as structural cues within the text, such as linguistic, syntactic, lexical, and graphic indicators These cues highlight the significance of information, identify the text genre, and clarify the organization of ideas, including spatial, temporal, and conceptual aspects Causal markers are crucial for expressing relationships within the text and can be classified based on grammatical and semantic criteria While the grammatical criterion encompasses nearly all expression methods, the semantic criterion reveals the nature of causal connections This comprehensive classification aims to provide a complete perspective on the means of expressing causality.
Regarding the semantic categorization of causal expression markers, we have adopted A Jackiewicz's semantic organization, which clearly highlights the essential differences in meaning among lexical markers of causality.
The author proposes distinguishing four complementary approaches to causality, each reflecting different ways to conceive, discover, and articulate causal dependencies: the qualitative approach, the functional approach, the analytical approach, and the synthetic approach For each approach, the author meticulously outlines its characteristics and unique linguistic markers To present the categorization of these markers, we emphasize the properties of each approach as necessary.
This qualitative approach aligns with the classical understanding of causality It is intuitive and highly explanatory, emphasizing an active cause that produces a distinct effect Typically, it accounts for causal relationships that are explicitly identified and enables the description of a precise causal mechanism.
There are two distinct ways to understand and articulate causal facts: one highlights the efficient process that leads to an effect, while the other focuses on the existence of a relationship between two situations Based on this essential difference, the author categorizes markers that express the qualitative approach into two main groups: markers of efficient causal action (the action that implements the efficient process) and markers of causal relationship.
Dans l’ensemble des marqueurs du premier groupe, on distingue les verbes relateurs (V1), les constructions faire + Vinf, laisser + Vinf (V2) et les marqueurs exprimant différents effets produits (V3)
Firstly, we have relational verbs (V1), which are termed as such because they articulate a clear relationship between different situations based on their arguments These verbs are categorized into subgroups based on specific properties, such as key points in a causal pathway or natural connections The subgroups include verbs that express effects emerging from their causes (V12), verbs that depict efficient actions leading to a result (V13), and verbs that convey actions that do not produce a result but encourage or prompt a stated outcome (V14).
V11 Causer; provoquer; dộclencher; entraợner; engendrer; susciter; gộnộrer; induire; dộterminer ấtre (entraợnộ, causộ, provoquộ, dộclenchộ, occasionnộ, engendrộ, suscitộ, gộnộrộ, induit, déterminé} par;
V13 Pousser à; forcer à; obliger à; contraindre à; astreindre à; imposer, condamner à; inciter à; inviter à; encourager à…
Tableau 1.8: Marqueurs de l’action causale efficiente (1): verbes relateurs
Among the possible expressions of efficient causality, which is understood as a process leading to the production of an effect, there are constructions such as "to make + verb in infinitive" and "to let + verb in infinitive." Unlike V1 verbs, these constructions do not solely serve as connectors; the infinitive verb is an integral part of the "effect" situation.
Un grand nombre de verbes du franỗais peuvent en contexte exprimer l’idộe de causalitộ efficiente tout en précisant la nature de l’effet produit
Verbes qui précisent l’effet produit
Créer, produire, fabriquer, … Maintenir, conserver, préserver, garder, tenir, retenir, soutenir, entretenir, alimenter…
Aider, favoriser, faciliter, appuyer, épauler, soutenir, seconder, encourager, servir…
Gêner, nuire à, freiner, altérer, déranger, entraver, perturber, affecter, obstruer, paralyser, bouleverser, contraindre, troubler, faire obstacle à, fausser, décourager, contrarier, embarrasser, intimider, indisposer, importuner, imcommoder, angoisser,…
Limiter, restreindre, réduire, borner, circonscrire, délimiter, renfermer, …
Arrêter, bloquer, suspendre, interrompre, immobiliser, contenir, supprimer, neutraliser, fermer, stopper, détruire, mettre fin à, …
Empêcher, éviter, contrecarrer, inhiber, prévenir, déjouer, conjurer, enrayer, interdire, annuler, …
Modifier, transformer, changer, métamorphoser, corriger, diversifier, innover, refondre, remanier, rectifier, réviser, renouveler, rénover, révolutionner, dénaturer, déformer, défigurer, remodeler, moduler, réguler,…
Enhance, strengthen, amplify, expand, deepen, develop, enlarge, increase, prolong, intensify, stimulate, accelerate, improve, consolidate, fortify, invigorate, reactivate, and heighten are all terms that convey the idea of boosting or augmenting various aspects These actions can elevate performance, reinforce stability, and excite interest, while also addressing challenges and invigorating efforts Whether it’s about enhancing productivity, fortifying structures, or stimulating engagement, these verbs encapsulate the essence of growth and improvement across different contexts.
