Critical Discourse Analysis
Critical Linguistics emerged in the late 1970s at the University of East Anglia, founded by linguists and literary theorists such as Fowler, Hodge, Kress, and Trew, and is rooted in Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics Over the years, it evolved into what is now known as Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) This development introduced two key concerns: the importance of audience interpretation of discourse and the expansion of analytical scope to include intertextual analysis Fairclough notably emphasized the significance of examining the intertextual relationships between texts.
Linguistic analysis has traditionally focused on clauses, often neglecting the broader organizational aspects of texts (Fairclough, 1995b) Fairclough's early approach established a singular theoretical framework, while van Dijk (2001) proposed that Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) should be viewed as a collective perspective that includes various methodologies rather than a singular school of thought Consequently, CDA is now recognized as an interdisciplinary research program that addresses specific problems (Wodak, 2013).
Critical discourse analysis, as defined by van Dijk (2008), focuses on examining written and spoken texts to uncover how power abuse, social inequality, and injustice are perpetuated through discourse.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), as defined by Fairclough (1995), systematically investigates the complex relationships between discursive practices, events, texts, and broader social structures It examines how these elements are shaped by power dynamics and ideological struggles, highlighting the often opaque connections that contribute to the maintenance of power and hegemony Ultimately, CDA seeks to analyze the interplay between discourse and society, text and context, as well as language and power.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) examines how ideology, identity, and inequality are expressed and reinforced through texts in social and political contexts (van Dijk, 2001) CDA posits that language serves as a tool for constructing and perpetuating ideologies, as well as establishing social identities and power dynamics (Wodak & Reisigl, 2001) Fairclough (1989) emphasized that language is a battleground for power struggles, highlighting the interplay between language, power, and ideology.
In 1989, the exploration of power in language has been examined from various perspectives West and Zimmerman (1985) introduced the concept of participant identities, identifying three distinct types of power: master identities, situated identities, and discourse identities Master identities encompass enduring characteristics such as age, sex, and social class, while situated identities pertain to power dynamics within specific social contexts Discourse identities, on the other hand, arise from the verbal interactions of participants.
Power is intricately linked to ideology, serving as a means to convey meaning that supports power structures Ideology functions as a process that combines specific representations of reality with constructions of identity, particularly within groups and communities (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997) Consequently, texts often contain covert and hidden meanings that are strategically manipulated This interplay among meanings, ideology, power, and identities underscores their interconnectedness.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) highlights the importance of using various methodological tools to analyze identity, emphasizing that language must be examined alongside other semiotic systems to uncover how identity is constructed, power is misused, and relationships are revealed (van Dijk, 1998) Discourse serves as a critical space for understanding identity across cultural, ethical, religious, and political dimensions through discursive practices Meyer (2001) suggests that studying social transformations involves specific theoretical assumptions that connect empirical data with interpretation, bridging the empirical and theoretical realms Additionally, CDA provides essential tools for analyzing social context, asserting that all discourses are historical and can only be comprehended in relation to extralinguistic factors such as culture, society, and ideology (Meyer, 2001).
Identity
Identity
Identity is a complex and dynamic concept shaped by one's environment and culture, making it fluid rather than fixed Scholars like Hall and Gieben (1992) highlight the challenges in defining identity due to its complexity and underdevelopment in social science It serves as a self-construal device, enabling individuals to reflect on themselves and construct their identities in relation to others McCarthy and Moje (2002) emphasize the significance of identity in helping individuals understand their experiences and interactions with the world, including their engagement with texts.
Identities are dynamic and continually shaped through cultural socialization, which equips individuals to handle various stressors (Deaux, 2007) This process fosters a collective identity, characterized by a shared sense of belonging and unity among group members While individual identities are negotiated in personal interactions, such as conversations with colleagues or family, collective identities emerge in group settings, like meetings, where individuals represent the larger community, such as a political party or university This duality highlights the interplay between personal and collective identities in social contexts.
In addition to individual and collective identities, there are social and personal identities Social identities encompass broad categories like national, religious, racial, gender, and political affiliations Conversely, personal identities consist of unique membership categories along with distinct moral and physical traits, such as being strong, decisive, visionary, or honest Lastly, situational identities represent roles within specific social contexts, such as those of a husband/wife, professor/student, or nurse/patient (Zimmerman, 1998).
Identity Research
In recent decades, research on language and identity has significantly expanded, highlighting the importance of language in understanding identity across various disciplines such as anthropology, linguistics, psychology, and social theory While providing a comprehensive overview of the theoretical frameworks in identity studies is challenging, this section aims to briefly discuss key approaches and concepts related to identity and its construction.
The construction of identity is a key focus for researchers in the humanities and social sciences, leading to various conflicting analytic approaches Prominent studies concentrate on specific identity categories, including racism (van Dijk, 1996; Wodak & Reisigl, 2001), gender and sexism (del-Teso-Craviotto, 2006; Machin & Thornborrow, 2003), war and political strategies (Butt, Lukin, & Matthiessen, 2004; Chouliaraki, 2004; Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999; Fairclough, 2000), and national identity (Jones, 1997; Lechner, 2012; Miller, 2005; Smith, 1991) Additionally, broader discussions on identity in discourse have been explored, such as organizational identity (Hatch and Schultz, 2002) and the intersection of emotions and teacher identity (Zembylas, 2003).
Scholars have used a variety of analytical methods and theoretical perspectives to analyze identity, such as Conversation Analysis (Auer, 2013),
Membership Categorization Analysis, Discursive Psychology, Narrative Analysis, and Critical Discourse Analysis are key methodologies employed by researchers to explore identity construction These approaches examine various discursive contexts, ranging from everyday conversations to institutional dialogues, highlighting how identities are shaped through language and interaction.
The most recent approach used to analyze different identity categories is
Computer-Mediated Communication(Benwell & Stokoe, 2006) In their book,
Benwell and Stokoe explore how identity is expressed in online chatrooms through Computer-Mediated Communication, introducing the notion of "virtual" identity in contrast to "authentic" or "real" identity.
Recent trends in identity studies emphasize the interplay between self-theorization, interaction, and language's role in shaping personal and social realities This has led to the development of a new paradigm characterized by social constructionism, focusing on practical and interactive aspects of identity formation.
2006), social theory (Giddens, 1991), feminist theory about identity (Butler, 2011), symbolic interactionism(Mead, 1934) and ethnomethodology (Garfinkel, 2005)
Social Constructivism posits that identity is not a fixed attribute or a mere product, but rather a dynamic process shaped through specific interactions (Hall & Du Gay, 1996; Kroskrity, 1993) This approach emphasizes that identities are formed through negotiation and entextualization, resulting in a constellation of identities rather than singular constructs The concept involves significant "discursive work" (Zimmerman & Wieder, 1970), with extensive research highlighting the linguistic strategies used to analyze and construct multiple versions of the self Kroskrity (1993) notes the existence of "repertoires of identities," which aligns with the consensus among scholars regarding the multiplicity of identities (Davies & Harré, 1990; Duszak, 2002; Geschiere & Meyer, 1998; Pavlenko & Blackledge, 2004).
Critical Discourse Analysis, as highlighted by Hall (1997), reveals how discursive formations across different historical periods shape various identities Discourse plays a crucial role in identity creation, as individuals utilize it to understand themselves while also subjecting themselves to its disciplinary effects (Howarth, 2000) Numerous scholars, including Covaleski et al (1998) and Du Gay (1996), have explored the power-knowledge dynamics within discourse, illustrating how subjects are positioned, identities are constructed, and bodies are disciplined Fairclough (1992b) examined how discourses are strategically controlled by identifiable actors within specific historical and institutional contexts He emphasized that these actors are embedded in multiple discourses, allowing them to navigate and interact within a shared discursive space (Fairclough, 1992b, 1995b; Hardy & Phillips, 2004).
Discourse functions as a political practice that shapes, maintains, and transforms power dynamics and the collective entities involved in these relations Additionally, it serves as an ideological practice that constructs, normalizes, and alters the meanings of the world from various positions within these power structures.
In the light of CDA, Mumby(2001, p 614) worked on „how communication practices construct identities, experiences and ways of knowing that serve some interests over others.‟
De Fina et al (2006) identified three key perspectives on identity: first, the self is viewed as an isolated and self-contained entity; second, interpersonal communication plays a crucial role in the construction, enactment, and negotiation of identities; and third, there is a significant relationship between identity and language.
Self and identity are complementary terms which share much in common and in uncommon James (1890, p 330) warned us that selfhood (including identity) is
The distinction between self and identity is a fundamental concept in psychology, where the self is viewed as a dynamic process shaped by self-reflection, while identity serves as a tool for individuals and groups to present themselves to the world (Owens, 2006) Owens defines the self as "an organized and interactive system of thoughts, feelings, identities, and motives" that emerges from self-reflexivity and language, allowing individuals to characterize themselves (Owens, 2006, p 206) This leads to profound existential questions such as "Who am I?" and "What does my life mean?" Furthermore, the self enables individuals to perceive themselves from both internal and external perspectives, highlighting its complexity (Mead, 1934).
Identity is a complex construct that encompasses both individuality and connection to others According to Owens (2006), identity consists of categories that individuals use to define themselves and their relationships with others It reflects a dual nature, highlighting both distinctiveness—asserting "I am not like them"—and similarity—expressing "I am like them" (James, 1890) Understanding identity involves recognizing its role within the broader concept of self, emphasizing the interplay between uniqueness and commonality.
In the interpersonal communication in the construction of identity, Butler
In 2011, it was highlighted that identity is not a possession but rather an action or performance This perspective suggests that individuals project or reject their identities through their communication and behavior in various contexts A notable example of this is Hillary Clinton's Concession Speech delivered on June 7, 2008, at the National Building Museum in Washington, DC, after a year and seven months of active campaigning, where she addressed her supporters.
Our campaign transcended individual candidates and elections; it was rooted in our love for America and our vision of a hopeful, inclusive, and compassionate nation While we recognize the deep divisions within our country, my belief in America remains steadfast.
This verbal communication reflects a process of identity formation From the outset, she acknowledged the enduring pain experienced by herself and her supporters, showcasing her personal identity as both "honest" and "direct." By sharing this pain, she fosters a sense of connection with her supporters, highlighting the importance of empathy in her message.
The campaign is focused on fostering hope and unity for the country, rather than serving personal or electoral interests It emphasizes a national identity that portrays America as a hopeful, inclusive, and compassionate nation By using the modality "will" and the process verb "believe," she positions herself as a strong and determined woman.
