INTRODUCTION
Rationale
The tourism industry has become one of the largest sectors globally, with a consistent demand for travel As more people seek to explore international destinations, Vietnam has emerged as a popular choice among foreign travelers This highlights the need to effectively promote Vietnam's tourist attractions Accurate information is crucial for travelers, who cannot experience a destination before visiting; thus, English-language travel brochures serve as a vital promotional tool English is essential in the tourism sector, facilitating communication, negotiation, and transactions between tourism professionals and visitors, thereby enhancing the overall travel experience.
Tourism is characterized as an "act of promotion with a discourse of its own" (Dann, 1996, p.2), where persuasive language plays a crucial role in transforming potential clients into actual visitors Understanding this specialized vocabulary is essential for effective image creation in the tourism sector While numerous studies have explored the language and discourse of tourism texts, there is a notable gap regarding the linguistic features of brochures from Expanding Circle countries, such as Vietnam This study aims to analyze the lexical characteristics of English used in travel brochures in Vietnam.
Aims of the study
This paper aims to explore the English lexical characteristics of travel brochures in Vietnam, addressing a gap in existing research The study focuses on the lexical elements of these promotional texts within the context of Vietnam, a non-native English-speaking country in Southeast Asia.
Research questions
The study seeks to address the following research question:
What are the lexical features of English used in travel brochures in Vietnam as a global language perspective?
Scope of the study
This study examines the key English lexical features found in travel brochures in Vietnam The analysis is based on a corpus consisting of nine travel brochures sourced from both online platforms and printed materials authored by Vietnamese writers.
Significance of the study
This study highlights the significance of lexical features in crafting effective travel brochures, providing a valuable model for writers in the genre Additionally, the findings will serve as a foundation for future research exploring various aspects of travel brochures and the English lexis used in other genres.
Organization of the thesis
This paper has been divided into five chapters
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: states the rationale for the study, the aims and purposes, the research question, the significance, the scope and the structure of the research
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW: provides definitions of key concepts and lays the theoretical background for the study
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLODY: describes the selection of subjects, data collection, data analytical framework and data analysis procedure
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS: present, analyse, synthesize and discuss the findings obtained from the collected data
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION: summarizes the main issues discussed throughout the paper, points out limitations of the study and makes suggestions for further research This part is followed by the References and Appendix.
LITERATURE REVIEW
English as a global language
In his book "English as a Global Language," Crystal (1997) emphasizes that a language attains global significance when it is acknowledged in every nation English is currently experiencing unparalleled growth worldwide, earning its designation as a global language.
English has achieved an unprecedented status as a global lingua franca, surpassing any previous language in its worldwide spread (Kachru, 1992) Its significance parallels that of modern technology, as it serves as a vital tool for cross-cultural communication The language is spoken natively by millions in countries such as the USA, Canada, and the UK, while also being the official language in nations like India and Nigeria Furthermore, English is prioritized in foreign language education across the globe, including in countries like China and Germany According to Crystal (1997), the rise of English is bolstered by global economic growth, advancements in communication technologies, and the expansion of international marketing and entertainment, solidifying its role as the dominant global language.
In 1991, Rushdie reported that „the English language ceased to be the sole possession of the English some time ago‟ Crystal (1997) also claims in his book
English has evolved into a global language, with the USA accounting for only about 20% of the world's English speakers, highlighting that ownership of the language is now shared among its diverse users This expansion has led to the emergence of various "new Englishes" since the 1960s, reflecting localized forms of the language across different regions Halliday, McIntosh, and Strevens noted that English is no longer solely associated with British or American standards, as it now encompasses a wide range of varieties, particularly in former British colonies This shift signifies a departure from traditional models, with countries like West Africa, the West Indies, Pakistan, and India developing their own distinct forms of English Kachru and Smith emphasize that these "Englishes" represent both functional and formal variations, showcasing the language's international adaptation Patil further explains that as English spreads globally, it undergoes processes of acculturation and indigenization, allowing new users to transform and personalize the language to reflect their unique cultural identities.
New varieties of English retain some cultural and linguistic characteristics of the
"Standard English" encompasses various cultural and linguistic elements specific to the countries where it is used, as highlighted by Kachru (1992) He asserts that New Englishes embody diverse sociocultural identities Varieties of English include those from inner circle countries such as Australian, New Zealand, Canadian, South African, and Caribbean English, as well as regional dialects within Britain.
In recent decades, distinct varieties of English have emerged in countries within the outer circle, including Irish, Scots, and Welsh English, as well as South Asian English in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka Furthermore, unique forms of English are developing in former British colonies in West and East Africa, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia, particularly in Singapore This paper focuses on analyzing the features of English in Vietnam, a notable example of an emerging variety in Southeast Asia.
World Englishes today
The term "World Englishes," as defined by Kachru (1992), represents the diverse functional and formal variations of English across different sociolinguistic contexts, highlighting creativity and various forms of acculturation in both Western and non-Western regions This concept underscores the idea of "WE-ness," moving beyond the traditional divide between native and non-native speakers.
When English interacts with different sociocultural environments, it undergoes processes known as "nativization" and "Englishization" (Kachru, 1992) Nativization refers to the adaptation of English within a local context, while Englishization highlights the influence of English on local languages These processes illustrate the reciprocal relationship between English and other languages in diverse settings.
Englishization denotes the significant impact of English on various languages, influencing aspects from pronunciation to literary forms (Kachru, 2011) Kachru (2006) highlighted that this influence can reach grammatical structures, evidenced by the incorporation of impersonal constructions in Indian languages and the use of passive forms with "by" equivalents in Korean, both of which are derived from English.
According to Saghal (1991), nativization, also termed “indigenization” by Moag
The process of transferring a local language into a new cultural environment involves the migration of English to foreign languages, leading to its diffusion and internationalization According to Honna (2003) as cited in Patel (2006), this migration results in the acculturation and indigenization of English, allowing it to adapt and diversify into localized forms Consequently, we see the emergence of distinct varieties such as "Indian English," "Singaporean English," and "Philippine English," which reflect the unique social and cultural contexts in which they are used.
Hong Kong English exemplifies the nativization of English, particularly at the lexical level, where it adapts to new cultural contexts This adaptation occurs as English encounters unique local concepts that often lack direct equivalents, leading to the incorporation of native terms According to Crystal (2003), this lexical nativization in New Englishes is achieved through various creative processes, including borrowing, semantic shifts, affixation, compounding, clipping, abbreviation, blending, and hybrid compounding.
The nativizing process consists of several key stages, as outlined by Moag (1982), who identified five phases in the life-cycle of non-native varieties: transportation, indigenization, expansion in use and function, institutionalization, and restriction of use and function The first four stages are essential components of this life cycle, while the fifth stage may not be applicable in every scenario.
The life cycle of non-native Englishes, as outlined by Kachru (1992), begins with the "transportation" phase, where English is introduced to a region for the first time This is followed by the "indigenization" phase, during which the language evolves into a new variety influenced by local languages and other established indigenized forms.