Diminuer, réduire, freiner, modérer, ralentir, tempérer, atténuer, restreindre, abaisser, concentrer, condenser, amoindrir, raccourcir, rétrécir, abréger, écourter, affaiblir, appauvrir, minorer, …
Normaliser, homogénéiser, relativiser, banaliser, exclure, occulter, contracter, décapiter, casser, creuser, diviser, porter atteinte, menacer, conforter, retarder, détendre, déplacer, réintroduire, liquider, marginaliser, déposséder, rasséréner, calmer, nier, sacrifier, inverser, reconstituer, restaurer, …
Tableau 1.9: Marqueurs de l’action causale efficiente : verbes qui précisent l’effet produit
The second group of causal relationship markers includes verbs and verbal expressions categorized into three subgroups, focusing on the properties of "intelligible link" and "useful points in a causal path" from a qualitative approach The intelligible link differentiates between cause/effect and reason/consequence, while the useful points clarify the general idea of origin and the idea of outcome In the tables below, A Jackiewicz identifies, under the term "signified relation," all markers that express the construction of causal relationships, thereby introducing the entity that directly assumes the expressed causal link.
Premièrement, le sous-groupe des marqueurs qui orientent la realtion causale vers la cause et/ ou vers l’effet:
{il y a, il existe} (une, plusieurs…) cause à Cause de (tenir à, provenir de, consister en…};
Avoir cause adj {ờtre, constituer, apparaợtre comme, …} {effet, résultat, résultante, produit, fruit} de;
{être, constituer …} réponse à; Être issu de; Être dû à;
{ờtre, constituer, reprộsenter, apparaợtre comme, …}
Cause de; Être cause que;
Imputer à; Être {assigné, attribué, imputé, imputable} à;
{citer, évoquer, …} parmi cause de;
{rechercher, chercher, …} cause de dans;
{désigner, considérer, traiter…} comme cause de; Être {désigné, considéré, traité…} par comme cause de;
{citer, évoquer, …} parmi effet de;
{désigner, considérer, traiter…} comme effet de; Être {désigné, considéré, traité } comme effet de;
{établir, poser, postuler,…} {lien, relation, rapport} {de cause à effet, de causalité, causal} entre;
{montrer, prouver, démontrer, découvrir, attester, accréditer, confirmer,…} (existence) {lien, relation, Être responsible de;
Effet de se traduire par;
Avoir {un, plusieurs, …} effet Avoir effet adj;
{il existe, il y a} {lien, relation, rapport} {de cause à effet, de causalité, causal} entre;
{il existe, il y a} chaợne causale entre; … rapport} {de cause à effet, de causalité, causal} entre Relier dans rapport de cause à effet;
Tableau 1.10: Marqueurs de la relation causale (1) : cause, effet et lien causal
Deuxièment, le sous-groupe des marqueurs qui expriment l’idée générale d’origine et d’aboutissement:
Approche qualitative Origine (source, provenance) Aboutissement
Découler de; émaner de; provenir de; venir de, résulter de; procéder de; relever de;
{avoir, trouver, prendre, …} origine dans; tirer origine de;
Devoir origine à; avoir pour origine; Être à l’origine de, être origine de;
Origine de {se trouver, résier, se situer, …} dans;
{avoir, trouver, …} sa source dans;
Source de {se trouver, résier, se situer, …} dans; Être à la source de;
{ờtre, constituer, former, reprộsenter, apparaợtre comme, devenir, …} source de;