Identity as a Discursive Work
Focusing on the domain of socialinguistic theories so as to provide a description of identity construction, the term „discursive work‟ was introduced(Zimmerman & Wieder, 1970)
Discursive strategy refers to a deliberate plan of discursive practices shaped by habitus and internalized dispositions, aiming to achieve specific social, political, psychological, or linguistic outcomes (Bourdieu, 1977; Martin & Wodak, 2005) These strategies involve goal-directed behaviors that enhance knowledge and persuasive communication (Wodak, 2007) Discursive work provides information about entities in a textual context, contributing to a complex of acts that reveal who is communicating with whom, thus shaping identity through sequential interactions and performance styles (Schiffrin, 2006) Individuals possess multiple, evolving identities influenced by various factors, including life changes, aspirations, and social contexts, leading to the coexistence of different identities (Verschueren, 2008; Yurchisin et al., 2005; Rimskii, 2011) Ultimately, identity is viewed as a linguistic construction, shaped and reshaped through language as a social product (Kroskrity, 1999).
Identity is a social construction shaped by in-group associations that foster a sense of belonging and contribute to social identity, as explored by scholars like Bloom (1993) and Brubaker & Cooper (2000) Stone and Strauss (2017) suggest that the development of identity is influenced by historical and contextual factors, emphasizing that despite individual differences, group identity offers crucial belonging and representation Sociological theories, particularly symbolic interactionism, highlight that self-perception and behavior are influenced by group dynamics and social interactions, as noted by Mead (1934) and Goffman (1959) Rimskii (2011) defines identity as an individual's awareness of their personal characteristics and group membership, while Yanow views identity as both a collective narrative of a group and a framework for individual members to evaluate their own stories.
2015, p 7) The social construction of identity in this research has to do with is how Hillary Clinton constructs her shared values
Identity serves as a crucial source of meaning and experience for individuals, shaped by cultural attributes that prioritize certain aspects over others (Castells, 2011) It acts as a self-regulatory mechanism, influencing how individuals filter information and manage their internal and external presentations (McAdams, 2003) Marcia (1980) describes identity as a dynamic organization of personal drives, beliefs, and history, while Erikson (1980) emphasizes its role in maintaining a sense of sameness and shared character with others These perspectives underscore that identity is self-constructed and recognizes the individual's agency.
In 1986, it was suggested that identities are shaped by self-conceptions, reflecting how individuals perceive themselves This perspective highlights the significance of personal narratives formed through self-definitions and characterizations, which are essential for understanding one's identity.
In the context of the 2016 Presidential Election, group affiliations significantly influenced both the Democratic Party and public perceptions An individual's identity and the process of identity formation play a crucial role in defining Hillary Clinton's position within the political landscape This understanding not only sheds light on personal identity but also reveals the unique characteristics of the political and social systems that shape Clinton's actions as a presidential candidate Thus, identity serves to illuminate both individual and societal attributes.
Identities are fluid, dynamic, and constantly evolving, adapting to the specific contexts in which they exist.
All in all, identity plays a central role because it enables an individual cohesion of self even in different situations (Cerulo, 1997; Hogg & Abrams, 1999;
Identity construction is shaped by various "raw materials" such as history, geography, biology, institutions, collective memory, personal fantasies, power dynamics, and religious insights (Castells, 2011) According to Castells, individuals and groups process and reinterpret these elements based on social contexts and cultural objectives that are influenced by their social structure and temporal framework.
In his 2011 work, Castells argues that identity is shaped within a framework of power relations, identified through three structural markers: legitimizing identity, resistance identity, and project identity Legitimizing identity serves to uphold dominant societal powers, determining who belongs to the mainstream In contrast, resistance identity emerges from marginalized groups challenging their devalued positions, influencing political discourse Lastly, project identity involves individuals and social actors redefining their identities to transform the broader social structure, fostering a robust collective identity.
Identity plays a crucial role in politics, serving as the foundation for the connection between candidates and their constituents Candidates aim to enhance their appeal by leveraging in-group and out-group dynamics, while voters often seek alignment with specific causes or candidates (Callero, 1985; McDermott, 1998) This relationship is underpinned by a mutual understanding of political engagement, where candidates strive for election and citizens desire representation that resonates with their identities (Cerulo, 1997; Plutzer & Zipp, 1996) Consequently, identity is essential for both defining presidential candidates and shaping public perceptions of them As Hall and Du Gay suggest, the interplay between politics and identity is significant.
Politics requires the deliberate use of language and ideology to shape identities and societal transformations Social movements aiming for change must navigate the fictional constructs that facilitate political and personal identities, recognizing that these constructs are not endpoints but rather essential for the functioning of politics This approach fosters a politics of difference and self-reflexivity, allowing for adaptability while maintaining the capacity for action Ultimately, a coherent politics of articulation is necessary to support a hegemonic project that drives societal change.
Identity is a multifaceted concept that encompasses belonging and the unique traits that distinguish us from others At its core, identity provides a stable foundation for our individuality and a sense of personal location within the world.
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the study, beginning with section 3.1, which explores the social context by synthesizing background and contextual information Section 3.2 presents the research data, while section 3.3 outlines the analytical framework, focusing on the representation of social actors, modality, and intertextuality to uncover the language resources utilized in the data Finally, section 3.4 addresses the methods employed to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
The Context of the Study
Hillary Diane Rodham, born on October 26, 1947, in Park Ridge, Illinois, is the daughter of Dorothy and Hugh Rodham and has two brothers, Hugh and Tony She enjoyed a happy and disciplined childhood, participating in sports and being actively involved in her church, while also being a member of the National Honor Society.
In 2016, Hillary revealed that she carries a Bible for comfort during stressful times, reflecting her deep-rooted values Her mother noted, “Hillary always valued herself highly,” a sentiment that highlights her strong self-esteem Additionally, Hillary's classmates recognized her potential by voting her "most likely to succeed."
In "Hillary Rodham Clinton: On the Couch" (Bond, 2015), it is revealed that Hillary earned the nickname "Owl Face" from her high school peers due to her thick glasses During her time at Wellesley College, she excelled academically and in student government On her graduation day, she expressed her belief in the transformative power of politics, stating, "The challenge now is to practice politics as the art of making what appears to be impossible, possible."
The young Hillary stayed in place, roughly unchanged from her birth in 1947 up until Bill Clinton lost his job as governor of Arkansas in 1981 (Wakefield,
Until 2016, Hillary Clinton struggled with the expectations of being a political wife, maintaining her maiden name and rejecting traditional makeovers, as her mother noted she viewed makeup as superficial Following Bill Clinton's defeat, she transformed her appearance by dyeing her hair and adopting the Clinton name Reflecting on her journey, she admitted, "I failed to appreciate how important in political terms an elected person’s spouse is to voters."
Hillary Clinton's political journey began as a committed Right winger in 1964, where she actively supported Republican senator Barry Goldwater, even donning a "Goldwater girl" outfit She expressed admiration for Goldwater's rugged individualism and attended the 1968 Republican convention for Governor Nelson Rockefeller However, her political transformation from Republican to Democrat occurred at Yale Law School, influenced by figures like Marian Wright Edelman and Bill Clinton Speculation about her hawkish stance and her reluctance to acknowledge mistakes regarding the Iraq War has persisted over the years.
In the book The First Ladies of the United States of America by Black
Hillary Clinton served as the First Lady of Arkansas for 12 years, skillfully balancing her roles as a mother to their daughter Chelsea, born in 1980, and as a professional in law at the Legal Services Corporation and the Rose Law Firm, all while supporting her husband Bill Clinton, whom she married in 1975.
As First Lady, Hillary Clinton skillfully balanced her public service commitments with family life, beginning her active involvement in 1993 when President Bill Clinton appointed her to chair the Task Force on National Health Care Reform Her efforts focused on expanding health insurance coverage, ensuring proper immunization for children, and raising public awareness about critical health issues.
In November 2000, Hillary Clinton made history by becoming the first First Lady elected to the United States Senate and the first woman to win a statewide election in New York (Black, 2013).
Hillary Clinton served as the 67th United States Secretary of State under President Barack Obama from 2009 to 2013, making her the only former First Lady to hold a Cabinet position During her tenure, she engaged with countries across Asia, Africa, Europe, and South America, participating in key meetings and summits with international organizations such as NATO and the United Nations.
In 2010, Hillary Clinton developed a strong rapport with the Obama administration, as President Obama was receptive to her political perspectives, occasionally embracing some of her more assertive foreign policy strategies.
By the end of 2012, Hillary Clinton achieved her tenth consecutive and sixteenth overall win in Gallup's Most Admired Man and Woman poll, solidifying her status as a globally admired figure A poll conducted in Iowa indicated that she had 58 percent support to become the Democratic nominee for the 2016 presidential election However, her year took a turn when she was diagnosed with a stomach virus, leading to dehydration and a fainting incident that resulted in a mild concussion This health setback curtailed her travel and work commitments, particularly in light of significant congressional criticism related to the Benghazi incident Throughout her tenure as Secretary of State, Clinton visited 112 countries and logged nearly one million miles in air travel.
In "Language and Power," Fairclough (1989) emphasizes the importance of analyzing language practices within specific social institutions, highlighting the need for context in studies The 2016 United States presidential election, the fifty-eighth quadrennial election, featured a series of primary elections and caucuses from February to June to determine the nominees for the two major parties This nominating process involved an indirect election, where voters selected representatives to attend their party's nominating convention, which ultimately decided the presidential nominee.
Hillary Clinton, the former Secretary of State and First Lady of the United States, made history by becoming the first woman to officially announce her candidacy for the presidency Her declaration marked a significant milestone in American politics as she sought to run for the Oval Office.
On April 12, 2015, Hillary Clinton announced her candidacy for the presidency through a video message During her campaign, she faced significant competition from Independent Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont, who officially entered the race on April 30, 2015 By March 2016, Clinton had secured 504 pledged delegates, while Sanders had garnered a notable following.
340 delegates In May, 2016, Bernie Sander won Indiana, West Virginia, Oregon on all 5 campaign states.
The Data
On June 2, 2016, Hillary Clinton delivered a pivotal 37-minute speech in San Diego, marking a significant moment in her presidential campaign as she launched a vigorous attack on Donald Trump This speech, titled "Hillary Clinton Destroys Trump, Defends American Values," is viewed as a turning point in her political journey and is available on YouTube, uploaded by the Hillary Clinton Speeches and Events Channel on June 3, 2016 With a total of 4,150 words, Clinton's address emphasized her commitment to American values while critiquing her Republican opponent.
The US presidential election consists of two main phases: the Party Presidential primaries and the general election To secure the Party's nomination, a candidate must obtain a majority of delegate votes at the Party National Convention Delegates play a crucial role in determining the nominee For instance, Hillary Clinton or Bernie Sanders would need to achieve 2,117 votes at the Democratic National Convention, or a similar majority of pledged delegates prior to the Convention, to ensure their nomination for the Democratic Party.