The process of "nativization" involves several phases of indigenization, starting with English-speaking newcomers encountering local cultural elements that lack equivalents in their native languages, leading to lexical borrowing (Kachru, 1992) In the second phase, the local colonial elite begins to adopt English for communication among themselves, further integrating the language into the local context (Kachru, 1992).
The "Expansion in Use and Function" highlights the growing prevalence of local varieties of English as their roles extend into new areas such as education, media, and government services Kachru (1992) notes that this evolution transforms English from a foreign language to a second language During the fourth stage, the nativized variety becomes institutionalized, influenced by several key factors Ultimately, the final stage involves state-regulated policies that restrict the use and function of English, leading to a decline in its overall usage within the country.
Different models of World Englishes
The exploration of English varieties has sparked extensive debate and research, leading to various classification models proposed by linguists, such as “New Englishes,” “Three Concentric Circles of English,” “English Umbrella,” “World English,” and “English as an International Language.” Chen (2011) categorizes these English varieties into three main groups: dualism, trinalism, and monism.
2.3.1 A dualistic view of the status of English
According to Chen (2011), English can be categorized into two types: original English and new Englishes, with the latter referring to English varieties that have emerged in non-English speaking countries Platt, Weber, and Ho (1984) outline essential criteria for a new English, which include its development through the education system and its establishment in regions where a native English variety is not predominantly spoken.
The language serves various functions for its speakers and writers in the region It has been localized and adapted by incorporating features from the native language, including sounds, intonation patterns, sentence structures, and vocabulary.
2.3.2 A trinalistic view of the status of English
The three-circle Model of World Englishes proposed by Kachru in 1985 includes the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle These circles represent
“the type of spread, the forms of acquisition and the functional spheres in which English is used across civilizations and linguistic communication” (Kachru, 1985, p.12)
Kachru’s Concentric Circles model, as illustrated by Crystal (2003), identifies the Inner Circle as the traditional heartland of English-speaking countries, including the USA, UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand In these nations, English serves as the native or mother tongue, establishing them as "norm-providing" regions where the standards and norms of the English language are developed.
Many countries in the Outer Circle, primarily former UK and USA colonies, include nations like Malaysia, Singapore, India, Ghana, and Kenya In these multilingual contexts, English serves as a significant "second language" and is integrated into national institutions The English spoken in the Outer Circle is viewed as "norm-developing."
Countries in the Expanding Circle utilize English as a foreign language or lingua franca for international communication, without any historical or governmental ties to English-speaking nations This group includes nations such as China, Japan, Greece, and Poland, which have not experienced colonization by Inner Circle countries and do not grant English any special administrative status The English spoken in these regions is considered "norm-dependent," as it adheres to the standards established by native speakers in the Inner Circle.
2.3.3 A monist view on the status of English
Yoneoka (2001) introduced "The English Umbrella: Model of a Multicultural Language System," illustrating it as an umbrella The core of the umbrella symbolizes a fundamental "easy" English, encompassing basic vocabulary, syntax, and phonemes The tips represent various English varieties, including native forms such as British and Australian English, as well as ESL varieties like Singaporean and Indian English, alongside numerous EFL forms The spokes of the umbrella connect these diverse varieties to the central core, functioning as a communication network and support system.
Upon the spokes lies the fabric covering (4) which is the background socio- cultural systems and the top is an idealized “standard” English (5) According to Chen
The umbrella model, introduced in 2011, offers several advantages over the concentric circles model, including its egalitarian and generic nature, which allows for a more inclusive division of core elements across all Englishes Additionally, it is flexible and dynamic, effectively addressing the sociocultural systems and communication networks that influence language use.
Kachru's Three-circle Model of World Englishes is a pivotal framework for understanding the spread of English globally This paper utilizes Kachru's model to examine the characteristics of English as it is used in Vietnam, comparing it to the various English varieties found in Southeast Asia.
Varieties of English in Southeast Asia
The emergence of new Englishes in Southeast Asia is deeply rooted in the region's colonial histories, leading to varied stages of development influenced by distinct background languages According to Kachru's three-circle model, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Brunei are classified as "outer circle" countries where English serves as a second language In contrast, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia are categorized as "expanding circle" countries, where English is primarily a foreign language.
Southeast Asia comprises eleven diverse countries, with ten being ASEAN members, excluding Timor-Leste English, while a second language in nations like Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines, is increasingly becoming a dominant language across the region, influencing various aspects of life, including culture, economy, and politics Officially recognized as the working language of ASEAN in 2009 through the ASEAN Charter, English is essential for labor competitiveness and mobility within the region Consequently, many ASEAN countries have made English a mandatory subject in their national education systems As English adapts to different local contexts, unique varieties known as the New Englishes have emerged in Southeast Asia, showcasing distinct linguistic features documented by various scholars.
Ng (2000), Tay (1993b), and Tongue (1979) A brief account of some phonological, lexical, syntactic and discoursal features of Southeast Asian Englishes is presented below
Southeast Asian varieties of English exhibit distinct phonological characteristics, particularly the tendency towards syllable-timing, which is marked by the avoidance of reduced vowels (Kirkpatrick, 2008) In this context, syllables are pronounced with roughly equal duration, regardless of stress, leading to the absence of the schwa sound Kirkpatrick (2008) suggests that this phenomenon arises from the syllable-timed nature of many speakers' first languages In contrast, native English employs a stress-timed system where syllables are lengthened or shortened based on stress, often resulting in the use of full vowels in unstressed syllables.
(1) They OFficially announced the winner
(2) I first came TO Thailand two years ago
Another outstanding feature of Southeast Asian phonology is the shift in stress placement Pronouns are regularly stressed and heavy end stress is also common For example:
(3) HE has been to Myanmar twice
Southeast Asian languages exhibit distinctive phonological features, including the substitution of stops /t, d/ for specific fricatives like /θ, ð/, resulting in pronunciations such as "thin" as /tin/ and "then" as /den/ Additionally, there is a tendency to simplify consonant clusters at the end of words and replace diphthongs with monophthongs, as seen in the pronunciation of "make" as /e/ Furthermore, these languages often lack contrasts in vowel length and tenseness, leading to words like "bit" and "beat" being pronounced identically as /bit/.
Southeast Asian Englishes exhibit notable syntactic similarities, particularly in the omission of tense markers in the third person present simple and past tense forms Speakers often forgo these tense indicators, relying instead on adverbs to convey time references For example, the sentence “I talk to her yesterday” illustrates this tendency, where the adverb indicates the past action despite the lack of a past tense form.
“yesterday” is used to mark past tense instead of the tense marker “-ed” Kirkpatrick
(2008) also added the relative lack of the use of complex tense forms such as Past Perfect or Past continuous
In Southeast Asian Englishes, the differentiation between count and non-count nouns is less rigid compared to Inner-Circle Englishes Common instances include the usage of terms like "furnitures," "equipments," "luggages," "a research," and "one evidence," where non-count nouns are treated as countable.
In Southeast Asian languages, the copula construction is often omitted, leading to phrases like "he dancing," "she hurt," and "I hungry." This absence is due to the lack of a direct equivalent to English copula constructions, such as "she is beautiful" or "she is a doctor."