{ờtre, constituer, apparaợtre comme, …} aboutissement de; Avoir pour aboutissement;
{présenter, considérer, désigner…} comme origine de; Être {considéré, vu, désigné…} par comme oigine de;
{présenter, considérer, voir…} comme aboutissement de; Être (présenté, considéré, …} par
{présenter, voir, considérer…} comme source de; Être (considéré, vu, désigné…} par comme source de;… comme aboutissement de; …
Tableau 1.11: Marqueurs de la relation causale (2): origine et aboutissement
Et finalement, le sous-groupe des marqueurs qui expriment l’idée de raison et/ou de conséquence
{là, dans, y…} {résider, se situer, …} raison de;
Raison adj expliquer; Être raison qui (déterminer,
{ờtre, constituer, apparaợtre comme, …} conséquence de;
Conséquence adj.; Être {lourd, riche, gros} de conséquence pour;
S’expliquer par (raison) Explication (adj) de être (que);
Explication de être {recherché, trouvé, …} dans;
Donner l’intelligence; rendre raison de; Rendre intelligible; …
{là, dans, y …} {voir, situer…} raison de;
… Être {vu, considéré, …} par comme conséquence de;
{évoquer, invoquer, …} pour {expliquer, rendre compte de};…
Tableau 1.12: Marqueurs de la relation causale (3): raison, conséquence, explication
Statistical measures can reveal or confirm causal relationships, provided there is consistent evidence of regular correlations Linguistic markers that consider the relationship of such statistics in large-scale phenomena are part of the functional approach.
Dépendre de; Être (dépendant, sous la dépendance} de; Être fonction de;
{varier, ộvoluer, dộcliner, croợtre, devenir de plus en plus, …} (adv: linéairement, …) {en fonction de, avec}
{être, avoir, augmenter, …} d’autant plus que;
{plus, moins, mieux, meilleur, …} {plus, moins, mieux, meilleur,…}; À tout (variation, modification, réduction,
…} de correspondre {variation, modification, …} de;
{être, se trouver, demeurer, …} {en, dans}
{corrélation, dépendance mutuelle, rapport mutuel, interdépendance, relation réciproque, rapport réciproque, lien réciproque, covariance, covariation} (adj.);
{il y a, (il) existe} {corrélation, interdépendance,…} (adj.) entre;
Corrélation {avec, entre} être; Être corrélatif; Être {corrélé, corrélativement lié} à;
{établir, poser, découvrir…} {relation linéaire, {lien, rapport, relation} de Dépendance, fonction, courbe, …} entre;
{indiquer, montrer, …} évolution parallèle entre et; …
{établir, observer, …} {corrélation, dépendance mutuelle, rapport mutuel, interdépendance, relation réciproque, rapport réciproque, lien réciproque, covariance, covariation} entre;
{montrer, prouver, démontrer, découvrir, attester, accréditer, confirmer,…} (existence) {corrélation,
Tableau 1.13: Marqueurs de la causalité fonctionnelle
The originality of the analytical approach lies in its partial nature, highlighting specific causal factors within a produced effect This approach categorizes markers into two groups: causal contribution and causal influence Markers in the first group often draw attention to a key causal factor while acknowledging the potential involvement of other known or unknown factors In contrast, markers in the second group do not clarify the effect of the influence; instead, they introduce the situation that is affected by the influence without detailing its impact.
