introduction
The design of the study
This chapter examines the relevant theories and literature that underpin the research, organized into three key sections The first two sections focus on the theories of culture and communication, while the third section addresses related topics, specifically the role of politeness in human interactions.
Culture is a complex and all-encompassing concept that is challenging to define due to its evolving meanings over time Today, the term 'culture' encompasses a diverse array of interpretations, ranging from intricate and sophisticated to straightforward and accessible.
Culture encompasses an appreciation for literature, music, art, and food, while anthropologists and behavioral scientists define it as the complete spectrum of learned human behavior patterns Edward B Tylor articulated this concept in 1871, highlighting the significance of cultural elements in shaping human experiences.
In 2007, an anthropologist defined culture as a comprehensive system that encompasses knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals, customs, and various skills and habits acquired by individuals within a society.
H C Triandis defines culture as a collection of human-made objective and subjective elements that have historically enhanced survival and satisfaction within a specific ecological niche This definition is particularly relevant to the thesis, as it highlights the connection between culture and communication, emphasizing that shared experiences and a common language among individuals in the same time and place foster cultural cohesion.
Subjective elements such as values, attitudes, beliefs, orientations, and underlying assumptions play a crucial role in shaping individuals' perceptions and interactions within society These factors significantly influence how people interpret their surroundings and engage with others.
development
Literature Review
This chapter examines the relevant theories and literature that underpin the research, organized into three main sections The first two sections focus on the theories of culture and communication, while the third section addresses related topics, specifically the role of politeness in human interactions.
Culture is a complex and all-encompassing concept that is challenging to define due to its evolving nature Over time, the meaning of 'culture' has diversified, leading to a wide array of definitions that range from intricate and sophisticated to straightforward and simple.
Culture encompasses the appreciation of literature, music, art, and food, while anthropologists define it as the complete spectrum of learned human behavior patterns Edward B Tylor's definition highlights the intricate ways in which culture shapes our experiences and interactions.
In 2007, an anthropologist defined culture as a comprehensive system encompassing knowledge, beliefs, art, law, morals, customs, and various skills and habits that individuals acquire as members of society.
H C Triandis, as cited in A Samorva (2007), defines culture as a collection of human-made objective and subjective elements that have historically enhanced survival and satisfaction within a specific ecological niche This definition emphasizes the connection between culture and communication, highlighting that shared experiences and a common language among individuals in the same time and place foster cultural cohesion.
Subjective elements such as values, attitudes, beliefs, orientations, and underlying assumptions play a crucial role in shaping how individuals interpret the world and engage with others in society.
Communication is a fundamental aspect of life, integral to our daily interactions It has the power to unite friends or disperse adversaries, provide comfort or raise alarms, and create agreements or divisions among individuals Despite its significance, defining communication remains a challenge for many Key questions arise regarding effective expression and the assurance of being heard and understood, all of which highlight the complexity of communication that has been extensively analyzed and discussed.
Communication is fundamentally the sharing of ideas and feelings between individuals, occurring when one person conveys information and understanding to another It involves active listening and responding, highlighting the interactive nature of human communication As defined by A Samorva (2007), it is the process of transmitting symbols to elicit a response.
Fisker (1990, as cited in Heather Bowe and Kelie Martin, 2007) emphasizes that communication is fundamentally social interaction through messages This definition highlights the significance of the social context in which communication occurs, as it greatly influences its effectiveness Additionally, communication is not merely about exchanging information; it also conveys the nature of relationships between individuals For instance, using patronizing language reflects a relationship characterized by disrespect, while language that shows deference indicates a relationship built on respect for status and hierarchy.
Fiske emphasizes the importance of 'interaction' in communication, highlighting that it is not just fundamental to our lives but essential Despite its significance, communication can often be problematic, leading to breakdowns between individuals This complexity arises because communication is a dynamic process that is symbolic, systemic, and involves making inferences.
The concept of meaning in communication is multifaceted, encompassing both intention and interpretation Intention refers to the sender's desire to convey a specific message, while interpretation highlights that a message can be perceived regardless of the sender's intent For instance, non-verbal cues such as tone of voice can unintentionally convey emotions like nervousness, demonstrating that communication occurs even without deliberate intention.