At the time of the data collection, Hillary Clinton was against two rivals:
Bernie Sanders for the first phase of becoming the Democratic Presidential nominee, and Donald Trump, the Republican presumptive presidential nominee
In the Republican primaries starting in August 2015, Donald Trump emerged as a frontrunner according to RealClearPolitics polls, launching his campaign against Hillary Clinton By March 2016, only three candidates remained in the GOP race, but Trump achieved a significant victory in Indiana on May 3, 2016, which led to him being declared the presumptive Republican nominee after the other candidates suspended their campaigns (Kaplan, 2016).
In a RealClearPolitics Poll from January to June 2016, Hillary Clinton faced significant challenges, particularly in May when her poll numbers aligned closely with Donald Trump's However, by late May and early June, Clinton experienced a resurgence in her polling figures, while Trump saw a decline This shift can be attributed to Clinton's impactful speech at the start of June, marking a pivotal moment in her campaign.
Political speeches, particularly electoral ones, serve as valuable resources for examining identity formation These speeches often reflect the ongoing power struggles aimed at promoting specific ideas and interests, showcasing a political will that seeks to translate into social action As Schaffner notes, "any political action is prepared, accompanied, controlled, and influenced by language," highlighting the crucial role of language in shaping political discourse.
Analytical Framework
Representing social actors
First and foremost, Hall thinks of representation as the making of meaning from different orders of things:
The process of meaning-making in culture involves using signifying systems to interpret objects, people, and events, which inherently lack fixed meanings It is through societal interactions that individuals ascribe significance, resulting in meanings that evolve across different cultures and time periods Representation is achieved by connecting three realms: the tangible world of experiences, the conceptual understanding in our minds, and the signs organized into languages that convey these concepts.
Baker(2014, p 73) regards representation as „the creation of a mental image of something using signifying practices and symbolic systems‟ Meanwhile, van
RQ2: How are identities linguistically realized?
RQ1: What identities does Hillary Clinton discursively construct?
RQ3: Why does she choose to project different identities?
Dijk (2005) takes representation as the mechanism to control symbolic elites or reproduce prevalent ideologies in society
Van Leeuwen (1996) emphasizes the significance of agency in Critical Discourse Analysis, highlighting how social actors are portrayed as agents within various contexts He notes that these participants are analyzed through their discursive practices, focusing on their representations within specific collocation environments Salama (2012) further elaborates on this by examining the contested representations of social actors within discourse, underscoring the importance of context in understanding their roles.
The representation of social actors is what groups and individuals are referred to and how van Leeuwen (1996, p 38) himself refers this to as „exclusion‟ and that
Exclusion is a crucial element in Critical Discourse Analysis, as it highlights how representations can include or exclude social actors to align with specific interests and purposes for the intended audience This study utilizes van Leeuwen's framework to examine the lexical and grammatical choices made by Hillary Clinton in her campaign speech, focusing on how she constructed her self-representation Instances of suppressed exclusion can be identified through techniques such as passive agent deletion, non-finite clauses, nominalizations, and process nouns Additionally, backgrounding is evident through ellipses in non-finite or paratactic clauses For instance, the phrase "serious cases of child abuse in Vietnam were reported in 2017" illustrates passive agent deletion, as it conveys that something was reported without specifying who reported it.
Social actors are assigned specific roles in representations, a topic extensively researched by critical linguists such as Fairclough and van Dijk These roles can be viewed as "agents" responding to actions, highlighting how representations can shift roles and alter social relations among participants (van Leeuwen, 1996) Analyzing social actors within their institutional and social contexts reveals whose interests are prioritized and what objectives are achieved (van Leeuwen, 1996) Koller and Fairclough further explore role allocation through process types, examining the actions, norms, and values associated with social actors This analysis utilizes the systemic functional framework to illustrate how various domains of experience are constructed in discourse (Halliday et al., 2014).
Figure 3: The grammar of experience: Types of processes in English
The material process involves tangible actions performed by social actors, such as "She resigned." In contrast, the mental process reflects acts of perception or thought, exemplified by "I think she is an efficient company." The relational process establishes connections between entities, as in "She is an efficient company." The behavioral process captures human physiological and psychological actions, illustrated by "He glanced at her." The verbal process pertains to the act of communication, such as "He said he would grade his father an A." Lastly, the existential process indicates existence or occurrence, represented by "There may have been many cases of child abuse unreported in 2017 in Vietnam."
Social actors can assume either active or passive roles, which can be analyzed through transitivity structures as outlined by Halliday et al (2014) In these structures, active social actors are identified as Actors in material processes, Behavers in behavioral processes, Sensers in mental processes, Sayers in verbal processes, or Assigners in relational processes Conversely, passive representations are categorized into subjection and beneficialization, as defined by van Leeuwen (1996) Subjected social actors are treated as objects, while beneficialized social actors are recognized as third parties that either positively or negatively benefit from actions Subjection can be further analyzed through participation when the passivated social actor is a Goal in a material process, a Phenomenon in a mental process, or a Carrier in an effective attribute process Additionally, possessivation is indicated through prepositional phrases with "of."
Adjectival premodification can be expressed through passivation, where beneficialization is identified by the role of a social actor as either a Recipient or Client in material processes, or as a Receiver in verbal processes (Halliday et al., 2014).
Figure 4: The representation of social actors: Activation and Passivation
Social actors can be represented in two ways: as generic groups or as specific individuals, as noted by van Leeuwen (1996, p 46) Genericization often appears in plural forms without articles, such as "Children need love from their parents," while specification is evident in singular forms with definite or indefinite articles, like "Maybe a child learns from his mother most." Additionally, specification can be further expressed through numeratives, highlighting the distinction in representation.
20 high officials were arrested and charged in 2017)
Representation of social actors Activation
The forth question so far is are social actors referred to as individuals or as groups? van Leeuwen (1996) names these representations as „individualization‟ and
In Critical Discourse Analysis, the concepts of "individualization" and "assimilation" are crucial, as highlighted by van Leeuwen (1996) Individualization is characterized by singularity, illustrated by phrases such as "He was not here," while assimilation is represented by plurality, often seen in mass nouns or collective terms, exemplified by "America will be great again." The significance of these categories is underscored by the contrasting values placed on individuality and conformity in various societal contexts.
Social actors can be represented as either associated or disassociated groups Association refers to groups formed by social actors that are not explicitly labeled in the text, although individual actors may be named (van Leeuwen, 1996) This association can be expressed through parataxis, such as listing individuals (e.g., "Thank you Sam, Nga, and Nam").
„circumstances of accompaniment‟ (Halliday et al., 2014, p 170) (e.g They played
„higher and higher‟ with the other children (van Leeuwen, 1996, p 51)) Disassociation is realized by the process of association unforming, the breakdown of association or no association is detected
Social actors can be categorized as either indeterminate or differentiated Indetermination occurs when these actors are portrayed as unspecified or anonymous entities, while determination involves a clear specification of their identities (van Leeuwen, 1996) Indeterminate references often utilize indefinite pronouns such as "some," "any," "someone," and "anyone," which serve a nominal function.
Indetermination occurs when a writer presents their identity as either irrelevant or similar to that of the reader or listener, often using generalized exophoric references This technique grants social actors a form of impersonal authority, which can exert a subtle yet compelling influence (van Leeuwen, 1996, p 52) In contrast, differentiation explicitly distinguishes an individual or group from others, establishing a clear distinction between 'self' and 'other' or 'us' and 'them' (van Leeuwen, 1996, p 52).
Are social actors nominated or categorized? The representation of social actors can be divided in terms of nomination when social actors project their
Unique identity and categorization arise when individuals share their identities and roles with others This process often involves the use of proper nouns, which can be classified as formal, semi-formal, or informal Additionally, it can be illustrated by instances where a single social actor holds a specific rank or fulfills a particular function, as seen in the example of Yan, who, at 28, fell in love with Jie Categorization is also expressed through plural pronouns (such as we, us, they, them) and collective terms (like racists or predators).
Social actors can be understood through the concepts of functionalization and identification Functionalization occurs in relational processes where social actors are defined by their roles, such as "She is a doctor." In contrast, identification, as described by van Leeuwen (1996), involves representing social actors based on their personal or work relationships, using specific nouns like "friend" or "aunt" to denote these connections.
In relational processes, social actors are often represented through nouns indicating physical traits, adjectives, or prepositional phrases such as "with" or "without" (e.g., "She is a gorgeous woman") Van Leeuwen (1996, p 59) introduces the concept of "appraisement," which refers to the evaluation of social actors as positive or negative, loved or hated, admired or pitied This appraisal is conveyed using nouns, idioms, or adjectives that express either negative or positive evaluations.
Modality
What is modality?Fairclough (1992b, p 158) posits that modality can be used to define the „dimension of the grammar of the clause which corresponds to the
The interpersonal function of language plays a crucial role in expressing modality, which reflects the writer's attitudes ranging from certainty to uncertainty and advice to obligation According to Zdenek and Babara (2008, p 29), modality, along with naming, nominalization, and tense and aspect, is essential in shaping perceptions of agency, responsibility, time, identity, and overall political and rhetorical legitimacy.
According to Dunmire(2008) differentiates two types of modality: Deontic and epistemic modality:
Deontic modality focuses on future actions and policies, utilizing modal auxiliaries like "ought," "should," and "must" to convey obligations, convictions, and permissions In contrast, epistemic modality deals with knowledge and beliefs related to reality.
Through modal auxiliaries such as “will,” “might,” and “would,” epistemic modality expresses judgments about the status and/or certainty of that knowledge and belief (Dunmire, 2008, p 85)
Modality, as defined by Fairclough (1992b), refers to the degree of commitment or distancing that producers exhibit towards propositions, reflecting their 'affinity' with those propositions This concept, borrowed from Hodge and Kress (1988), aligns with the representation of social actors in terms of inclusion and exclusion, making it relevant to the study of collective identity Koller’s model further explores this relationship by analyzing how modality impacts the understanding of collective identity.
The author explores the evolution of social groups across past, present, and future contexts, examining potential developments through an epistemic lens By analyzing the likelihood and desirability of these developments, the text producer reveals their beliefs about social actors and sets specific goals for them These goals are driven by underlying values, as social actors pursue what they deem good and important Consequently, the analysis of modality is intrinsically connected to the norms and values identified through evaluative analysis, as highlighted by Koller.
Referring back to the term „affinity‟ Fairclough (1992b, p 159) posits that
Subjective modality refers to the explicit expression of a speaker's or writer's personal degree of affinity toward a proposition In contrast, objective modality is characterized by a more detached perspective, where the speaker's personal feelings are less pronounced Understanding these modalities is crucial for effective communication, as they influence how propositions are perceived and interpreted.