Malaysian English exhibits distinct syntactic features, as highlighted by McArthur (1998) and Schneider (2003/2004) These include the absence of noun inflectional endings, particularly the plural -s and occasionally the genitive -s Additionally, it often lacks essential sentence constituents, such as objects, subjects, auxiliary verbs, copulas, and prepositions, resulting in a phrasal "telegraphic" speech style Other characteristics include variant complementation patterns after verbs, incorrect concord in noun phrases, innovative uses of phrasal verbs, and the employment of reflexive pronouns to create emphatic pronouns.
A notable aspect of Southeast Asian English, particularly in Singaporean and Malaysian contexts, is the use of pragmatic particles such as “la(h), leh, hor,” among others These particles lack standalone semantic meaning but serve to enhance interactional significance at the end of sentences in informal settings For instance, in Singaporean English, the particle “lah” can transform a verb into a command or soften its tone, helping to mitigate the potential impoliteness of the verb's usage.
In Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia and the Philippines, code-switching and code-mixing are prevalent in multilingual communities In Malaysia, accomplished bilinguals often employ code-switching for rhetorical and accommodation purposes, while less proficient speakers use it as a repair strategy Conversely, in the Philippines, code-switching is commonly integrated into everyday conversations, media, and publications An example of this phenomenon is the phrase "She wanted to beli some barang-barang," which translates to "She wanted to buy some things," illustrating the blending of Malay and English.
Kachru, Yamuna, and Cecil (2006) argue that the most obvious features in Southeast Asian varieties are the loan words and the loan translation Haugen
Lexical borrowing, as defined in 1970, encompasses loan words, loan translations, and loan blends, reflecting the unique cultural and societal differences in each language Loan words vary significantly across cultures due to distinct realia, such as kinship titles, local food terms, and indigenous values For instance, Singaporean English incorporates loan words like “abang,” meaning elder brother or male cousin, and “hanram,” which translates to prohibited.
Loan translation is a linguistic phenomenon where terms from one language are directly translated into another, maintaining their semantic meaning For instance, in Philippine English, "for a long time" translates to "since before yet," and "I'm teasing you" corresponds to "joke only." Additionally, loan blends, or hybrids, are prevalent in Southeast Asian languages, where compounds are created from words in different languages, such as "buco juice," referring to the juice of a young coconut, and "pulot boy," which denotes a tennis ball boy in Philippine English.
In 2015, Nor, Zamri, and Awab conducted a study on the lexical features of Malaysian English, identifying key aspects such as local language referents, semantic expansion, and word formation processes They noted that local terms have been integrated into both spoken and written English in Malaysia Additionally, they highlighted the semantic expansion of words, exemplified by the term "cut," which retains its original meaning while acquiring new interpretations.
In Malaysian English, the term "slicing" is used alongside the meanings of "overtake" and "reduce." The language exhibits unique word formation processes, including affixation, where local lexis is enhanced with English suffixes like the plural -s and the progressive -ing marker Additionally, compounding plays a significant role, as it involves creating new words by combining existing terms.
The English language features various linguistic phenomena, including "shophouses," which refer to a row of shops typically accompanied by living quarters above Additionally, reduplication is observed in phrases like "weird-weird" and "walk-walk," while repetition can be seen in expressions such as "You go in first la, you go in first la." Another interesting aspect is conversion, where a word changes its grammatical category, exemplified by the phrase "Want any song, I can song for you."
In general, some prominent lexical features of Southeast Asian English include loan words, loan translation, hybrids, semantic expansion, and some word formation processes.
English for tourism
Language serves as a complex system designed to convey messages, and in the realm of tourism, it plays a crucial role in enticing individuals to travel while shaping their perceptions and behaviors According to Lam (2007), tourism English is a distinct register that aims to captivate and inform potential tourists Tourism brochures, as key marketing tools, are rich in persuasive language and imagery, effectively guiding expectations and influencing experiences, as noted by Weightman (1987) Bhatia (1993) emphasizes that promotional texts, including travel brochures, exhibit specific linguistic features akin to advertisements Leech (1966) identifies several characteristics of advertising language, such as the frequent use of modal verbs like "will" and "can," imperative sentence structures to prompt action, the inclusion of personal pronouns, and a heavy reliance on striking adjectives However, this paper will not delve into the imperative syntactic features.
Numerous studies have explored the English language used in travel brochures, highlighting the role of modal verbs and personal pronouns Iborra and Garrido (2001) and Boonchayaanant (2003) found that the modal verbs "will" and "can" in tourism texts function similarly to those in advertisements Additionally, personal pronouns such as "you," "your," "we," and "our" are commonly utilized in tourism literature, serving a comparable purpose to their use in advertising Pakkinen's research further emphasizes the significance of adjectives in enhancing the appeal of tourism texts.
(2005) agrees that one of the prominent language features of promotional texts is the use of adjectives, wherein, subjectively evaluative adjectives are more effective than factual adjectives
Francesconi (2004) asserts that tourism language effectively showcases destinations and services in a persuasive and appealing way, utilizing dynamic imagery and vibrant colors As a result, travel brochures are filled with descriptive adjectives, superlatives, and intensifiers aimed at influencing the attitudes and behaviors of potential tourists.
In an analysis of the move and linguistic features of tourist texts, Iborra and Garrido
In 2001, research revealed that tourist texts often employ adjectives to describe age, size, and origin, while superlatives are rarely utilized The personal pronoun "you" is predominantly used to engage readers directly and capture their interest Additionally, the modal verb "can" frequently indicates possibilities, and complex noun phrases are characteristic linguistic features of such texts.
Henry and Roseberry's study (1996) highlights the effective use of the personal pronoun "you" to foster a friendly atmosphere with readers Additionally, the modal verbs "can" and "will" are employed to convey promises and opportunities, while a notable frequency of adjectives, particularly in their superlative forms, enhances the text's appeal.
Travel brochures as a special kind of genre
Travel brochures serve as essential print media aimed at tourists, providing crucial information about destinations and events According to Molina and Esteban (2006), these brochures are designed to engage potential travelers, enhancing destination awareness and generating interest in travel (Chiou et al 2008; Getz & Sailor 1993; Zhou 1997; Yuksel & Akgul 2006) They typically include a rich array of language and imagery to present destinations positively, aiding travelers in making informed decisions and reducing uncertainties associated with vacation planning (Walter & Tong, 1977; Jackson, White, & Schmierer, 1996; Rhoehl & Fesenmainer, 1992) Travel brochures uniquely function as substitutes for products that cannot be physically examined prior to purchase (Holloway 2004: 17), while the language used often shapes tourists' expectations and perceptions, creating a preconceived landscape for exploration (Weightman 1987: 230) The persuasive power of travel brochures is significant, as many studies explore how their linguistic and visual elements attract and influence visitors, particularly in Vietnam, where specific lexis is employed to entice tourists.
Theoretical framework
Travel brochures in Vietnam showcase unique lexical characteristics of an Expanding Circle English variety, aligning with findings from Haugen (1970) and others These brochures prominently feature lexical borrowing, nativized word formation processes, descriptive adjectives, personal pronouns, and modal verbs, reflecting the distinctive style of tourism texts.