Effective communication hinges on the interpretation of messages, which is influenced by the speaker's intent and the listener's understanding (Larson, Charles U, 1976) Furthermore, the social context plays a crucial role in shaping communication dynamics and determining the overall outcome of interactions.
From what have been discussed, we can say that Fiske‘s definition of communication helps us have an overview of communication which we often take for granted
Cross-cultural communication refers to the exchange of messages between individuals from different cultural backgrounds, encompassing various nationalities, social, or ethnic origins This term highlights the interaction between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are sufficiently distinct to influence the communication process Understanding cross-cultural communication is essential in today's globalized world, as it fosters better interactions and reduces misunderstandings among diverse populations.
Cross-cultural communication, as noted by Richard et al (1992:92), refers to the exchange of ideas and information among individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds This concept highlights the intrinsic link between communication and culture, a relationship that will be explored further in the following section.
In summary, daily interactions within society inherently involve various forms of communication, regardless of our desire for them to occur By recognizing the complexities of communication and actively working to enhance our social skills, we can significantly influence both what we choose to express and what we opt to withhold.
Methodology
Data collection instrument
The study utilizes a Discourse Completion Task (DCT) questionnaire, based on the Cross-cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP), for data collection, a method recognized for its effectiveness in pragmatic research The DCT, employing written questionnaires, offers significant advantages, including the ability to gather extensive data quickly and efficiently survey a larger participant pool compared to role plays, facilitating more feasible statistical analysis Given the time constraints of this study, this methodology proved to be highly effective.
While the Discourse Completion Task (DCT) offers valuable insights into cultural differences in emotional expression, it has notable drawbacks The data collected through DCT does not reflect natural speech, as it captures what participants think they should say rather than their authentic responses Consequently, the results may not align with genuine speech patterns Additionally, the DCT fails to convey the emotional depth that influences the tone, content, and structure of linguistic performance (Beebe and Cummins 1996, p.80) Despite these limitations, the DCT remains a useful tool for exploring how individuals manage their emotions across different cultures.
In order to make the data more reliable, the author also make use of some other source of information such as books, films, internet and self observation.
Questionnaire and Participants
The data were collected from Australian native speakers of English and native speakers of Vietnamese via written questionnaires which consists of three main part parts
The initial section of the questionnaire focuses on gathering respondents' demographic information, including age, nationality, gender, and occupation This personal data is essential for analyzing the results, as it enables researchers to make informed judgments about the respondents' linguistic choices.
The second section examines the factors influencing the strategies respondents use to conceal their emotions In conjunction with two additional questions about the frequency of emotional suppression among Australians and Vietnamese, as well as the strategies employed by both groups, this analysis provides a comprehensive understanding of the issue, serving as a foundation for subsequent research.
The third section explores six common workplace situations where participants frequently conceal their emotions These scenarios differ based on three social status levels—low, high, and equal—three age categories—older, same, and younger—and two gender dynamics—same and opposite Analyzing data from these variables will enhance our understanding of the similarities and differences in emotional concealment across various cultures.
In a busy office environment, it's common to encounter distractions, such as colleagues of the opposite sex engaging in laughter and playful antics while you're trying to focus on important tasks This situation can be frustrating and may lead to feelings of annoyance If you choose to conceal your emotions, you might express your feelings diplomatically by saying, "I appreciate your energy, but I'm finding it difficult to concentrate on my work right now." This approach balances professionalism with the need for a quiet workspace.
In this situation, the communicating partner is a person of equal status and of opposite sex
In a challenging scenario where your project has not succeeded, you may find yourself facing criticism during the company's monthly meeting Notably, some of the harshest critiques may come from colleagues of the same gender, despite their professional skills being inferior to yours.
Do you hide your feeling? If you do, what would you say?
The communicating partner in this situation is a person of equal status and of the same sex
These two situations are given out to check how sex influences the frequency of hiding feelings and the choice of hiding feelings strategies of the two groups
In a workplace scenario where a younger colleague frequently makes long-distance calls on the office phone, feelings of discomfort may arise due to a strong sense of responsibility It’s essential to address this behavior, as it may not align with company policies or ethical standards Rather than suppressing these feelings, consider expressing your concerns directly and respectfully You might say, "I've noticed you've been using the office phone for long-distance calls, and I wanted to discuss how that might impact our resources." This approach fosters open communication while promoting accountability in the workplace.