Action efficiente Contribuer à; intervenir dans; participer à; prendre part à; jouer rôle dans; concourir à…
Relation posée Avoir contribution {dans, à};
{rôle, influence} de dans être; Être pour quelque chose dans;
{être, se trouver, …} impliqué dans;
La part de dans se situe vers;
Compter pour dans; Être en cause dans;… signée Établir, étudier, modéliser, indiquer …} {contribution, participation, intervention, rôle, influence} de dans; …
Tableau 1.14: Marqueurs exprimant la contribution causale
Action efficiente Influencer; influer sur; agir sur; retenir sur; s’exercer sur; jouer sur; peser sur;
{opérer, exercer, …} {action, influence, effet, pouvoir} sur; Être influencé par;
{provoquer, crộer, produire, entraợner, …} {effets, consộquence} (adj.) sur;
Posée Être {sensible à, soumis à, sous} {action, influence, effet, impact, incidence, emprise, pouvoir} (adj.) de;
Avoir (action, influence, effet, impact, incidence, emprise, pouvoir, poids, retentissement, conséquence} adj – domaine
Signộe {ộtablir, ộtudier, soupỗonner, s’intộresser à, ộvaluer, …} {action, influence, effet, impact, incidence, emprise, pouvoir, poids, conséquence} de sur; …
Tableau 1.15: Marqueurs exprimant l’influence causale
The synthetic approach comprehensively addresses the complex interdependencies that may exist between phenomena The relationships indicated by the markers are non-directional, allowing for a flexible order of presentation among the related situations Typically, the facts being compared are substantial and clearly differentiated Furthermore, the connection expressed is often challenging to articulate through conventional causal paraphrasing.
Relation posée {il y a, (il) existe}{relation, rapport, lien, correspondance} entre Être {en rapport, en relation} avec; Être lié (par {relation, rapport, lien, correspondance} adj.);
Relation signée Faire rapprochement entre et;
{établir, démontrer, déterminer, mettre en évidence, …} {relation, rapport, lien, correspondance} entre; …
Tableau 1.16: Marqueurs des liens “synthétiques”
From a grammatical perspective, the relationship of causality consists of two elements: cause and effect Causal subordination emphasizes the dependence on the cause, while consecutive subordination focuses on the dependence on the effect Distinct systems of connectors clearly differentiate these two aspects of the relationship.
2.2.1 Moyens d’expression de la cause
We categorize the expressions of causality into various structures: subordinate adverbial clauses, coordinated independent clauses, prepositional infinitive groups, prepositional nominal groups, and juxtaposed independent clauses This classification enables us to understand all the ways to convey causality through different grammatical constructions.
Le premier tableau présente les conjonctions de subordination qui introduisent les propositions causales à l’indicatif et au subjonctif également
The term "because" signifies a widely recognized fact that raises an implicit question about its cause The clause introduced by "because" provides the answer to this inquiry.
Elle apporte une explication qui souvent est la réponse à la question “pourquoi?”
ETUDES SUR LES MOYENS D’EXPRESSION DE LA CAUSALITE
CAUSALITE DANS LE QUOTIDIEN ô LE MONDE ằ
Le choix de notre corpus a été guidé par plusieurs raisons
The corpus should consist of authentic documents that are easily accessible not only to French speakers but also to French learners abroad Le Monde, a widely read national daily newspaper in France, demonstrates the interest of both French citizens and foreigners in its content Additionally, in the digital age where people often find themselves in front of a computer screen rather than reading a physical newspaper, many articles are sourced from the website lemonde.fr to meet this accessibility criterion.
Secondly, the research framework necessitates that the corpus encompasses a wide range of fields As a generalist newspaper, Le Monde aggregates various types of political, economic, and social information.
Thirdly, the corpus should potentially include various means of expressing causality The Ideas section of this major daily newspaper offers in-depth analyses of various socio-economic and political issues in France, effectively meeting this requirement.
The research corpus for this study primarily consists of articles from Le Monde and lemonde.fr This raises the question of how the data is collected and analyzed, which will be addressed in the following section.
We selected 90 articles, comprising 30 each from the political, economic, and social domains, resulting in a corpus of 80,362 words across 175 pages The expressions of causality were identified and categorized manually or using the Find and Replace function in Microsoft Word Subsequently, the data was analyzed and presented in tables.
Based on the two categorizations outlined in the theoretical framework, we direct our data analysis accordingly The grammatical criterion provides a comprehensive overview of all available methods, while the semantic criterion enables a deeper exploration of the nature of causal relationships.
Grammatically, we identified expressions of causality across seven categories: conjunctions, adverbs and adverbial phrases, prepositions and prepositional phrases, past participles (including the passive voice), nouns, verbs, and gerunds (along with present participles) These methods are organized by category in the following table, which details their frequency across three domains—social, economic, and political—as well as throughout the entire corpus.