Every language contains "untranslatable" words that lack direct equivalents in other languages, often reflecting unique cultural concepts tied to areas such as food, clothing, and art When a language encounters semantic gaps, it resorts to lexical borrowing, a natural process where it adopts terms from another language, known as loanwords Ying (2012) identifies three levels of borrowing: transliteration, loan translation, and loan blend Fantini (1985) differentiates between "pure borrowing," where the word retains its original characteristics, and "adjusted borrowing," where it conforms to the host language's structure Other researchers, Bloomfield (1933) and Olmsted (1986), categorize borrowing into three integration levels, from words that maintain foreign phonology to those that are fully integrated Haugen (1970) further outlines three borrowing types: "loanword," which involves morphemic importation; "loan translation," which combines native terms for semantic extension; and "loan blend," a hybrid of importation and substitution Ultimately, this analysis aligns with Ying's categorization of lexical borrowing into transliteration, loan translation, and loan blend.
Transliteration is close to the idea of “pure borrowing” of Fantini (1985) and
A "loanword," as defined by Haugen (1970), refers to transliterated words that maintain phonetic similarities between the donor language and the borrowing language These words are utilized in the borrowing language while striving to preserve the original sounds and meanings as closely as possible.
Loan translation, as defined by Bloomfield (1933), involves borrowing from one language to another by literally translating the semantic components of a term into their equivalents in the borrowing language This process occurs without any phonological similarities between the native word and the foreign term.
Kachru (1983) identifies hybrid formation as a key feature of language contact, particularly in non-native varieties of English, highlighting its role in the nativization process Hybrids, which combine elements from different languages, typically include at least one local language component and arise from the informal use of two languages These hybrids can be single-word or multi-word combinations Kachru categorizes them into two groups: the first group consists of hybrids where the modifier is in English and the head is from a local language, exemplified by phrases like "Evening bajan" and "Eternal upavasi" in Indian English; the second group features hybrids where the English item serves as the head.
“ahimsa soldier”, “durri weaving” or “sarvodaya leader”
In their 2015 study on the lexical features of Malaysian English, Nor, Zamri, and Awab highlighted the significant role of word formation processes in the nativization of English These processes include affixation, compounding, reduplication, repetition, and conversion Additionally, a corpus-based study conducted by Lee further supports these findings.
(2010) reveals different creative processes employed by Malaysian speakers to construct meaning in informal conversations, including borrowing, semantic expansion, loan translation, compounding, blending, affixation, reduplication
Affixation is the process of combining an affix, such as a prefix or suffix, with another word, like a noun or adjective, to create a new word, often resulting in a change in word class An illustrative example is "datukship," which highlights the productive nature of suffixation in Malaysian English, as noted by Nor et al (2015).
Noun „datuk‟ + Suffix „ship‟= datukship, as in lordship
Compounding involves merging two or more existing words to create a new term that may convey a distinct meaning from the original words The meanings of the individual components can often be understood through their combination, and these terms are recognized in the acrolect form Such combinations may be unique to certain varieties of English, where the usage differs For instance, in Singaporean English, the noun "tuition" is compounded with "teacher" to form "tuition teacher," which corresponds to the native term "private tutor."
In Malaysian English, the phrase "last time" is a compounded expression functioning as an adverbial of time, as illustrated by the sentence: "Last time I got Honda you know." In contrast, native English typically requires the definite article "the" before "last," using it as an adjective to modify the noun "time," as seen in the example: "The last time I met him was three days ago."
Reduplication is a linguistic process where the initial syllable or entire word is repeated, either exactly or with minor phonological alterations, to enhance the meaning of basic words While not a standard method of word formation in English, reduplication frequently appears in children's language, as seen in examples like "boo-boo" and "choo-choo." It is also employed for humorous or ironic effects, illustrated by terms such as "goody-goody" and "pooh-pooh."
2000) However, reduplication is a productive process in the Malaysian language
Reduplication in Malaysian English generates unique expressions that lack direct English equivalents For instance, Nor et al (2015) illustrates this with the phrase "I want this one (shoe) got shiny shiny ," where the term "shiny shiny" is derived from Malay reduplication.
“kilat kilat”, as in “Aku mahu kasut yang ini, ada kilat kilat ”, intensifying the brightness of the shoes
Repetition serves as a powerful tool in language, emphasizing sounds and concepts to enhance emotional impact Ghomeshi et al (2004) highlight its role as a poetic device, where the recurrence of sounds, syllables, words, phrases, lines, or stanzas acts as a unifying element While repetition fosters continuity in action, reduplication introduces a new morpheme, enriching the meaning conveyed.
In their 2015 study, Nor et al highlight the significance of reduplication in language, using examples such as "sweet sweet," a distinct Malaysian English term, and "come down, come down," which emphasizes the continuity of an action They further assert that repeating verbs three times, like in "I enjoy, enjoy, enjoy," intensifies the expression of continuity and the emotional impact of the action.
Conversion refers to the process of changing one part of speech into another without adding a suffix, often described as the addition of a zero derivational suffix According to Bauer (1983:226), conversion is a completely free process, allowing any lexeme to shift into any of the open form classes as needed Brinton also supports this view, highlighting the flexibility and adaptability of language through conversion.
In semantic shifts, the conversion of words can lead to varied meanings For instance, in the verb to noun (V > N) transformation, actions are perceived as objects, focusing on the action itself (e.g., an attack, a kick), the outcome of the action (e.g., an award, a break), or the individual performing the action (e.g., a cook, a spy) The adjective to verb (A > V) shift introduces meanings related to becoming or causing to become a certain state Similarly, the noun to adjective (N > A) shift conveys qualities associated with entities, while the adjective to noun (A > N) shift treats qualities as quantifiable entities (Brinton, 2000).
Review of previous studies
There are several previous studies which offer useful knowledge on various features of travel brochures
In her 2009 study, Dhitthita analyzed the linguistic features of tourist leaflets, emphasizing modal verbs, imperatives, personal pronouns, and adjectival pre-modifiers The findings indicated that the modal verbs "can" and "will" were the most frequently used, serving to express possibility and convey essential information to potential tourists.
In order to inform some important information to tourists and also to suggest tourists to visit attraction or join activities there, the imperatives “turn”, “take”,
“contact”, “call” and “get” were frequently used Furthermore, the top five personal pronouns were third personal pronouns, including “it”, “its”, “their”, “his”, and
This study analyzes the linguistic features of tourist texts, specifically focusing on the use of attributive adjectives with positive meanings that vividly depict tourist attractions It emphasizes the lexical characteristics of tourism discourse, highlighting their role in enhancing the appeal of travel-related content.
The next study in tourism brochures to be mentioned was by Henry and Roseberry
A study conducted in 1996 analyzed written English texts from various sources, including airline magazines, newspapers, and tourist guidebooks The findings indicated a prevalent use of personal pronouns such as "you" and "we" to foster a friendly and personal tone with readers Additionally, the modal verbs "can" and "will" were commonly employed to convey promise and opportunity The research also highlighted the frequent use of adjectives, particularly in their superlative forms, both before and after the nouns they modified.