In this situation, the communicating partner is a person of equal status and of younger age
As a newcomer in the office, you may encounter challenges from older colleagues who frequently assign you menial tasks like making coffee or retrieving documents This can create discomfort, especially when you have a heavy workload When faced with these requests, consider expressing your feelings honestly yet professionally You might say, "I appreciate the team spirit, but I have a lot on my plate today Could we find a way to balance these tasks?" This approach maintains respect while asserting your boundaries.
In the fourth situation, the communicating partner is a person of equal status and of older age
The aim of these two situations is to find out how age affects the hiding feelings of the two groups
An employee in your office has been consistently arriving late and displaying a moody demeanor, which is particularly frustrating during busy workdays Today, with the workload piling up, she is late again, leaving you feeling annoyed Should you choose to conceal your feelings, you might say something like, "I noticed you've been coming in later than usual; is everything okay?" This approach addresses the issue while maintaining a supportive tone.
The 5 th situation deals with communicating partners of lower status
In a professional setting, it can be challenging when a boss frequently wears revealing attire, such as short skirts and low-cut shirts Today, during a crucial meeting with partners, your boss arrives dressed in the same manner It's important to navigate this situation with sensitivity; if you choose to conceal your feelings, you might consider expressing your thoughts on maintaining a professional image without directly addressing their attire Balancing professionalism and personal feelings is key in this scenario.
In the 6 th situation the communicating partner is of higher status
These two situations aim at finding out how social status influences the hiding feelings of the both Australian people and Vietnamese people
The researcher gathered data from 80 participants, consisting of 40 Vietnamese native speakers and 40 Australian native speakers of English The sample included 20 female and 20 male native speakers from both Australia and Vietnam, all of whom are employed in office settings in Hanoi, Vietnam, and Sydney, Australia.
The participants in this study remain anonymous All were volunteers and at least18 years of age.
Administration of the Questionnaires
To assess potential weaknesses in the questionnaires, a pilot study was conducted with four students from the University of Sydney—two females and two males—as well as two female and two male friends in Hanoi, Vietnam This pilot phase tested the questionnaire's length, layout, format, and question sequence, while also evaluating specific questions that might be misleading Additionally, it examined data analysis procedures, including coding and tabulating processes The pilot study was successful, leading to several minor adjustments based on participant feedback before the final distribution of the questionnaires.
The responses are processed and analyzed and the results are presented in the next chapter
findings and Discussions
3.1 What are the influential factors on the choice of verbal strategies of hiding feelings in Australian English and Vietnamese?
In the initial section of the questionnaire, participants ranked the factors influencing their choice of strategies for concealing emotions in relation to their communication partners The analysis reveals notable similarities and differences between the two groups, as illustrated in the accompanying tables.
Order of importance Influential Factors
Table 1: Factors governing the choice of strategies in hiding feelings by Vietnamese people
Table 2: Factors governing the choice of hiding feelings strategies by Australian people
The data indicates that both Vietnamese and Australian individuals experience workplace communication influenced by factors such as age and social status However, Vietnamese participants place greater importance on social status, with 67.5% ranking it as their top priority compared to 42.5% of Australians Additionally, 30% of Vietnamese ranked social status second, while 40% of Australians did the same When it comes to age, 57.5% of Vietnamese participants prioritized it first, contrasted with 40% of Australians, and 25% of Vietnamese ranked it second compared to 20% of Australians.
In a study comparing the importance of sex among participants from Australia and Vietnam, it was found that 30% of Australians ranked sex as their top priority, with an additional 27.5% placing it in second place In contrast, only 12.5% of Vietnamese participants ranked sex as their number one priority, while a significant 42.5% considered it their second priority.
Other factors such as occupation and communication setting are rated to be less important than those mentioned above for the both groups In the order of importance,
In a recent study, 72% of Vietnamese participants rated occupation as the sixth most important factor, while 60% also ranked communication setting at the same level In contrast, a significant 75% of Australian participants deemed occupation to be unimportant, with only 10% ranking it a 4 and 15% a 5 Similarly, regarding communication setting, 65% of Australians felt it had no impact on concealing their emotions, with just 10% assigning it a rank of 3 and 15% a rank of 4.