„subjective basis is left implicit.‟ For example, it may rain tomorrow it may be unclear that whose perspective is being expressed
Fairclough (2003) argues that modality encompasses more than just modal verbs like can, will, or must It includes various forms of expression, such as statements that convey modality without modal verbs (e.g., viewing conflict as creative), as well as questions (e.g., "Isn't the window open?"), demands (e.g., "Open the window!"), offers (e.g., "I'll open the window."), and grammatical moods (declarative, interrogative, imperative).
Intertextuality and Interdiscursivity
This subsection presents the framework of analyzing intertextuality and interdiscursivity The term „intertextuality‟along with its kin term
Interdiscursivity is a prominent concept in cultural studies, linguistics, and sociolinguistics, yet it remains open to diverse interpretations Fairclough (1992b) describes intertextuality as the characteristic of texts containing excerpts from other texts, which can be either clearly marked or blended in, allowing for various forms of interaction such as assimilation, contradiction, and irony Bartesaghi (2015) further clarifies this concept, emphasizing its multifaceted nature.
Intertextuality highlights how texts are interconnected, drawing on previous works to create meaning Bartesaghi and Noy (2015) elaborate that interdiscursivity extends this concept, viewing discourse as a complex network of simultaneous linguistic acts that encompass broader contexts and interrelations than a single text Silverstein (1976) further asserts that intertextuality and intertexts emerge through communicative events utilizing interdiscursive techniques.
Intertextual analysis examines the intersection of text and discourse practice, highlighting how discourse influences textual meaning According to Fairclough (1995b, p 61), this approach involves analyzing texts through the lens of their discourse practices, revealing the underlying traces of these practices within the text itself.
Linguistic analysis is primarily descriptive, while intertextual analysis leans towards interpretation (Fairclough, 1995b) Intertextuality refers to the way texts incorporate elements from other texts, either explicitly or implicitly, allowing for various interactions such as assimilation or contradiction (Fairclough, 1992b) Fairclough identifies two forms of intertextuality: manifest intertextuality, which involves clear references to other texts through citations or quotation marks, and constitutive intertextuality, which pertains to the incorporation of discourse conventions within texts (Fairclough, 1992b) He also emphasizes that the linguistic features of texts can serve as evidence for intertextual analysis, which interprets this evidence to uncover deeper meanings (Fairclough, 1995b).
The analysis of interdiscursivity reveals the intricate relationships between texts, genres, and discourses, highlighting both inter-group dynamics and collective identity formation (Koller, 2012) This concept illustrates the power struggles between text producers and the social norms and values they embody According to Fairclough (2003), interdiscursivity emphasizes the dialogical nature of texts, showcasing the interaction between the author's voice and other influences, which contributes to the construction of identity and style.
Interdiscursivity analysis may face challenges in precisely identifying extensive and complex sets of texts (Fairclough, 2003, p 47) To initiate this analytical process, it is essential to consider which texts and voices are included or excluded and to identify any significant absences (Fairclough, 2003, p 47) When two texts, genres, or discourses are interconnected, they introduce diverse perspectives, objectives, and interests into the new text, which can be recognized through four types of reporting.
Direct reporting: Quotation, purported the actual words used, in quotation marks, with reporting clause (e.g She said: „He‟ll be there by now‟)
Indirect reporting involves summarizing the content of what was said or written without using the exact words, avoiding quotation marks This method includes a reporting clause, such as "she said he’d be there by then," and requires shifts in tense, where "he'll" changes to "he'd," and adjustments in deixis, transforming "now" into "then."
Free indirect reporting serves as a bridge between direct and indirect speech, incorporating certain tense and deixis shifts characteristic of indirect discourse while omitting a reporting clause This technique is particularly prominent in literary contexts, as illustrated by examples like "Mary gazed out of the window He would be there by now She smiled to herself."
Narrative report of speech act: Reports the sort of speech act without reporting its content (e.g She made a prediction) (Fairclough, 2003, p 49)
Fairclough (2003) suggests that genre represents a type of prospective interdiscursivity, highlighting the concept of genre mixing or hybridity as a characteristic of textual interdiscursivity Additionally, he notes that irony can also serve as a feature of interdiscursivity within texts.
Analyzing Identity
This subsection discusses the parameters to analyze the constructon of identity as a discursive work, which focuses mainly on Bucholtz and Hall‟s (2005) and De Fina (2011) frameworks of identity analysis
Identity has garnered significant interest across various disciplines, with Bucholtz and Hall (2005) emphasizing that the analytical approach has taken precedence over theoretical frameworks in identity studies They propose key principles for analyzing identity, highlighting the importance of a structured methodology in understanding this complex concept.
Identity is primarily a social and cultural phenomenon shaped by linguistic and semiotic practices, rather than an internal psychological trait It encompasses various dimensions, including broad demographic categories, specific situational stances, and culturally emergent positions Linguistically, identities are expressed through labels, implicatures, styles, and structures They are relationally constructed, influenced by the dynamics of similarity and difference, authenticity, and authority Additionally, identity is a complex interplay of intentionality, habitual behavior, interactional negotiation, and the perceptions of others, all shaped by broader ideological frameworks.
Identity is inherently social and cultural, as highlighted by Antaki and Widdicombe (1998), who emphasize the significance of local talk in understanding how identities are constructed and negotiated They argue that holding an identity involves being categorized with specific characteristics, influenced by local contexts This concept of local occasioning suggests that individuals not only project their identities onto others but also shape the surrounding context, making these identities relevant and impactful Furthermore, studies by Hall (1997) and Chun (2001) indicate that macro categories of identity can ideologically influence one another, meaning that the same social identity can carry different meanings depending on the contextual factors at play.
Bucholtz and Hall (2005, p 591) argue, discursive identity basically emerges
In communication, individuals and groups construct and negotiate their identities through various roles, such as evaluator, joke teller, or engaged listener, defining themselves in relation to others (Fairclough, 2003) The dynamics of 'us' versus 'them' serve as crucial mechanisms for expressing political identities, aiding in garnering support and countering rivals (De Fina, 1995; van Dijk, 2010; Wilson, 1990) Positioning refers to the process by which discourse shapes identities, highlighting the plurality of selves formed through diverse social situations and discursive practices (Fairclough, 1992b; Davie & Harre, 1990) However, De Fina (2011) notes that not all identities can be easily negotiated due to power relations that grant some individuals a voice while silencing others This perspective aligns with Briggs's (2007) findings, indicating that ideological associations can significantly influence the roles and actions of those involved.
Identities are socially constructed and negotiated in various ways, as individuals embrace labels such as "politician," "good student," or "fan of Elton John." This process involves both direct and indirect discussions of identity, where individuals define the criteria for roles like "good father." Through speeches, such as Hillary Clinton's Concession Speech, significant identity work is accomplished via meaningful associations Language, sounds, and expressions are linked to qualities and ideologies, illustrating the concept of indexicality, which refers to the creation and modification of meaning within accepted social contexts.
The concept of indexicality, introduced by Silverstein in 1976, refers to the connections between linguistic expressions and their social meanings According to Bucholtz and Hall (2005, p 594), indexicality can be identified and analyzed across all levels of linguistics.
Identity relations develop through various interrelated processes during interactions, which include the explicit reference to identity categories and labels, the implications and assumptions about one's own or others' identity positions, the expression of evaluative and epistemic attitudes towards the conversation, and the roles of participants Additionally, the use of linguistic structures linked to particular personas and groups plays a crucial role in shaping these identity relations (Bucholtz and Hall, 2005, p 594).
The use of the term "guy" to address someone often indicates a close relationship, while language, accents, and expressions can reflect group identities and social traits For instance, the pronunciation of "l" instead of "n" by some Hanoians signifies a stiff persona linked to regional identity Hall (1997) discovered that premodifiers and adjectives are essential in shaping the identity of hijra in India Additionally, Liang's research shows that the LGBTQ+ community employs implicature to navigate potentially hostile reactions from others.
The principle emphasizes the connection between social meaning, identity positions, and social actors, suggesting that the exploration of identity relations should focus exclusively on aspects of similarity and difference According to Bucholtz and Hall (2004), understanding these dynamics is crucial for comprehending how identities are constructed and perceived within social contexts.
Bucholtz and Hall (2005) introduce three pairs of identity relations, emphasizing that these concepts are not mutually exclusive and may overlap The first pair, adequation and distinction, challenges traditional views of identity by suggesting that groups or individuals do not need to be identical to be perceived as similar; rather, they must be understood as sufficiently alike for the context of current interactions This perspective highlights the complexity of identity construction and the importance of context in shaping perceptions of similarity and difference.
In identity work, differences that may hinder collaboration between individuals or groups are often minimized, while similarities that enhance and support the current objectives are emphasized This approach fosters a more cohesive environment, allowing for effective collaboration and mutual understanding.
The concept of distinction, initially proposed by Bourdieu (1984), refers to the differentiation based on social class among bourgeois members Bucholtz and Hall (2005) expand this idea to encompass a broader range of social differentiation processes Additionally, they introduce the concepts of authentication and denaturalization, which describe how speakers assert authenticity and artifice in their claims.
The term authentication discerns the analysis of how identities are verified in discourse, meanwhile the term denaturalization emphasizes the ways in which
The concept of identity is often challenged by the interplay of authorization and illegitimation, as outlined by Bucholtz and Hall (2005) Authorization refers to the affirmation or imposition of identity through established power structures and ideologies, whether at a local or global level In contrast, illegitimation involves the rejection or criticism of identities by these same institutional forces (Moustafa, 2015) This dynamic reveals how identities can be both constructed and deconstructed within societal frameworks.
Speakers can create various identities in their discourse by adjusting their levels of authorship and accountability In a monologic speech, for instance, the speaker typically represents the author, distancing their identity from that of the out-group This allows the speaker to effectively erase their own identity, enabling them to construct a new identity that aligns with their group Alternatively, they may choose to mock the rival's identity to evade authorization and responsibility.
The fifth tool named by Bucholtz and Hall (2005) is partialness Visweswaran
The concept of identity is shaped by context and is inherently partial, as noted by Bucholtz and Hall (2005) Identity construction involves both intentional actions and habitual behaviors that may not be fully conscious Individual analyses often highlight only specific aspects of identity, but interdisciplinary research within sociocultural linguistics can reveal its multiple dimensions Understanding identity is closely linked to the notion of agency, which should not be seen merely as an individualistic act but as a product of social interactions In this framework, every use of language is considered an act of agency (Duranti, 2004), emphasizing the interconnectedness of identity and social action.