Maasalmi's (2013) corpus-based study examined the specialized tourism discourse in brochures from the United States, the British Isles, and Canada, revealing statistically significant differences in adjective usage among these regions While Maasalmi focused solely on native English speakers and their use of adjectives in tourism discourse, my research will expand this analysis to explore the lexical features within a non-native community.
David (2008) highlights the nativization of English in Malaysia and the Philippines, where speakers have integrated local vocabulary and created new terms This process has led to the adoption of lexically entrenched local expressions across various categories, including people, events, cultural activities, places, political movements, religion, arts, films, food, clothes, and quotations in the Malaysian and Philippine varieties of English.
Ying (2012) explored the lexical features of China English, a distinct variety of English emerging in the Expanding Circle The research focuses on three levels of borrowing: transliteration, loan translation, and a combination of both, alongside nativized expressions that represent concepts unique to China This study is pertinent to my work as it similarly examines varieties of English within the Expanding Circle.
In 2002, Ramly, Othman, and McLellan examined the processes of Englishization and nativization in Brunei Darussalam through a comprehensive analysis of a corpus of spoken and written language Their study identified key characteristics of nativization, including semantic shifts, new collocations, the adaptation of syntactic structures, and the transcreation of similes, metaphors, and proverbs from various languages, alongside hybrid lexical constructions that blend concepts from multiple cultures The findings on lexical nativization in their research align closely with those in my own study.
Furthermore, as discussed earlier, Nor, Zamri and Awab (2015) illustrates lexical features of Malaysian English, including local language referents, semantic expansion and word formation processes
Research on the nativization of English has primarily focused on indigenized varieties in Outer Circle nations, such as Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines, while neglecting Expanding Circle countries like Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia Although there is extensive literature on the language used in tourism texts, particularly regarding lexical and syntactic features, there remains a lack of studies specifically addressing the lexical aspects of tourism English This paper aims to address this gap by examining the lexical features of tourism English in Vietnam, contributing to a better understanding of its unique characteristics within the Expanding Circle context.
METHODOLOGY
Data corpus
This study analyzed data from nine English-language travel brochures created by Vietnamese authors and travel agencies, showcasing diverse tourist attractions across northern, central, and southern Vietnam.
Table 3.1 The Corpus of nine travel brochures
No Name of the brochures Coding
2 Vietnam special packages for Asian B2
Data collection
Out of more than 20 travel brochures collected, nine were selected for their high quality and diverse content To maintain a variety of sources, brochures by the same authors were excluded Although some brochures provided information on travel in Vietnam, they were discarded due to uncertainty about their authorship, as the writers may not have been native English speakers.
The collected brochures, sourced from both the internet and printed copies, feature comprehensive texts, excluding map details and advertisements Information pertaining to other countries, such as Laos and Cambodia, has been omitted The brochures range in length from 9 to 68 pages.
Data analytical framework
Three types of lexical borrowing:
- Transliteration: transliterated words are phonetically similar to the donor language form and the borrowing language form
- Loan translation: the semantic components of a given term are literally translated into their equivalents in the borrowing language
- Loan blend (hybrids): loan blend consists of two or more elements and at least one element is from a local language
- Transliteration: ca phe den, Da Nang
- Affixation: the combination of an affix with another word to form a new word that may result in a change in the word class
- Compounding: the process of taking two or more existing words and combining them to form a new lexical item that could carry a totally different meaning from the original words
- Reduplication: a process in which the initial syllable or the entire word is doubled
- Repetition: a sound, syllable, word, phrase, line, stanza, or metrical pattern is repeated
- Conversion: the functional shift of one part of speech to another without the addition of a suffix
- Semantic expansion: standard English lexemes that have the original meaning as well as an extended semantic range of meanings not originally in native English
- Conversion: I can song for you
- Six groups of descriptive adjectives:
2 Size/ quantity/ extent: denoting size,
3 Time: denoting chronology, age, frequency
4 Evaluative/ emotive: denoting judgements, affect, emphasis
6 Location: denoting location, distance or describing the physical aspects, setting or the atmosphere of a location or attraction
- EE: bad, beautiful, best, fine, good
Halong bay, the bay of descending dragon, is one of the most beautiful places on earth
4 Modal verbs Modal verbs “can” and “will” - You can stop at the
- A beach tour like this will let you explore all the fun, activity, and food
Modal verbs “we” and “you” - Each of our products is built with extensive study about where you go, what you see, how you do and who you meet
6 Others new features other than the five listed above
Data analyzing procedure
The analysis of lexical features in travel brochures employs both qualitative and quantitative methods, focusing on the frequency of specific elements This dual approach provides a comprehensive understanding of the lexical aspects, as outlined in the analytical framework discussed in the previous section.
Initially, all the descriptive adjectives found in the travel brochures were identified and categorized based on Biber et al (1999) semantic categorization of adjectives
The study manually identifies personal pronouns such as "we" and "you," along with modal verbs "will" and "can," while also noting lexical borrowing and nativized word formation processes The frequency of various descriptive adjectives is tabulated in descending order Additionally, the occurrences of the modal verbs "will" and "can," as well as the personal pronouns, are counted Examples are extracted and analyzed to understand their usage in travel brochures.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Lexical borrowing
Transliterated words maintain phonetic similarities to their original forms in the donor language, allowing for close sound and meaning in the borrowing language In Vietnamese, transliteration involves omitting diacritical marks, such as tone marks, to create simpler versions of words; for instance, "Hạ Long" becomes "Ha Long" and "Hà Nội" is transformed into "Ha Noi." In the context of travel brochures in Vietnam, transliteration effectively conveys cultural information, particularly in culinary terms, geographical names, personal names, buildings, festivals, fine arts, trees, and ethnic minorities Geographical names are the most commonly transliterated loan words in these brochures, with a comprehensive list provided in the Appendix.
Table 4.3 Examples of transliteration in Vietnamese travel brochures
Transliterated loan words Vietnamese original words
Culinary ca phe sua da cà phê sữa đá
Bun Cha ca Bún chả cá
Lau Cua Dong Lẩu cua đồng
Tom nuong la chuoi Tôm nướng lá chuối
Geographical names Ba Be Ba Bể
Tam Coc Bich Dong Tam Cốc Bích Động
People‟s names Hoang A Tuong Hoàng A Tưởng
Ba Chua Xu Bà Chúa Xứ
Nong Van Den Nông Văn Dền
Buildings Chua Phap Hoa Chùa Pháp Hoa
Nha Tho Nui Nhà Thờ Núi
Terms related to fine arts
Trees Vo qua bau Vỏ quả bầu
Ethnic minority Lo Lo Lô Lô
Regarding geographical names, there are instances in which transliterated words contain description of the place For example, in the phrase “chua Phap Hoa”, “chua
The geographical names in Vietnam often include the term "chua," which means "pagoda." One effective way to present these names is to translate them directly into English, such as "Tran Quoc Pagoda," "Hai Van Pass," "Muong Hoa Valley," "Ta Van Village," and "Vinh Moc Tunnels." Alternatively, using English explanations in brackets can enhance understanding, as seen in terms like "Trong Cave (Drum Cave)," "Mat Quy (Monster Head)," "Am Tich (Teapot)," and "Trinh Nu (Virgin) Cave."