Australian participants place significant importance on the topic, with 12.5% ranking it as their top priority and 17.5% ranking it second This indicates that the topic plays a notable role in shaping the strategies Australians use to hide their feelings.
Table 3: Differences between Australian and Vietnamese in number of participants hiding feelings in specific situations (by percentage)
The data reveals that a significant majority of Vietnamese individuals, specifically 87.5%, tend to conceal their true feelings when interacting with those of higher social status, indicating a heightened sensitivity to social hierarchies This contrasts sharply with Australian participants, where only 57.5% reported hiding negative feelings in similar situations, suggesting that Australians are less influenced by the social status of their communication partners Overall, the findings highlight the cultural differences in emotional expression and social sensitivity between Vietnamese and Australian individuals.
Age significantly influences the strategies individuals use to conceal their emotions in the workplace In Vietnam, a notable 80% of participants reported hiding their feelings when their partners were older, contrasting sharply with only 45% of participants from Australia.
A study found that both Australian and Vietnamese participants exhibited greater sensitivity towards individuals of the opposite gender compared to those of the same gender However, Australians appeared to be more influenced by gender dynamics, with 57.5% of participants concealing their feelings when interacting with opposite-gender partners, while 35% did the same with same-gender partners.
Looking into Vietnamese culture and Australian culture, we will have a better explanation for these differences
Vietnam's communication is heavily shaped by Chinese Confucianism, emphasizing the importance of hierarchy within families and society This hierarchical structure significantly influences how individuals express themselves, particularly in terms of concealing emotions Consequently, the status of the communication partner is crucial in determining the verbal strategies employed in interactions.
Boss in Western countries Boss in Vietnam
In the workplace, a stark contrast exists between social status perceptions in Australia and Vietnam In Australia, bosses are viewed as equals to their employees, with legal obligations to uphold employment rights; failure to do so can result in legal action from employees Conversely, in Vietnam, the authority of bosses significantly overshadows that of employees, leading to a greater impact of social status on the suppression of emotions among Vietnamese workers compared to their Australian counterparts.
In Vietnamese culture, age is highly valued alongside social status, with a deep-rooted tradition of respecting elders A well-educated individual is defined by their respect for older generations, leading to distinct communication styles when interacting with them Young people typically refrain from expressing negative emotions towards elders in both family and workplace settings, as doing so is perceived as a sign of poor education Additionally, gender influences the tendency to conceal negative feelings, impacting the strategies employed to manage emotional expressions in these interactions.
In Vietnamese culture, gender plays a less significant role in communication compared to Western countries like Australia However, traditional views that prioritize men over women persist, contributing to ongoing gender inequality Despite recent improvements, this disparity influences various aspects of life, including how men communicate with women As a result, Vietnamese men may exhibit less politeness in their interactions with women than their Australian counterparts.
3.2 How often do Vietnamese and Australian people hide their feelings at the workplace?
In examining the frequency with which Australian and Vietnamese individuals conceal their emotions in the workplace, notable differences emerge between the two groups The data, illustrated in the accompanying table, highlights these variances, emphasizing the distinct cultural approaches to emotional expression in professional settings.
Table 4: The frequency of hiding feelings by the two groups (by percentage)
Among Vietnamese participants, 15% said that Vietnamese always hid their negative feelings toward the other interactor, whereas, 0% of the Australian participants thought
Always Often Sometimes Rarely Never
In a study comparing emotional expression between Australian and Vietnamese participants, 17.5% of Australians reported frequently hiding their feelings, while 57.5% admitted to doing so occasionally Notably, a larger proportion of Australians (40.5%) stated they rarely concealed their emotions compared to only 7.5% of Vietnamese participants Additionally, 10% of Australians claimed they never hid their feelings, contrasting with 0% of Vietnamese respondents.
Therefore, we may say that the Vietnamese hide their feelings at the workplace at a greater frequency than the Australian do
To make this clearer, we have investigated six situations and the number of people of the two groups hiding their feelings are presented in the table below:
A comparison of Australian and Vietnamese participants reveals notable differences in the tendency to hide feelings across various situations In the first scenario, 57.5% of Australians reported concealing their emotions, compared to 62.5% of Vietnamese participants In the second scenario, the figures dropped to 35% for Australians and 42% for Vietnamese individuals Overall, across six situations, the data indicates that Vietnamese participants exhibited a higher frequency of hiding their feelings, with 62.08% compared to 44.1% for Australians.