Discussion of Validity and Reliability
This study ensures reliability by incorporating deviant cases and utilizing tables to present findings derived from original data Validity is established through the parameters addressing the research questions, employing an interdisciplinary approach to analyze linguistic devices at the micro-level, context and interaction at the meso-level, and social factors at the macro-level, thereby aligning with Fairclough's critical discourse analysis framework Marchi and Taylor (2009) emphasize that CDA's qualitative methodology provides deep insights into data, supported by a robust theoretical foundation Additionally, triangulation, as noted by Baker (2014), enhances validity by facilitating hypothesis checks, anchoring findings in solid interpretations, and enabling researchers to adapt to unexpected research challenges.
The validity of the findings is identified through the following steps (Saldaủa, 2015, pp 9-15):
Figure 5: Coding as a cyclical act in qualitative inquiry
Categories to theoryConcrete data
This qualitative case study is built on the speech Hillary Clinton delivered on
On June 2, 2015, the analysis of Hillary Clinton's campaign speech for the White House is examined through van Leeuwen's (1996) representation of social actors and Fairclough's (2003) language styles Critical discourse analysis emphasizes the importance of context in interpreting findings, leading to the integration of Clinton's speech and the backdrop of the 2016 Presidential General Election in Chapter 3 The findings aim to address the hypothesis from Chapter 2, focusing on identity construction in discourse, the language used, and the underlying purposes of these linguistic choices through concepts such as social grouping, transitivity in systemic functional grammar (SFG), modality, intertextuality, and interdiscursivity.
This chapter presents both qualitative and quantitative findings related to the research questions, with Section 4.1 focusing on social group struggles and collective identity, while Section 4.2 explores the formation of personal identity through discourse Additionally, the chapter provides an interpretation of the findings, supporting evidence, and connections to the study's methodology and background, leading into a discussion of the results.
Social Group Struggles and Collective Identity
Social grouping
The micro-level analysis of the data highlights key social actors in the text, including Hillary Clinton, who asserts, "I wrestled with the Chinese over climate change," and Donald Trump, described as "he is temperamentally unfit to hold an office." The phrase "we observed Memorial Day" reflects the collective identity of the American people, while specific addresses like "thank you so much, thank you San Diego" engage the audience present at her campaign Clinton also confronts Trump directly with statements such as "you insult American Muslims or Mexican immigrants" and "you blow up a golf-course deal." Furthermore, she appeals to the broader American populace with remarks like "you know what, I love this country and you do too," while the anaphoric references of "they" and "them" primarily point to external groups or opponents.
The socio-political landscape reveals a clear division between in-group and out-group dynamics, where American allies, including President Obama and Hillary Clinton, are categorized as "us," while adversaries like ISIS, Donald Trump, and nations such as China, Russia, North Korea, and Iran are seen as "them." This dichotomy underscores the ongoing struggle between these groups, highlighting how language shapes perceptions of social actors within geopolitical contexts.
Exclusion
The micro-level analysis of text reveals that the us/them categorization can be ambiguous, particularly in instances of exclusion (van Leeuwen, 1996) For a comprehensive examination of how social actors are represented at the textual level, refer to Appendix 1 In this analysis, included social actors are emphasized through underlining and italics, while suppressed exclusions are indicated in bold italics, and backgrounding exclusions are marked in bold.
Hillary Clinton often employs negative adjectives to undermine the credibility of opposing social actors, using terms such as fearful, less secure, less engaged, bizarre, wrong, nasty, and painful to legitimize her perspective.
During the raid to eliminate bin Laden, the narrative suggests a deliberate omission of key social actors, notably the American military The speaker reflects on her experience in the Situation Room with President Obama, where they discussed the potential operation against bin Laden, highlighting her involvement in this historic moment.
Making informed decisions requires a calm demeanor and a commitment to factual accuracy, whether it involves the President or the commander-in-chief It is crucial for individuals to take charge of their own futures rather than allowing others to dictate their paths This sentiment reflects a broader concern for the agency of the American people Additionally, effectively combating global terrorist networks and ensuring homeland security demands more than mere rhetoric and superficial slogans; it necessitates substantive action and dedication.
Hillary Clinton emphasized her strategic approach to leveraging American strength in the fight against global terrorism, showcasing her capability to safeguard the homeland In contrast, she criticized Donald Trump’s reliance on superficial slogans and vague promises, highlighting the depth and effectiveness of her plans.
Hillary Clinton's speech features notable instances of non-finite clauses with –ing forms and paratactic structures She emphasizes honoring the sacrifices of those who died for the country by living out shared values, strengthening the nation, and pursuing a principled foreign policy Additionally, she recounts her diplomatic efforts, including negotiating a climate deal in Copenhagen, brokering a ceasefire between Israel and Hamas, reducing nuclear weapons with Russia, advocating for global sanctions against Iran, and defending the rights of women, religious minorities, and LGBT individuals worldwide.
In 20 cases of backgrounding, the main backgrounded social actor is Donald Trump with 11 cases In which, she legitimized her voice that „Letting ISIS run wild Launching a nuclear attack Starting a ground wa r These are all distinct possibilities with Donald Trump in charge.‟ And she went on „Now imagine Donald Trump sitting in the Situation Room, making life-or-death decisions on behalf of the United States.‟
Hillary Clinton's representation of social actors highlights her significant choices regarding inclusion and exclusion While motivations for exclusion can vary, Clinton strategically employs it to achieve two key objectives: to legitimize and downplay the out-group, and to reshape and reinforce the values and beliefs within her in-group.
Activation and passivation
Figure 6: Activation and passivation of social actors
The representation of social actors reveals a clear distinction between in-group and out-group dynamics, with in-group actors taking a prominent role, accounting for 32% of the representation These in-group actors are portrayed as actively serving the nation, promoting equality, and protecting the country, exemplified by statements like, "I had the honor of representing America abroad" and "America stands up to countries that treat women like animals." Furthermore, the analysis highlights that the in-group is deemed most suitable for leadership roles, as seen in the phrase, "We’re choosing our next commander-in-chief." Notably, a significant portion of in-group activation, representing 31%, emerges when the social actors "I" or "we" are positioned as the driving force behind the actions.
Activation SubjectivationBeneficialization Linear (Activation)
Meanwhile, the in-group passivation occurs when social actors are represented as
The article highlights the significance of social actors in various contexts, noting that 3% of in-group members either positively or negatively influence social activities Key beneficiaries include families, as seen in the support for Gold Star families, the nation itself, which aims to become a stronger and fairer country, and the American military, which relies on staging areas for operations Additionally, the article addresses broader groups such as immigrants, women, veterans, and American workers, emphasizing the collective impact of these social dynamics.
The activation of out-group social actors accounts for 21%, in which Donald Trump, ISIS, Iran, China and Russia stand for most of the cases
The activated role of social actors positions them as the driving force behind their activities, yet they face significant threats from ISIS, unpredictable actions from Donald Trump, and risks posed by China and Russia Out-group social actors are often portrayed as the targets of in-group initiatives, as exemplified by claims of providing clear strategies to defeat ISIS Additionally, Donald Trump's connections with authoritarian leaders, such as Vladimir Putin and Kim Jong Un, highlight the complexities of this dynamic.
The analysis reveals a significant disparity in the use of genericization and specification, with 56 instances of generalization compared to only two specific cases, highlighting the mention of 1.5 billion Muslims and 112 countries visited Notably, only one in eight genericizations pertains to the out-group, often labeling them as terrorists, dictators, or criminals, while the in-group is predominantly represented as high-ranking officials and marginalized communities, including religious minorities, LGBT individuals, Mexican immigrants, the disabled, and women.
The choices between generic and specific reference is of crucial factor in the representation of social actors (van Leeuwen, 1996) It may give a sense of location and sharing(Rutherford & Angela, 1990)
Hillary Clinton often emphasized a collective identity by using terms like "we," "the American people," and "this country," uniting her supporters and party In contrast, Donald Trump primarily focused on individualism, frequently referring to himself in the third person with "he" and using his proper name, creating a distinct separation from the collective narrative.
Hillary Clinton actively sought endorsements from a diverse range of social groups, highlighting her appeal to various segments of American society She aimed for support from governmental bodies, including elected officials, service members, and veterans, as well as from citizens like families and civilians Clinton also recognized the importance of backing from social groups such as women, religious minorities, LGBT individuals, and American workers Additionally, she emphasized her global outreach by mentioning allies and countries worldwide Notably, she unified Republicans and Democrats by acknowledging their collective efforts in strengthening America, stating, "It would undo so much of the work that Republicans and Democrats alike have done over many decades to make America stronger and more secure."
Collectivized social groups associated with Donald Trump are often viewed negatively, encompassing labels such as suspected terrorists, Chinese individuals, dictators, rapists, murderers, tyrants, pigs, supremacists, and adversaries, all of which are presented without any argumentative context.
Hillary Clinton recognizes three key associations involving military personnel and their families: first, honoring active-duty and former service members for their sacrifices; second, highlighting her own service as Secretary of State, Senator, and First Lady; and third, acknowledging high-ranking officials such as generals and ambassadors, whom Donald Trump claims he need not heed Additionally, she associates with global leaders like the British Prime Minister and the German Chancellor, forming social groups that oppose Trump Through these associations, Clinton emphasizes shared identity and solidarity within in-groups, aiming to enhance voter appeal by fostering a sense of community among supporters (Callero, 1985; Lipsitz, 2005).
The analysis indicates that indetermination is strategically employed when social actors are depicted as vague, anonymous entities Hillary Clinton may present her identity as inconsequential to the audience, embodying an impersonal authority that serves as a potent, though unseen, coercive influence (van Leeuwen, 1996).
Donald Trump's temperament raises concerns about his suitability for holding nuclear codes, as his reactions to criticism could potentially lead to unnecessary conflict.
3 This is someone who has threatened to abandon our allies in NATO - the countries that work with us to root out terrorists abroad before they strike us at home
4 Those are the words my friends of someone who doesn‟t understand America or the world
5 And they‟re the words of someone who would lead us in the wrong direction Because if you really believe America is weak - with our military, our values, our capabilities that no other country comes close to matching - then you don‟t know America
6 Do we want him making those calls - someone thin-skinned and quick to anger, who lashes out at the smallest criticism? Do we want his finger anywhere near the button?
7 Take the nuclear agreement with Iran When President Obama took office, Iran was racing toward a nuclear bomb Some called for military action But that could have ignited a broader war that could have mired our troops in another Middle Eastern conflict
8 He was wrong then, and he‟s wrong now - and you‟ve got to wonder why somebody who fundamentally has so little confidence in America, and has felt that way for at least 30 years, wants to be our President
9 … it‟s their families, their spouses, their children, and we are grateful to each and every one of them
10 He has no sense of what it takes to deal with multiple countries with competing interests and reaching a solution that everyone can get behind In fact, he is downright contemptuous of that work
Impersonalization
The analysis of representational choices regarding impersonalization revealed 30 instances of in-group spatialization and 34 instances of out-group spatialization, as detailed in the table provided below (See Appendix 2).