Brochures B7 and B9 in Vietnam notably retain diacritical marks and use local names in their original form, indicating a trend towards preserving the authenticity of Vietnamese language and culture in English translations This approach aims to maintain the integrity of culturally significant terms, showcasing a commitment to linguistic purity.
(5) Xôi xéo, Bánh cuốn, Phở, Bún thang (B7)
(6) Đình làng, Tổ nghề, Bà Nà, Trường Sơn, Phú Quốc, Đà Lạt, Vũng Tàu, Lâm Đồng, Long Hải, Tây Nguyên, Cát Tiên, Yok Đôn, Đắk Lắk, Buôn
Ma Thuột, Chợ lớn, Bình Tây, Huế, Trung Nguyên (B9)
Loan translation involves the literal translation of the semantic components of a term into their equivalents in the borrowing language For example, the Vietnamese term “Động Thiên Đường” is translated as “Paradise Cave.”
“paradise” means “Thiên Đường” and “cave” means “Động” “West lake” is another good illustration of this, in which “west” mean “tây” and “lake” means
“hồ”, and the whole original Vietnamese phrase is “hồ Tây” Examples of loan translation can be briefly illustrated in Table 4.2
Table 4.2 Examples of loan translation in travel brochures
No Loan translation Vietnamese original words
1 Red river delta Đồng bằng sông Hồng
2 Vietnam‟s Triple Religion Tam giáo
3 Temple of Literature Văn Miếu
4 One Pillar Pagoda Chùa Một Cột
5 Temple of the Jade Mountain Đền Ngọc Sơn
6 Water Puppet Múa rối nước
13 Paradise cave Động Thiên Đường
15 Reunification Hall Dinh Độc lập
16 The War Remnants Museum Bảo tàng chứng tích chiến tranh
18 Country Lady Temple Bà Chúa xứ
19 Lion dance Múa sư tử
21 Surprise cave Động Sửng sốt
22 swan islands Hòn Thiên Nga
23 incense burner Đỉnh lư hương
24 thumb islands Hòn ngón tay
25 August Revolution Square Quảng trường cách mạng thán+g tám
26 Trang An Scenic Landscape Complex
Quần thể danh lam thắng cảnh Tràng
27 Valley of Love Thung lũng Tình yêu
Loan blends are prevalent in various English dialects across Southeast Asia, notably in Philippine English with terms like "buco juice" and "pulot boy," as well as in Malaysian English with words such as "bersanding" and "tepung tawar." However, the data analyzed in this study does not include any instances of loan blends.
Nativized word formation processes
The analysis reveals that instances of affixation, compounding, reduplication, repetition, conversion, and semantic expansion are absent in the data corpus, primarily due to the specialized nature of tourism texts Travel brochures, as a form of written language, undergo meticulous editing for accuracy and employ a higher level of vocabulary and concepts Being promotional in nature, these texts prioritize linguistic precision, which explains the lack of processes like conversion and affixation in the travel brochures examined in this study Additionally, such linguistic processes are infrequently observed in Vietnamese English.
Descriptive adjectives
Table 4.3 presents the total number of descriptors categorized using semantic grouping of adjectives
Table 4.3 Descriptive adjectives used in the travel brochures
Figure 4.1: Descriptive adjectives used in the travel brochures
The analysis of the travel brochures reveals that miscellaneous descriptive adjectives dominate at 35.2%, followed by evaluative/emotive adjectives at 26.5% Local descriptors account for 14.25%, while size, quality, and extent (SQE) descriptors and time descriptors are nearly equal at 10.4% and 10.2%, respectively Color descriptors represent the smallest category at just 3.5% The subsequent sections will provide a detailed examination of how these descriptive adjectives are utilized in the brochures.
Miscellaneous descriptive (MD) is the largest group of descriptors in the travel brochures Within the scope of nine travel brochures analyzed, the percentage of
MD descriptors significantly outnumber size, quantity, and extent (SQE), time (T), and location (L) descriptors, being nearly three times more prevalent Additionally, MD adjectives exhibit a greater diversity than any other category, encompassing a wide range of descriptive adjectives This variability makes the examination and evaluation of this group of descriptors particularly challenging.
Table 4.4 Twenty most frequent MD group descriptors
MD adjectives are versatile and can effectively describe a wide range of qualities associated with linguistic strategies Notably, "famous" and other frequently used adjectives highlight their significance in this context.
The term "popular" appears 50 times in the article to effectively showcase the euphoria technique, while adjectives such as "quiet" and "lively" are strategically used to engage readers These choices highlight the emotional resonance intended in the content.
(1) Nha Trang has grown into one of the most popular ecotourism sites in
(2) Hanoi Opera House is without doubt one of the most famous cultural and architectural monuments of Hanoi (B7)
(3) Bac Ha, a lively and colorful mountain town, well-known for its Sunday
The market is bustling with locals from diverse hill tribes, showcasing a vibrant array of ethnic goods Key terms like "natural" and "free" enhance the appeal, while "private" targets individual preferences Descriptors such as "professional," "experienced," and "knowledgeable" further emphasize the quality and expertise of the offerings available.
“official” are utilized to form a sense of trust and reliability in the travel destinations Examples (5) – (9) demonstrate this
(4) Though united, today there are still distinct and honored ethnic cultural variations (B1)
(5) Ban Gioc Waterfall is considered as the largest natural waterfall in
(6) Our English speaking guides are knowledgeable and experienced (B2)
(7) You can always trust us for professional ground handling services (B3)
Evaluative and emotive (EE) adjectives play a crucial role in crafting enticing brochures, as they enhance the allure and appeal of the content These descriptive words emphasize quality and magnificence, effectively highlighting the attractions of tourist destinations.
(8) romantic lakes and alpine scenery, amazing views of the ocean, stunning white sandy beaches, picturesque blend of land and sea (B1)
(9) majestic limestone, splendid arched-roof kiosks, impressive temple (B5)
(10) nice and pristine island, spectacular underground rivers, amazing huge cave, fantastic views (B9)
Table 4.5 looks at the top twenty most frequent adjectives in the EE descriptor group
Table 4.5: Twenty most frequent EE group descriptors
The data reveals a strong connection between adjectives used in EE group descriptors and nature, with terms like "stunning" appearing 46 times, "spectacular" 36 times, "breathtaking" 21 times, and "scenic" 13 times This highlights the emphasis on the beauty and grandeur of natural landscapes.
Vietnamese‟s appreciation and promotion of their nature in travel brochures The following examples illustrates this:
(11) Discover the region's picturesque scenery and the local cottage industries and stunning floating market of Cai Be and Cai Rang on the
(12) You can see the whole of Ban Gioc waterfalls, seeing the majestic and spectacular beauty of the falls with the yellow rice fields, the blue sky, …
(13) Ha Giang is famous with scenic mountainous topography, colorful hill tribes and typical local culture (B8)
The emerald waters are surrounded by approximately 3,000 rugged limestone cliffs, featuring stunning dolomite islets and captivating caves and grottos This picturesque landscape is often described with adjectives like "beautiful," "exciting," "gorgeous," "amazing," "magnificent," and "fun," highlighting its breathtaking allure.