3.3 What are the verbal strategies of hiding feelings used by Australian and Vietnamese people?
3.3.1 Verbal strategies used by Australian and Vietnamese people to hide their feelings
conclusion and implications
Major findings
Research indicates that factors such as age, social distance, and social status significantly influence the expression of feelings in different cultural groups In Vietnam, social status emerges as the most critical factor, likely due to the impact of Confucianism, which emphasizes the importance of status relationships in communication (Samovar and Porter 2001, p.112) Additionally, age holds greater significance in Vietnamese culture compared to Australia, reflecting Vietnam's highly hierarchical societal structure.
Vietnamese culture places a strong emphasis on face-saving behaviors, as individuals strive to avoid humiliating their conversation partners This cultural norm leads to a tendency among Vietnamese people to suppress negative feelings and avoid confrontation, prioritizing harmony and safety in social interactions Consequently, the act of concealing emotions is significantly more prevalent among Vietnamese individuals compared to their Australian counterparts.
In both Australia and Vietnam, the preferred communication strategy is Minimizing; however, Vietnamese individuals often employ Alluding and vague expressions to preserve harmony This preference stems from the indirect communication style prevalent in Vietnamese culture, where meaning is often conveyed through context rather than explicit words In contrast, Australians value independence and emotional distance, relying on direct communication and clear expressions rather than contextual manipulation This fundamental difference in communication styles highlights the varying approaches to conveying meaning between the two cultures.
Implication of the study
Language serves as the primary tool for navigating our social interactions, intricately linked to culture in various ways When individuals find themselves in a foreign cultural and social setting, they may experience culture shock, leading to feelings of anxiety, surprise, disorientation, and confusion To mitigate or lessen these effects, it is essential for all parties involved to work together to foster mutual understanding.
Building a positive relationship with individuals from diverse cultures necessitates a deep understanding and respect for their customs and traditions In addition to grasping cultural norms, effective communication skills and tailored strategies specific to each country or region are essential To foster healthy business relationships within a corporate setting, it is crucial to be adequately prepared and culturally aware.
* Get a feel for the attitudes, atmosphere and approach of the business community
* Know about your encounter's culture, collective personality and way of doing things
* Observe the way in which people act, dress and treat each other
* Learn to read a situation in the local business environment
* Give yourself sufficient time to adjust to the environment These are a few of the key factors in preparing to engage in an interactive business relationship with other cultures
Language serves as a fundamental and defining element of culture, highlighting its central role in human expression The intricate relationship between language and culture underscores the importance of cultural understanding for a complete grasp of any language, as they are inherently intertwined and cannot be separated.
It follows that learning second language is often learning second culture (Brown 1989) and teaching second language is often teaching second culture
Communicating in a second language (L2) is a complex task that necessitates not only language acquisition but also an understanding of the socio-cultural values of the target culture Effective L2 communication requires learners to grasp the socio-cultural strategies commonly used by native speakers and the rules governing their appropriate use Therefore, we recommend incorporating these elements into L2 instruction to enhance learners' communicative competence.
Language instructors play a crucial role in enhancing learners' pragmatic abilities in foreign language classrooms By implementing contextualized, task-based activities, educators can expose students to diverse types of pragmatic input This approach not only encourages learners to engage with real-life language use but also prompts them to produce appropriate and effective output in various communicative situations.
To effectively conduct a speech act, language instructors must teach language forms and functions within the context of communicative oral activities This approach should be applied in both formal and informal situations to enhance learners' sociolinguistic abilities in a second language (L2).
Incorporating socio-cultural and sociolinguistic information into language curricula and textbooks is essential for effective language learning Students should learn to navigate various speech acts in a second language (L2) according to social status, age, and gender dynamics L2 teachers must recognize that students are being prepared for a globalized world, where they may work abroad or interact with foreigners domestically As a result, effective communication with both native and non-native English speakers is increasingly important for students' success.
Limitations of the study and Recommendations for future research
The study's data collection method did not account for crucial elements like prosody, gestures, and facial expressions, potentially leading to discrepancies between participants' responses and their actual behavior in real-life contexts Therefore, employing naturalistic data collection methods, such as role-plays or recordings in authentic environments, is recommended for more accurate insights.