Social actors Cases Social actors Cases
America 16 ISIS 13 the world 5 Iran 5
Out-group semi-formal nomination
Impersonalization serves two primary functions: it obscures the identity of in-group social actors to enhance their authority and influence, as seen in the example of San Diego representing various supporters of Hillary Clinton, and it casts negative light on out-group social actors, such as Beijing's dumping of cheap steel in the US market, which adversely impacts American workers Additionally, impersonalization fosters a sense of unity among Hillary Clinton's followers, reinforcing shared identities and values, ultimately creating a feeling of completeness and assurance.
In summary, this section highlights the key distinctions between the in-group and out-group, emphasizing how the representation of social actors plays a crucial role The struggles faced by these social groups contribute to the development of a robust collective identity for the in-group, serving as a means of defense against the out-group.
Language Styles and Personal Identity
Role allocation in process types
In an analysis of Hillary Clinton's speech, a total of 373 clauses were identified, revealing 220 instances of in-group involvement and 153 instances of out-group involvement The study categorized the clauses according to five process types defined by Halliday et al (2014) The findings indicated that the material process was the most prevalent, comprising 40% of the cases (150 instances), followed by the mental process at 25% (91 instances), and the relational process at 23% (88 instances) The verbal process accounted for 12% (42 instances), while the existential process was absent and the behavioral process appeared in only two instances, making up 1% Notably, the analysis excluded clauses without social actors and those that were nominalized.
Figure 9: Process frequencies with the in-group and out-group representation of social actors
The material processes were found to be the most frequently used
Li (2006) defines the material process as the expression of an entity's actions, encompassing both tangible events and abstract occurrences The analysis reveals that Hillary Clinton exemplifies a proactive individual, emphasizing her actions over personal feelings Additionally, she frequently embodies the material process within her group, highlighting her role as a key actor.
The in-group is portrayed as the protector of the United States and global security, committed to defeating ISIS, ensuring America's safety, addressing challenges posed by China, negotiating with Russia, and managing relations with Iran.
I‟ve offered clear strategies for how to defeat ISIS, strengthen our alliances, and make sure Iran never gets a nuclear weapon
I engaged in negotiations with China for a climate agreement in Copenhagen, facilitated a ceasefire between Israel and Hamas, and worked towards nuclear disarmament with Russia, striving to unite the global community.
On the contrary, the actions embedded with the out-group as something unfit or immature and even dangerous She said:
And it also matters when he makes fun of disabled people, calls women pigs, proposes banning an entire religion from our country, or plays coy with white supremacists
He is literally keeping it a secret
And it also matters when he makes fun of disabled people
Now imagine Donald Trump sitting in the Situation Room, making life-or- death decisions on behalf of the United States
The portrayal of Donald Trump as a thin-skinned individual reflects his unpreparedness and unsuitability for leadership, likening his behavior to that of a child who struggles to keep secrets, mocks others, and engages in petty tactics like bragging and tweeting insults This characterization highlights his lack of serious strategies, particularly regarding significant issues such as ISIS, and underscores a reliance on juvenile phrases that diminish his political credibility Hillary Clinton's approach effectively positions Trump as immature, drawing on linguistic strategies that resonate with everyday conversations rather than political discourse.
(2003) called or dialogicality to construct herself as an experienced politician Bucholtz and Hall (2005) named this as dialogism
In-group social actors are defined by dynamic actions such as shape, strengthen, negotiate, and lead, all aimed at fostering a robust American identity through effective foreign policy A proactive commander-in-chief embodies these qualities, taking decisive actions to protect, win, and inspire By engaging in meaningful dialogue and collaboration, these leaders strive to achieve greatness and respond to challenges, ultimately working to dream, embrace, and prevail in their mission.
Out-group social actors are often portrayed as incapable and unfit, associated with harmful actions that threaten the nation or global stability They are accused of jeopardizing the country by adding $30 trillion to the national debt, rushing towards nuclear armament, and engaging in aggressive military actions This negative characterization includes verbs that imply dangerous behavior, such as celebrating detrimental events, undermining national interests, and making life-or-death decisions, ultimately framing them as a significant threat to the in-group.
Mental processes are closely tied to human consciousness and are often perceived as subjective (Halliday et al., 2014) In Clinton's discourse, the mental process of wanting was employed to inspire the in-group's strong will and determination for a better America, reinforcing the sense of in-group identity.
I want to recognize and thank Congressman Scott Peters for being here, thank you very much
That‟s what I want to speak about today - the challenges we face in protecting our country, and the choice at stake in this election
That brings me to the final point I want to make today - the temperament it takes to be Commander-in-Chief
We should be cautious about allowing someone who is easily offended and prone to anger to make critical decisions, especially when it comes to matters of significant importance The potential for rash reactions to even minor criticisms raises concerns about their judgment, particularly in high-stakes situations.
Clinton effectively employed mental processes in her discourse to convey in-group sentiments and beliefs, frequently using the verbs "know" and "believe." This linguistic strategy not only reinforced her connection with supporters but also cast doubt on out-group social actors.
Because as you know so well, Americans aren‟t just electing a President in November
In November, Americans are not only voting for a President; they are selecting their next commander-in-chief, who will be responsible for making critical decisions regarding war and peace, as well as matters of life and death.
We all know the tools Donald Trump brings to the table - bragging, mocking, composing nasty tweets - I‟m willing to bet he‟s writing a few right now
They deserve a commander-in-chief who knows that
That‟s not the America I know and love
I love this country and I know you do too
And like many across our country and around the world, I believe the person the Republicans have nominated for President cannot do the job
He also said, „I know more about ISIS than the generals do, believe me.‟ You know what? I don‟t believe him
I am committed to preventing Donald Trump from becoming President, as I believe his leadership would lead our country down a perilous path.
I believe in strong alliances; clarity in dealing with our rivals; and a rock- solid commitment to the values that have always made America great
And I believe with all my heart that America is an exceptional country - that we‟re still, in Lincoln‟s words, the last, best hope of earth
Let‟s resolve that we can be greater still That is what I believe in my heart
I wonder if he even realizes he‟s talking about nuclear war
I just wonder how anyone could be so wrong about who America‟s real friends are
For over 30 years, he has consistently demonstrated a lack of confidence in America, raising questions about why someone with such views aspires to the presidency.
The unprepared and untempered behavior of out-group social actors poses a perceived threat to the US, evoking strong emotions and reactions This is evident in the mental processes employed to express feelings of danger, such as believing, treating, and knowing the out-group as a menace Furthermore, the use of verbs like jeopardize, suggest, and realize highlights the perceived risks associated with the out-group, while actions like refuse, guess, insult, and lash out underscore the negative sentiments towards them Ultimately, the out-group's perceived inability to understand America fuels these negative reactions, perpetuating a cycle of mistrust and hostility.
The relational process is identified as the third most frequently utilized process type, characterized as a process of Being that defines the relationship between two entities or concepts (Halliday et al., 2014) According to Halliday et al (2014), this process is particularly significant in scientific writing, where it often conveys the most informative content Additionally, the relational process is divided into two subcategories: the attributive process and the identifying relational process.
A common type of relational process ascribes an attribute to an entity(Bloor
& Bloor, 2013) In this study, the relational process analysis reveals what attributes social groups are ascribed with
Hillary Clinton first activated the gratefulness of in-group social actors and American people to say:
Modality
The analysis of modality in Clinton's discourse reveals a significant presence of strong epistemic and deontic modalities, expressed through various modalizers, adverbs, and verbs Utilizing Wordsmith Tools 7.0, a concordance was generated to closely examine the modalizers and terminology that indicate levels of commitment within the data.
The first noticeable epistemic modalizer found in the text was „will‟ with N
= 19, of which 5 cases (7, 10, 13, 18, 19) were ascribed with in-group, 10 cases (1,
Hillary Clinton strategically employed epistemic modalizers like "will" to portray the in-group as strong, action-oriented, and hawkish, stating phrases such as "our militaries will run a joint drill" and "the United States will act decisively." Additionally, she characterized the out-group using negative terms such as rush, chaos, trick, and murder, highlighting a clear distinction between the two groups.
The strategic use of "would" in the analysis, with a sample size of 17, reveals that all subjective modalities (N = 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14) directly characterize the out-group In contrast, the remaining seven cases describe the out-group indirectly, attributing various negative aspects to Donald Trump, including economic catastrophe, torture, and a $30 trillion national debt Additionally, he is associated with weakness, jeopardization, betrayal of allies, global crises, ISIS, historic mistakes, destruction of the past, and an overall negative narrative that contributes to a sense of global depression.
Epistemic modalities were strategically used to portray out-group developments, framing them as threats linked to chaos, terrorism, and a betrayal of American values The out-group was primarily characterized by hypothetical actions, particularly through the use of the modal verb "would."
Clinton effectively employed the deontic modalizer "should" to highlight the negative implications of the out-group's policies in 8 out of 9 instances By asserting that the out-group should not possess nuclear codes, weapons, or engage in military actions, she emphasized the potential dangers to American troops and the threat posed by ISIS This approach underscored the in-group's moral obligation to prevent nuclear conflict and warfare, clearly delineating the responsibilities at stake.
Hillary Clinton emphasizes the imperative of obligation within the in-group to protect America, highlighting the need for action and readiness for conflict By instilling a sense of strong duty, she portrays the in-group as united and prepared to assume the role of a commander-in-chief.
Clinton's assertion of deontic modality reflects a commitment to an American-led world order, positioning herself as a defender against those who undermine established alliances By stating, "we have to be able to both stand our ground and find common ground," she emphasizes the need for balance between assertiveness and collaboration in international relations, contrasting her approach with that of an unfit out-group actor who disregards military advice.
Figure 14: Deontic modalizer „have to‟
The analysis of deontic modality features shows that they were mainly employed to describe the in-group values and obligation on foreign policy.
Intertextuality and interdiscursivity
The analysis of intertextuality and interdiscursivity reveals significant findings regarding reporting styles and genre mixing Clinton employed direct quotations to highlight Trump's controversial statements, using phrases like "a very good brain" to ironically critique his dismissal of military advice She reinforced her argument by quoting Trump's claim of knowing more about ISIS than the generals, and used the term "a third-world country" to undermine his credibility and rally opposition Additionally, she referenced Trump's remarks on nuclear weapons and conflict in Japan and North Korea, including his assertion that "the world is laughing at us" and his acknowledgment of Kim Jong Un's leadership.