“enjoyable” and “exquisite” are employed to create euphoric atmosphere in order to attract the readers to visit the tourist destinations Some excerpts are shown below:
(15) Visitors can continue their adventure journey to explore many beautiful untouched regions in the surrounding area (B2)
(16) Many ethnic minority villages are located on mountain side surrounded by amazing terrace fields (B2)
(17) Visit and enjoy the magnificent landscape of Ba Be lake (B8)
(18) It is renowned for the exquisite woodwork used in the construction
(B5) Table 4.6 reveals the frequency of ego- targeting adjectives in the corpora
Table 4.6 Ego-targeting adjectives/ no of instances per 100 words
Travel brochures in Vietnam effectively utilize ego-targeting adjectives to highlight the magnificence and uniqueness of their attractions These compelling descriptors evoke a sense of adventure and exclusivity, enticing readers with the promise of experiences that are truly one-of-a-kind.
(19) Hoi An is now designated a UNESCO World Heritage site, and a great place to discover genuine Vietnamese architecture (B1)
(20) Popular spots include the atmospheric Dark & Light Cave, the aptly named Amazing Cave and the unique Luon Cave (B9)
(21) Cua Dai is truly an ideal place for a beach vacation in the center of
(22) A four-day R&R tour designed to get you to the best beaches for sunbathing, swimming, and snorkeling (B4)
4.3.3 Adjectives which describe the size, quantity and extent
(SQE), time descriptors (T), color descriptors (C) and location descriptors (L)
The four descriptor categories—SQE, T, C, and L—serve as factual adjectives that provide essential information about attractions, including location, time, rules, and regulations These descriptors aim to inform readers and enhance their experience by highlighting appealing aspects of tourist destinations SQE and color descriptors introduce visual nuances that engage the senses and spark the imagination, incorporating common colors and brightness terms like blue, green, white, and colorful Examples from brochures demonstrate the effective use of these adjectives to attract potential visitors.
(23) It is the centerpiece of the extensive Ba Be National Park where lakes, waterfalls, caves and unusual rock formations abound (B1)
(24) Cat Ba Island is the largest island in Ha Long Bay, a body of water littered with majestic limestone karsts in a blue-green sea (B5)
(25) You can see the whole of Ban Gioc waterfalls, seeing the majestic and spectacular beauty of the falls with the yellow rice fields, the blue sky, … (B6)
The annual Thap Ba Festival in spring attracts a large gathering of Cham descendants, celebrating their rich cultural heritage Brochures in Vietnam feature distinctive adjectives that vividly describe various locations and the natural beauty of the region, enhancing the appeal of these destinations.
The Vietnamese travel brochures emphasize the allure of local destinations, highlighting their mountainous, serene, untouched, rustic, and secluded characteristics Notably, the term "local" appears frequently, with a rate of 43.75 per 100 words, indicating a strong focus on promoting authentic experiences in these areas.
(27) The country has 1000 miles of spectacular coastline, with topography ranging from mountainous jungles to white sand beaches, and rice paddies to rainforests (B1)
(28) Indulge yourself with inspirational photos of untouched beautiful landscape on the way to and in the little mountain town of Lang Son (B8)
(29) Visitors to Sa Pa will have chances to discover the unique customs of the local residents by trekking on long buffalo trails (B2)
The analysis of nine travel brochures reveals a significant reliance on superlatives, totaling 143 instances The most common form is "the *est," appearing 77 times, followed by "the most *" with 35 occurrences, and the irregular "the best" at 31 These superlatives serve to emphasize unique features and facilitate comparisons, aligning with the writers' intent to distinguish specific tourist destinations from others (Pakkinen, 2005) This strategic use of superlatives enhances the captivating nature of tourism language, underscoring the distinctiveness of the destinations and services offered.
(30) Halong bay, the bay of descending dragon, is one of the most beautiful places on earth (B8)
(31) Cai Rang Floating Market, just 6km from Can Tho, is the biggest floating market in the Mekong Delta (B9)
(32) This universally famous food is best enjoyed in Hanoi (B7)
Modal verbs
In travel brochures, the modal verbs "will" and "can" are predominant, appearing 130 and 91 times, respectively, while other verbs like "should," "might," and "must" are used less frequently These modal verbs effectively convey promises and opportunities, enhancing the persuasive nature of the content.
The modal verb "will" highlights the value and benefits that visitors can expect when exploring tourist attractions, while "can" emphasizes the possibilities and advantages these destinations provide For instance, brochures B4 (p6) and B2 (p4) illustrate these points effectively.
The number of modal verbs “will” and “can” in each brochure is presented in the table below:
Table 4.7: The number of modal verbs “will” and “can” in each brochure
Brochures B3 and B9 predominantly feature the modal verb "will," while "can" is frequently used in brochures B1, B8, B3, and B9 Both verbs serve to convey essential concepts of possibility, certainty, and necessity, which are vital for tourists to understand.
Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns “you” and “we” are the most commonly used pronouns in the analyzed brochures The other pronouns rarely found in the data like “they”,
In writing, pronouns like "she," "he," and "it" serve as cohesive devices that refer back to nouns or denote locations and individuals, primarily for informative purposes In contrast, personal pronouns such as "you" and "we" are strategically used to engage and persuade potential tourists, fostering a welcoming and personal tone "You" directly addresses the readers, while "we" represents the writer, enhancing the connection with the audience The prevalence of "you," "we," and their variations highlights their importance in tourism-related communication.
Figure 4.2 Personal pronouns “you”, “we” and their corresponding
"we" & the corresponding you/we your/our you/us yourself/ourselves
The use of personal pronouns like "you" and "we" in travel brochures creates a friendly and inviting tone, fostering a sense of involvement that encourages readers to explore tourist attractions By addressing readers directly, writers convey genuine care and a desire to assist, making individuals feel valued and understood This approach effectively communicates the readers' needs and aspirations, leaving a lasting impression of the advertisers' concern As a result, readers feel special and unique, enhancing their connection to the content.
(496 times), below are some examples:
(33) Each of our products is built with extensive study about where you go, what you see, how you do and who you meet (B8)
(34) ITS‟ highly trained and professional employees are dedicated to providing you a wide range of quality services tailored to meet your needs (B1)
(35) Feel the wind in your hair and enjoy the freedom of the open road!
The use of the first-person pronoun "we" in advertising creates an impression of obedience and a commitment to providing excellent service to readers This approach suggests that readers can simply relax and enjoy their leisure while leaving the work to the advertisers Examples 42-44 demonstrate this effective communication strategy.