D’abord, c'est la fréquence de chaque catégorie des moyens grammaticaux dans le corpus
Moyens Verbes Conjonctions Adverbes Prépositions Participes passés
Tableau 2.1 : Fréquence des moyens grammaticaux dans le corpus
The data presented in the table reveals a significant frequency disparity among the various means utilized within the corpus Verbs and conjunctions dominate the usage, collectively accounting for 63% of the total In contrast, adverbs, prepositions, and past participles exhibit nearly equivalent frequencies, each contributing around 10% Meanwhile, nouns and gerunds represent a notably smaller portion Each category will be analyzed in greater detail in the following section.
Conjunctions are regularly utilized across three domains, with "Donc" being the most frequent, appearing 102 times out of a total of 275 conjunctions (36.8%) It is the most common conjunction compared to others in different grammatical categories Following "Donc" is "Car," which occurs 72 times (25%), while "En effet" ranks third with a frequency half that of "Car." The consistent frequency of these top three conjunctions across all domains indicates that "Donc," "Car," and "En effet" remain the most prevalent regardless of context Other conjunctions like "parce que," "puisque," and "d’autant plus/moins" also show significant usage, but their frequencies vary by domain In the economic field, "parce que" and "d’autant plus/moins que" are more common than "puisque," whereas in political articles, "parce que" is absent, and in social articles, "d’autant moins/plus que" does not appear, with "puisque" being the preferred conjunction.
Moyens Social Economique Politique Total
Ce n'est pas parce que 0 0 2 2
The proposed oil embargo by European nations poses a significant threat to Tehran, as hydrocarbons account for 60% of Iran's budgetary revenue, which also supports housing and education In response, the Islamic Republic has issued threats to block the Strait of Hormuz, setting the stage for potential conflict.
Các biện pháp cấm vận dầu mỏ mà Liên minh châu Âu đang thảo luận có khả năng sẽ kích thích xung đột với Iran, quốc gia mà nguồn thu ngân sách chủ yếu đến từ dầu mỏ, chiếm 60% Iran đã phản ứng bằng những đe dọa phong tỏa eo biển Hormuz, tạo ra bối cảnh căng thẳng cho một cuộc xung đột tiềm tàng.
Où mène la logique guerrière avec l'Iran ? Lemonde.fr 16.01.12
- Le choix stratégique de l'indépendance énergétique demeure essentiel, car l'augmentation de la demande des pays émergents va dépasser notre propre demande et nos arguments de négociation seront limités
Độc lập năng lượng tiếp tục là lựa chọn chiến lược quan trọng, vì nhu cầu năng lượng của các quốc gia mới nổi đang gia tăng nhanh chóng, điều này có thể vượt qua nhu cầu của chúng ta và làm hạn chế lập luận của chúng ta trong các cuộc đàm phán.
Pourquoi la France fait le choix stratégique de l'indépendance énergétique, Point de vue | | 04.01.12
The persistent unemployment and increasing poverty in the United States can be attributed to over a decade of excessive spending that surpasses earnings Additionally, the hyper-profits of multinational corporations and global elites have also been relocated, contributing to the economic challenges faced today.
Nếu nền kinh tế không phục hồi và thất nghiệp kéo dài, sự bần cùng hoá sẽ gia tăng Nguyên nhân chủ yếu là do Mỹ đã chi tiêu vượt quá khả năng sản xuất trong hơn một thập kỷ qua, cùng với việc các công ty đa quốc gia Mỹ chuyển siêu lợi nhuận ra nước ngoài.
"Pas de sortie de crise sans résorption des déséquilibres des balances des paiements",
Point de vue | Le Monde | 09.11.11
Algerian authorities are increasingly concerned about Libya due to several troubling similarities between the two nations Both countries rely on oil revenues that ostensibly shield them from uprisings, have released Islamist militants previously defeated and imprisoned, face a frustrated populace, and struggle with challenging living conditions.