Korea; and she quoted „maybe Syria should be a free zone for ISIS.‟
Second, Clinton used indirect reporting to construct Trump as temperamentally unfit to be the commander-in-chief:
He has said that he would order our military to carry out torture and murder of civilians
He says he doesn‟t have to listen to our generals or our admirals, our ambassadors and other high officials
He says climate change is a hoax invented by the Chinese
He has the gall to say that prisoners of war like John McCain aren‟t heroes
He says he has foreign policy experience because he ran the Miss Universe pageant in Russia
He talks about leaving NATO, or says he‟ll stay neutral on Israel‟s security
He suggests that American should withdraw our military support for Japan He‟s talking about nuclear war
He said it showed strength
Donald Trump says things that go against our deepest-held values
He says he‟ll order our military to murder the families of suspected terrorists
What he says would weaken our country
These lines pictured Trump as a danger, terror, torture, murder and as an unexperienced politician running a Miss Universe pageant only
Third, there were cases of free and narrative reporting in the discourse when Clinton repeatedly reported Trump‟s ideas with the verb „believe‟:
He believes we can treat the US economy like one of his casinos and default on our debts to the rest of the world
He praises dictators like Vladimir Putin and picks fights with our friends
He called our military a disaster
Rather than solving global crises, he would create new ones
He wants to start a trade war with China
He praised China for the Tiananmen Square Massacre
He has no idea what he‟d do to stop ISIS
He refused to rule out using nuclear weapons against ISIS
He makes fun of disable people, calls women pigs, proposes banning an entire religion from our country, or plays coy with white supremacists
Imagine if he had not just his Twitter account at his disposal when he‟s angry
Hillary Clinton argues that Donald Trump's lack of foreign policy experience makes him untrustworthy, presenting a compelling reason for conservatives and Americans across the political spectrum—moderates, liberals, and socialists—who oppose nuclear war and global crises to support her candidacy.
The analysis of interdiscursivity shows that Hillary combines different discourses together by adding personal experience to political issues:
As a Secretary of State, Senator and First Lady, I had the honor of representing
America abroad and helping shape our foreign policy at home
In contrast to him, I possess significant experience in statecraft, having engaged in complex negotiations such as the climate deal with China in Copenhagen, facilitating a ceasefire between Israel and Hamas, and negotiating nuclear weapons reductions with Russia I have also worked diligently to unite global efforts for sanctions against Iran and advocated for the rights of women, religious minorities, and LGBT individuals worldwide.
And I have, I have sat in the Situation Room and advised the President on some of the toughest choices he faced
I worked closely with our allies Japan and South Korea to respond to this threat, including by creating a missile defense system that stand ready to shoot down a North Korean warhead
I spearheaded the initiative to implement severe global sanctions, successfully bringing Iran to the negotiating table Through these discussions, we ultimately achieved an agreement designed to eliminate all potential avenues for Iran to develop a nuclear weapon.
The analysis reveals that Hillary Clinton employed various genres in her speech, notably incorporating fillers typical of casual conversation These fillers include verbal expressions like "well" and "you know," along with pause fillers such as "yes."
What‟s Trump‟s? Well, he won‟t say
He also said, „I know more about ISIS than the generals do, believe me.‟ You know what? I don‟t believe him
Yes, our friends need to contribute their fair share
In her speech, Clinton employs an informal or casual style, characterized by her use of idioms and phrasal verbs, which enhances relatability and engagement with her audience.
And to top it off, he believes America is weak
We need to lash up with our allies
The analysis highlights the use of ellipsis in her speech, which involves the intentional omission of elements like subject pronouns, auxiliary verbs, and verb complements.
So, then what? War? Telling the world, good luck, you deal with Iran?
Finally, the analysis shows that Clinton used rhetorical questions, listing and contrastive devices: For example, when talking about nuclear weapon and a future commander-in-chief, she asked:
We should be cautious about having someone who is easily offended and quick to react in positions of power, especially when it comes to critical decisions The potential for rash actions in response to minor criticisms raises concerns about their judgment and control, particularly regarding sensitive matters.
And to contrast herself with GOP presumptive nominee, she used rhetorical listing to list out six points she is different from Trump
The existence of these linguistic features indicates the intertextualproperties of the speech This mix of genre is also referred to as hybridity (Fairclough, 1995a)
This chapter offers a comprehensive analysis of the key research findings from Chapter 4, addressing each research question and relating the results to prior studies Section 5.1 explores the discursive construction of collective identity, highlighting the linguistic devices used and their intended purposes Meanwhile, Section 5.2 examines the construction of personal identity as a discursive process, detailing how language was conveyed Overall, this chapter serves as a summary of the discussed themes and findings.
Collective Identity
In her speech, Clinton employs a persuasive discourse that highlights the polarization of social actors, emphasizing a strong collective identity through the dichotomy of 'us' versus 'them.' This division is particularly evident in her critique of foreign policy and Donald Trump's viewpoints Her arguments are supported by various analytical elements, including actor description, exclusion, social grouping, genericization, activation, and subjection, all of which contribute to the formation of a cohesive collective identity.
The strategic categorization of social actors into in-groups and out-groups often assigns positive traits to the in-group and negative traits to the out-group Hillary Clinton exemplified this dynamic by using suppression to frame the out-group with negative associations such as terrorism, economic crisis, and unfitness for leadership, while portraying the in-group as strong, hopeful, and capable of good foreign policy The in-group was linked to prestigious figures, including elected officials and military leaders, whereas the out-group was associated with terrorism and dictatorship Furthermore, the formal nomination of in-group members over the out-group suggests a struggle for power, aligning with Polletta and Jasper's (2001) insights on social categorization.
„unlike ideology, collective identity carries with it positive feelings for other members of the groups.‟
The strategic choice of language in Hillary Clinton's speech highlights a clear distinction between the in-group and out-group, with the former being referred to as "we," "the US," or "America," while the latter is individualized through proper names or third-person singular pronouns like "he." This approach not only emphasizes the actions and attributes of out-group members but also reflects an ideological struggle, aiming to legitimize the in-group while downplaying the out-group Such descriptive choices reveal that language is never neutral; it serves semantic, rhetorical, and argumentative purposes that convey underlying values and beliefs (van Dijk, 1998) Ultimately, this strategic collectivization fosters a sense of recognition and attachment, thereby reinforcing a strong collective identity, as defined by Eisenstadt and Giesen (1995), as a shared identity.
Social groups were depersonalized to enhance the authority of in-group members while casting out-group members in a negative light This strategy fosters a sense of shared identity and values among in-group members, promoting unity and assurance Ultimately, this approach effectively encourages individuals to mobilize and engage collectively.
The representation of in-group social actors was notably more active, indicating their role as the true agents of action and future direction In contrast, the out-group was depicted in a passive manner, suggesting their inability to uphold American values and beliefs This observation aligns with the findings of Nejad, Shamsaddini, Pandian, and Mahfoodh (2013), who analyzed George W Bush’s speech regarding the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
The analysis of process types reveals a distinction in collective identity, where the in-group is associated with more material processes, suggesting their qualification as leaders, while the out-group is linked to verbal processes, implying superficiality This distinction is emphasized through modality, with the in-group utilizing deontic modalizers to express obligations and responsibilities, whereas the out-group relies on epistemic modalizers for information exchange Such patterns indicate that the in-group is perceived as more politically qualified due to their explicit commitment to values, aligning with Fairclough's (2003) observations regarding Blair's strategic use of modality in political discourse.
Hillary Clinton effectively employed intertextuality in her discourse to portray the GOP nominee as unqualified for the presidency, allowing her audience to deduce that the opposition's words do not align with their actions This approach aligns with Aisyah's (2012) findings, which suggest that Clinton strategically utilizes intertextuality in her speeches to convey her messages subtly, often without the audience's conscious awareness.
In addressing the third research question regarding the discursive construction of collective identity, Olson (2009) emphasized that shared interests alone cannot effectively motivate individual participation without selective rewards for contributors Conversely, Fireman and Garmon (1979) highlighted that individuals deeply connected to a group have a significant investment in its success, suggesting that during critical moments for collective action, these individuals are likely to contribute, even if their individual impact seems minimal.
Seyranian (2014) introduces the identity framing model, which involves the processes of unfreezing, moving, and freezing identities, highlighting that mobilization can occur without preexisting collective identities Framing serves as a crucial interpretive tool for activists to engage potential supporters Furthermore, Polletta and Jasper (2001) emphasize that effective framing articulates the injustice of a situation and underscores the potential of collective action to address it, effectively distinguishing "us" from "them."
Collective identity plays a vital role in maintaining solidarity and commitment within social movements According to Taylor and Whittier (1992), rituals and institutions that define boundaries between challengers and those in power can enhance internal cohesion While collective identity is essential for mobilization and ongoing participation, many groups face the challenge of balancing a distinct identity with the need to deconstruct it (Gamson, 1995) Notably, Hillary Clinton effectively utilized collective identity as a strategic approach to engage her supporters and reinforce the Democratic Party's unity.
Personal Identity
Clinton's strategic language use enables her to control information and shape relationships, while also constructing her personal identity The analysis reveals five processes identified by Halliday et al (2014)—material, mental, relational, verbal, and behavioral processes—highlighting a strategic choice that underscores a power struggle This is particularly evident in her use of material processes, which involve speech acts related to her actions and decision-making, as illustrated by statements like, "I wrestled with the Chinese," and "I got to work leading the effort to impose crippling global sanctions."
Hillary Clinton frequently employs the past simple tense to reflect on her roles as First Lady, Senator, and Secretary of State, portraying herself as a proactive leader This aligns with Abdel-Moety's (2014) analysis, which highlights Clinton's strategic use of transitivity, reinforcing her identity as a woman of action.
The selection of relational and mental processes in her speech establishes her credibility as a truthful narrator, effectively persuading her audience For instance, her statement, "I believe in strong alliances… and I believe with my heart that America is an exceptional country," reinforces her conviction and resonates with listeners.
The analysis of modality reveals a significant use of strong obligational and epistemic modalities through modals, adverbs, and verbs, particularly in discussions surrounding foreign policy, terrorism, and nuclear weapons Notably, phrases like "our next President must do to secure American leadership" exemplify this trend.
In a decisive statement, it was asserted that an agreement was reached to prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons The use of modality is a crucial technique for conveying arguments and opinions, enabling the expression of varying degrees of certainty and personal judgments This analysis reveals that Clinton effectively utilized modality to construct a strong and assertive identity within her discourse.
Hillary Clinton's roles as First Lady, Secretary of State, and Senator reveal a strategic use of modality in her statements Research by Aisyah (2012) and Klanicová (2013) supports this observation, highlighting that Clinton's communication style is characterized by strength, confidence, and emphasis This analysis underscores the effectiveness of her modalizers in conveying assertive messages.