(36) We can be your most trusted local partner in Vietnam for all travel related arrangements in Vietnam (B3)
(37) Our tours are designed around what the clients want and need to create a once in-a-lifetime experience (B9)
(38) Contact us for the full descriptive, detailed itineraries, as well as information on other sites and activities (B1)
Writers employ personal pronouns to tailor their messaging to the specific needs and benefits of readers, effectively persuading them to explore various tourist attractions This strategic use of first and second person pronouns enhances the persuasive nature of the content, making it more relatable and engaging for the audience.
Others
In addition to the prominent lexical features of Vietnamese travel brochures, there are less noticeable characteristics, such as newly coined expressions These expressions arise when writers translate their thoughts from Vietnamese into English, resulting in language that may not sound natural or idiomatic to native English speakers While these newly coined expressions are not found in Standard English dictionaries, they can still be understood by both Vietnamese and some foreign readers, with or without context Trinh (2002) provides numerous examples of such expressions used by Vietnamese individuals.
The phrase "serving time," derived from the Vietnamese "giờ phục vụ," translates to "time" and "serving." In English, however, it specifically refers to the time spent in prison The appropriate terms to use instead are "business hours" or "operating hours."
Vietnamese travel brochures are rich in newly coined expressions, such as "hidden pleasures," which translates from the Vietnamese phrase "thú vui tiềm ẩn." This unique collocation is not commonly found in native English, highlighting the creative language used in Vietnamese marketing Other innovative phrases can also be found throughout these brochures, showcasing the distinct linguistic style that characterizes travel literature in Vietnam.
“equable temperatures” and “cooperative weather” is from B5 (p2) and “carbon producing transport” is from B3 (p4).
Discussion
This study explores the lexical characteristics of travel brochures in Vietnam, a non-native English-speaking country within the Expanding Circle It highlights the intersection of tourism lexicon and Vietnamese English, focusing on five key lexical elements: lexical borrowing, nativized word formation, descriptive adjectives, modal verbs, and personal pronouns The research identifies a wealth of lexical borrowing, particularly through transliteration and loan translation, while loan blends were absent Nativized word formation processes were also not found The analysis reveals that descriptive adjectives, especially miscellaneous and evaluative/emotive types, dominate the brochures, with superlatives frequently used to emphasize unique features of destinations Modal verbs like “will” and “can” convey promise and opportunity, while personal pronouns such as “you” and “we” create a friendly tone, effectively encouraging tourists to explore the highlighted locations.
This study reveals similarities in lexical borrowing features with previous research by Haugen (1970), Ying (2012), and Kachru et al (2006), particularly in the use of transliteration and loan translation in Vietnamese English and other Southeast Asian English varieties However, it did not identify the third level of lexical borrowing, loan blends or hybrids Additionally, unlike findings from studies by Nor et al (2015) and Ramly et al (2002), there was no evidence of nativized word formation processes This suggests that the nativization of English in Vietnam is currently limited to the initial two levels of lexical borrowing: transliteration and loan translation.
Another interesting finding is new coined expressions such as “hidden pleasures” or
“cooperative weather” and this can be considered a distinctive feature of Vietnamese English
The study aligns with previous research by Henry and Roseberry (1996), Leech (1966), Boonchayaanant (2003), Iborra and Garrido (2001), Francesconi (2004), and Pakkinen (2005) regarding the use of descriptive adjectives, personal pronouns, and modal verbs It confirms that descriptive adjectives aim to enhance the allure of brochures and attractions, while modal verbs like “will” and “can” effectively convey promise and opportunity Additionally, personal pronouns such as “you” and “we” contribute to a friendly and warm tone, encouraging tourists to visit However, the findings on personal pronouns differ from Dhitthita’s (2009) research, which identified third-person pronouns as the most frequently used.
“they” It seems possible that these results are due to the differences in the data corpus Dhitthita (2009) also deals with promotional texts, yet in the form of tourist leaflets.
CONCLUSION
Recapitulation
This analysis of lexical features in Vietnamese travel brochures highlights key aspects of tourism discourse and English lexis in an Expanding Circle country The study examines a corpus of nine travel brochures authored by Vietnamese writers, employing both qualitative and quantitative approaches Notably, these brochures exhibit lexical characteristics consistent with previous research, including the prevalence of descriptive adjectives, the use of modal verbs like “will” and “can,” and the frequent inclusion of personal pronouns such as “you.”
In the context of tourism discourse, the use of "we" serves a persuasive promotional purpose In non-native English-speaking countries such as Vietnam, the vocabulary often features a significant number of transliterated words and loan translations However, processes like loan blends and nativized word formations are notably absent.
Vietnamese English is currently in the third phase of its life-cycle, as proposed by Moag (1982), characterized by indigenization where lexical borrowings occur to express local nuances Despite this, native English remains the "Standard" to emulate in Vietnam, leading to the rejection of deviations from native norms English is primarily used for communication with native speakers and has not yet become a common medium among locals However, there are efforts to expand the use of English, with some schools adopting it as a medium of instruction and bilingual newspapers emerging In contrast, Singaporean English is in the institutionalization phase, while Malaysia and the Philippines are approaching the final stage of restricting English's use and function Although English is thriving in Vietnam, Vietnamese English still has further stages to traverse before it can be recognized as a distinct variety of English.
Limitations of the study
This study has notable limitations that must be acknowledged Firstly, it did not explore various intriguing aspects of travel brochures, such as syntactic features and other lexical characteristics like lexical density and complexity Additionally, the research is constrained by a small sample size, comprising only nine travel brochures Therefore, caution is advised, as the findings may not be applicable to travel brochures from different sources.
Recommendations for further studies
This study aims to inspire further research into the linguistic characteristics of tourism and promotional texts, encouraging comparisons of lexical features across English varieties in the Inner Circle, Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle Additionally, examining the perceptions of both Vietnamese and non-Vietnamese individuals regarding English lexical features in non-native contexts would be valuable Furthermore, the absence of nativized word formation processes in the travel brochures analyzed suggests a need for future research into these processes within Vietnamese English across different discourse types.
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APPENDIX Examples of Transliterated loan words Transliterated loan words Vietnamese original words
Culinary ca phe den cà phê đen ca phe sua da cà phê sữa đá
Pho Phở banh deo bánh dẻo banh nuong bánh nướng
Bun Cha ca Bún chả cá
Banh Da Cua Bánh đa cua
Nem Cua Be Nem cua bể
Lau Cua Dong Lẩu cua đồng
Giao co lam Giảo cổ lam
Pho Bat Dan Phở Bát Đàn
Cha ca La Vong Chả cá Lã Vọng
Tom nuong la chuoi Tôm nướng lá chuối
Goi Hoa Chuoi Gỏi hoa chuối
Ca tim kho to Cà tím kho tộ
Tam Coc Bich Dong Tam Cốc Bích Động
Ho Chi Minh Hồ Chí Minh
Bà Chúa Xứ Bà Chúa Xứ
Ho Chi Minh Hồ Chí Minh
Nong Van Den Nông Văn Dền
Vo Nguyen Giap Võ Nguyên Giáp
La Van Cau La Văn Cầu
Ly Van Muu Lý Văn Mưu
Buildings Chua Phap Hoa Chùa Pháp Hoa
Nhà Thờ Núi Nhà Thờ Núi