The study exclusively surveyed Vietnamese participants employed in Vietnam and Australian participants working in Australia Consequently, the findings may vary if the participants were Vietnamese working in Australia or Australians employed in Vietnam.
This study primarily focused on three key variables: social status, social distance, and gender While other factors, including the time dedicated to learning English and the level of request imposition, were acknowledged as potentially relevant, they were not explored in this research and are reserved for future investigation.
This thesis focuses on the cross-cultural study of emotional concealment in the workplace, highlighting its limited scope Numerous intriguing aspects warrant additional research in this area.
* Investigating non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, eyes contacts used in hiding feelings
* Investigating the effects of other factors such as social distance, topic on hiding feelilngs
* Investigating Vietnamese and Australian participants who are working in multicultural offices
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1 Nguyễn Quang.(1998) Trực tiếp và gián tiếp trong dụng học giao thoa văn hóa Việt
Mỹ Tạp san ngoại ngữ 4 -1998
2 Hoàng Phê (1998) Từ điển tiếng Việt Nhà xuát bản Xă hội
3 Trần Ngọc Thêm (1998) Cơ sở văn hóa Việt nam Nhà xuất bản giáo dục
4 Trần Ngọc Thêm (2001) Bản sắc văn hóa Việt nam trước ngưỡng cửa thiên niên kỷ mới Nhà xuất bản giáo dục
I am conducting a PhD research study on cultural effects and would greatly appreciate your participation in a brief survey Your assistance will significantly contribute to the success of my research Thank you for your support!
This questionnaire aims to explore the cross-cultural differences in emotional expression between Vietnamese and English native speakers in the workplace, enhancing our understanding of cross-cultural communication.
If you agree to participate, you will fill out the questionnaire Please respond as you would in a real conversation
Your information will be highly appropriated and strictly confidential
* Marital status: Single Married Other (please explain)
* Place where you have lived most of your time:
* Languages other than your mother tongue:
1 Which of the factors listed below do you generally take into consideration when you decide to hide your feelings in communication with other people in your language at the workplace? Please put them in order of importance 01 is the most important If it is of no importance please make a cross(x) a Age b Sex c Social status d Occupation
e Social distance f Communication setting h Topic g Others (Please explain) ………
2 In your observation, how often do Australian people hide their feelings at the workplace? a Always b Often c Sometimes d Rarely e Never
3 Which of the following communicative strategies do Australian people often use to avoid revealing their feelings at the workplace? a minimize (i.e the speaker tries to make the matter less serious, or smaller by using synonymous but mild words) b allude (i.e the speaker makes a disguised reference to the matter, not mention it directly they say this thing but deliberately refer to another thing) c equivocate (i.e the speaker deliberately makes ambiguous or unclear utterances The hearer has to deduce what the speaker means) d tell a white lie.( i.e the speaker hides his/her feelings completely by saying things contrary to what they think or they feel The hearer can not realize their feelings) e.Silence f Others (please explain)
1 In the office, you are trying to concentrate on some important work However, a few colleagues of opposite sex are laughing and horsing around You are annoyed Do you hide your feeling? If you do, what would you say?
2 You failed in your project At the monthly meeting of the company, many people criticize you Among those, a colleague of the same sex whose professional skill is not as good as yours criticize you most Do you hide your feeling? If you do, what would you say?
3 A colleague younger than you often uses office phone for long distance calls Being a person with sense of responsibility, you feel unpleasant You think it is not good thing to do Do you hide your feeling? If you do, what would you say?
4 You are a new comer in the office Other colleagues (older than you) cause you a lot of difficulties They often ask you to do errands in the office such as making coffee, getting document…You are not comfortable Today when you have lots of things to do, they, as usual, ask you to do such things Do you hide your feeling? If you do, what would you say?
5 An employee in your office has started coming to work late everyday and is extremely moody Today when your office is up to the ears in work, she comes late again You feel annoyed Do you hide your feeling? If you do, what would you say?
6 In the office, your boss often goes to work showing a lot of cleavage (too short skirts, sensitive shirts) Today your company has an important meeting with partners she/he comes in as usual with sensitive clothes Do you hide your feeling? If you do, what would you say
Thank you very much for your help!
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