„will‟ was most frequent with 19 cases, which may be interpreted that Clinton as having a vision for the future
Clinton's identity was strategically constructed through rhetorical questions, listing, and contrastive devices, effectively strengthening her position against the GOP nominee By employing six contrastive pairs, she not only affirmed her stance but also criticized her opponents as unfit and overly sensitive This linguistic strategy positions her as a qualified candidate for commander-in-chief and an experienced politician, echoing Fairclough's (2003) assertion that our identities are often defined in relation to others.
The analysis of interdiscursivity highlights how Clinton effectively blended political discourse with everyday life, allowing her to articulate her views on key issues such as women's rights, the Iranian nuclear deal, the war on ISIS, and the economy By employing similar language that resonates with shared interests, she cultivates an image of trustworthiness and honesty This approach aligns with Seyranian (2014), who notes that leaders using similar language tend to receive higher ratings in charisma, trustworthiness, and persuasiveness.
The analysis of intertextuality reveals that Clinton often referenced President Obama, Ronald Reagan, and Senator John McCain, as well as other out-group social actors This approach can be seen as an ideological strategy to validate her statements and position herself as a typical politician.
The analysis reveals that the strategic use of personal pronouns, particularly the inclusive "we," plays a significant role in connecting the speaker with her audience For instance, when she states, "We're choosing our next commander-in-chief," it reflects a shared experience and mutual understanding, reinforcing her relationship with followers This approach aligns with Fairclough and Wodak's (1997) observations on Thatcher and Melamede's (1999) insights into Clinton's use of inclusive language Such lexical choices enhance social acceptance and foster trust, as highlighted by Abdel-Moety (2014) and supported by Seyranian (2014).
This chapter summarizes the findings of the current study and relates them to previous research The results effectively address the research questions, with each finding interconnected to all three inquiries.
The study revealed that Hillary Clinton effectively constructed both collective and personal identities through her strategic use of language during her presidential campaign It highlighted how her speech functioned as a powerful tool, asserting that language can serve as a weapon in political contexts By employing social actor representation and distinct language styles, Clinton's communication significantly impacted her campaign, leading many Americans to believe in her potential victory.
To conclude, Hillary Clinton strategically represented social actors, transitivized the processes, employed modality and intertextuality in her speech
In her presidential campaign, she skillfully constructed both collective and personal identities to enhance communication and mobilization By highlighting the problems and uncertainties faced by the out-group, she cultivated a perceived need for social change, warning of the negative consequences if an out-group leader were to take command Simultaneously, she fostered intimacy and legitimacy within her in-group, aiming to strengthen follower identification and support This approach promoted shared beliefs and values among her supporters, ultimately reinforcing their in-group identity Her strategic use of identity is effectively illustrated in the accompanying figure.
Figure 15: Discursive construction of identity
Identity as a product Presenting social actors
Hillary Clinton effectively shaped her personal and collective identity through strategic discourse By utilizing language mechanisms such as representing social actors, transitivitizing, modalizing, and intertextualizing, she crafted her identity as a powerful tool to garner support, attract followers, and enhance group unity This approach also served to reinforce her image as a prototypical leader.
This chapter provides a concise overview of the previous sections, highlighting the key findings of the research It discusses both the theoretical and practical implications of the study while addressing its limitations The chapter concludes with recommendations for future research endeavors.
Summary of the Findings
Language wields immense power, capable of offending, hurting, and threatening individuals Words can act as weapons or poison, infiltrating the mind and influencing thoughts with lethal semantics and pragmatics As a fundamental means of projecting and interpreting reality, language reveals the struggle for power and ideology, evident in its choice, manipulation, and societal impact Furthermore, language plays a crucial role in constructing and negotiating identity, transforming identity itself into a potent weapon (De Fina, 2011).
In her speech, Hillary Clinton adeptly constructed a collective identity that emphasized shared bonds and interests within her in-group while contrasting it with the out-group By employing strategies such as transitivity, modality, intertextuality, and interdiscursivity, she highlighted the ideological struggle for power As noted by Polletta and Jasper (2001), the effectiveness of identity framing influences a group's ability to attract members, gain public support, and forge alliances Clinton referenced her personal experiences to resonate with her audience, utilizing inclusive language to activate social grouping She depicted a positive in-group identity while portraying the out-group negatively, thereby reinforcing her supporters' cohesion Furthermore, she projected future visions for the in-group through inclusive language and material processes, solidifying their identity and fostering unity in support of her electoral campaign.
Hillary Clinton's language style played a significant role in shaping her personal identity as a prototypical leader, positioning herself as a strong, decisive, and visionary commander-in-chief Through the strategic use of transitivity, modality, and rhetorical devices, she constructed an image of a charismatic, trustworthy, and persuasive politician By incorporating intertextuality and interdiscursivity, Clinton projected herself as an experienced and determined leader, while her employment of inclusive language helped build a likable and trustworthy persona Ultimately, Clinton's discursively constructed identity served as a tool to establish credibility, evoke positive emotional reactions, and drive social change, thereby increasing her perceived prototypicality as a leader.
Discourse plays a crucial role in shaping identity, as social actors utilize it to define themselves and their relationships with others (Howarth, 2000) This relationship between power and knowledge within discourse highlights how identity is formed and communicated, reinforcing the idea that discourse serves as a political tool that establishes, sustains, and transforms power dynamics among social groups (Fairclough, 1992b) Moreover, individuals can navigate discursive spaces to construct their personal identities, using discourse as both a means of self-presentation and a strategic weapon (Owens, 2006) Identity emerges from social interactions, which are fundamental to social constructivism, and discourse functions as a medium that constitutes and alters the meanings of the world for political ends, such as garnering support, fostering social change, and enhancing in-group identity (De Fina et al., 2006; Fairclough, 1992b).
Figure 16: Interconnectedness of levels of identity analysis
Socio-political practice (Macro- level)
Intra-textual practice (Micro-level)
At the intra-textual level, linguistic choices significantly influence the immediate impacts within a text, aiding in textual analysis and revealing discursive strategies across various texts, genres, and discourses Discursive practice examines how identity is constructed within discourse, reflecting societal developments Additionally, a broader analysis elucidates potential interpretations and connections between the current discourse and its socio-political context or public sphere.
This study systematically examines the connections between micro and macro levels to synthesize methodologies and linguistic categories used in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) related to identity construction Future research should bridge linguistic and contextual analysis to uncover the socio-political memory of the intended audience.
Implications of the Study
The study's findings highlight the significance of literature and present various theoretical and practical implications Theoretically, it enhances our understanding of identity as a construct shaped by language and a self-construal tool This perspective views identity as a means to influence how individuals form and manage social groups, establish their prototypicality, and mobilize others Consequently, identity construction is seen as a discursive strategy, where the projection or rejection of identity is a social product rather than an inherent trait.
Understanding identity construction in presidential campaigns can bridge gaps in existing literature, highlighting how identity is strategically manipulated to shape perceptions and serve as a powerful tool in electoral strategies.
This study demonstrates that critical discourse analysis (CDA) serves as an effective interdisciplinary method for examining the discursive construction of identity Utilizing Fairclough’s (1989) CDA framework, the research integrates social actor representation, process types, modality, intertextuality, and interdiscursivity The findings reveal that identity is shaped through language manipulation, highlighting it as a strategy-driven social construct.
The findings of this research are valuable for enhancing communicative goals, offering a pedagogical shift by analyzing identity construction in American presidential campaign speeches This analysis raises awareness among teachers and learners about linguistic strategies, providing guidance for effective communication in English across various social contexts, including interactions between text and reader, student and teacher, and within classroom and community settings, both locally and transregionally.
This study emphasizes the significance of identity in communication, particularly in English instruction, raising awareness among teachers and students alike It explores the spectrum of identity, from personal to collective, encouraging individuals to reflect on their unique English language identities Additionally, the research offers valuable insights for speech writers, including those crafting campaign speeches Ultimately, the findings guide readers in strategically constructing identity for various discourse purposes, enhancing successful communication.
Limitations and Further Research
The most obvious limitation in this research was that it was a case study with small sample of data, a limitation that prevented the generalization of the findings
The current study's findings may not accurately represent broader trends, as they are derived from qualitative data analysis that relies heavily on the author's interpretation Consequently, the examination of in-group and out-group social actors may lack rigor and comprehensiveness, leading to potentially arbitrary conclusions.
Future research should explore two key areas: first, a comprehensive analysis of the existing data using varied approaches, coupled with an increase in data volume, is essential to generalize and validate current findings Second, examining the discursive construction of identity in Vietnamese will allow for comparative studies that can deepen and enhance the research outcomes Furthermore, additional investigations into the construction of diverse identities within the data, particularly focusing on gender and sexism, are necessary to provide a more nuanced understanding.
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Hillary Clinton expressed her gratitude to the audience in San Diego for their warm welcome and acknowledged Ellen for her heartfelt introduction She emphasized the importance of recognizing not only the service of military personnel but also the sacrifices made by their families, including spouses and children Clinton also thanked Congressman Scott Peters for his presence at the event.
And all of the other electeds and service members, active duty and retired National Guard and Reservists, veterans, military spouses, family members, all who are with us today
On Memorial Day, we pay tribute to the significant sacrifices made by active-duty and former military members in San Diego, a city deeply connected to their service We honor those who gave their lives for our country by embodying our values, striving for a stronger and fairer nation, and implementing a thoughtful and principled foreign policy.
That‟s what I want to speak about today – the challenges we face in protecting our country, and the choice at stake in this election
It‟s a choice between a fearful America that‟s less secure and less engaged with the world, and a strong, confident America that leads to keep our country safe and our economy growing
As a former Secretary of State, Senator, and First Lady, I proudly represented America internationally and influenced our domestic foreign policy My commitment to national security is paramount as I run for President, where I have proposed actionable strategies to combat ISIS, reinforce our alliances, and prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons Ensuring America’s security will remain central to my campaign.
In November, Americans are not only voting for a President but also selecting their next commander-in-chief, the individual responsible for making critical decisions regarding war, peace, and the sanctity of life.
And like many across our country and around the world, I believe the person the Republicans have nominated for President cannot do the job
Donald Trump‟s ideas aren‟t just different – they are dangerously incoherent They‟re not even really ideas – just a series of bizarre rants, personal feuds, and outright lies
He is not just unprepared – he is temperamentally unfit to hold an office that requires knowledge, stability and immense responsibility
Donald Trump is unfit to possess nuclear codes, as his sensitivity could easily provoke him into initiating a conflict over minor provocations.
We cannot put the security of our children and grandchildren in Donald Trump‟s hands We cannot let him roll the dice with America
This is a man who said that more countries should have nuclear weapons, including Saudi Arabia
This is someone who has threatened to abandon our allies in NATO – the countries that work with us to root out terrorists abroad before they strike us at home
Treating the U.S economy like a casino and defaulting on our debts could lead to an economic disaster far more severe than the 2008 financial crisis.