Prototypes of basic colour terms in english and vietnamese from a cognitive linguistics perspective

LITERATURE REVIEW

Appendix 1.1: Main development representatives in terms of prototype & categories

The ideas of family resemblance, centrality and gradience

J L Austin The relationships among meanings of words

Crystalizing earlier ideas in lexicography and historical semantics and being a precursor of the contemporary view of polysemy involving family resemblances among meanings

Lotfi Zadeh The technical study of categories with fuzzy boundaries

Conceiving of a theory of fuzzy sets as a generalization of standard set theory

Floyd Lounsbury The generative analysis of kinship categories

Linking between the idea that a generator can generate a category and that a category has central members (and subcategories)

1969 The research on colour categories Establishing empirically the ideas of centrality and gradience

The boundaries of words and their meanings

Research on family things categorization

The importance of the embodiment of concepts and the role that embodiment

Putting together colour research from anthropology and neurophysiology

Roger Brown The study of ―basic-level categories‖

Brent Berlin and his associates differentiate between "natural" or "first-level" categorization, where children learn to identify and name objects, and higher-level and lower-level categorization, which they describe as "achievements of the imagination." This distinction highlights the developmental stages of categorization in children, emphasizing the role of imagination in more complex forms of classification.

The fundamental ideas associated with basic-level categorization and basic-level primacy

Demonstrating that embodiment determines some of the most significant properties of human categories

Paul Ekman & his co-workers

The confirmation of ideas as basic-level concepts, basic-level primacy and centrality

Demonstrating that emotional concepts are embodied

Categories as one important issue in cognition

Proposing the generalizations behind studies of particular organized cases in terms of prototypes and basic-level structures

Developing experimental paradigms to assess how individuals rate the representativeness of category members reveals inconsistencies with classical categorization theories These findings impose critical limitations on the criteria that any comprehensive theory of categorization must address.

Establishing research paradigm in cognitive psychology for demonstrating centrality, family resemblance, basic- level categorization, basic-level primacy and reference- point reasoning as well as certain kinds of embodiment

Appendix 1.2: Researches in English in terms of lexicon research direction

Analysis of Homeric language related to colours

Ancient written language speakers categorized colors less precisely than modern European languages, primarily distinguishing them through light and dark contrasts rather than specific hues.

Gladstone‘s view exploits the distinction between mind and brain responsible for generating perceptual states which differ in psychological salience

Observation for Indian Vedic Poems in Sanskrit, Old Testament in Hebrew, Quran in Arabic and Sagas in Icelandic

Proposing a universal evolutionary sequence in which colour vocabulary evolves in tandem with an assumed biological evolution of the colour sense

Diachronic model of colour language development constructed from the evidence of synchronic colour term application

A diachronic developmental sequence to explain the refinement of colour term reference in a variety of distinct synchronic sources

Mesoamerican colour terms on basis of hue

The presentation of the lexical domain of colour as the empirical locus of linguistic relativity and language determinism

Human colour perception based on original materials of more than 60 North-American Mesoamerican tribes

The Zuni from the American Southwest and native English speakers on colours

The Zuni language exhibits a distinct set of color terms compared to English, highlighting significant differences in the number of color categories each language encompasses Additionally, the ranges defined by informants for these color terms vary notably, reflecting unique cultural perceptions of color within the Zuni community.

Colour alphabet system in Hanunoo tribe in Philippines

Lexical sets related to perceptual categorization

56 categories and the responses by students from Universities of Maryland

The American and Scottish studies in the field of colour terms

The constraints on the types of possible colour lexicons that arise from the structure and function of the visual system, belong to semantic universals in the domain of colour

Lakoff (1987) Possibility to compare colour categories in different languages, as colour categories comprise focal colours

Participants were instructed to list as many color terms as they could without a time constraint, allowing them to concentrate fully on this singular task.

Biggam (1997) Linguistic analyses of colour terms is work on Old English colour terms

Detailed contextual studies of a collection of individual tokens can be useful in the overall semantic characterization of a given term Saunders & van

Criticizing the amount of weight given to the study of physiological colour perception as support for the universalism of colour terminology

A revision attempt of Berlin & Kay hypothesis

A series of revisions in response to data collected in ―World Colour Survey‖ as superordinate rules determining the evolution of Basic Colour Terms

Colour language develops in relation to speakers‘ needs due to the differences in colour language residing in differences in physiology and intensive literary contexts

Hardin (2005) Distinguishing primary colour terms against secondary ones

Close connection among the basic colour sensory agents and naming these colours

Bias on Berlin & Kay's theory of basic colour terminology

The effectiveness of the Munsell color system in eliciting color terminology and identifying focal hues is called into question, highlighting the de-contextualization of color terms Additionally, it critiques universalist approaches for failing to acknowledge the limitations inherent in their methodologies.

Appendix 1.3: Researches in English in terms of semantics research direction

Semantic domains of colour categories comprise more central points with more identified features than peripheral ones

Focal points defined as ‗basic colour terms‘

Two critical dimensions in defining the meaning of a term: referential range (what a colour term can refer to) and grammatical distribution (how the term can be used)

Appendix 1.4: Researches in English in terms of culture research direction

Authors Information Contributions Weak-points

Cultures that used to be considered as colour-blindness

Color language evolves based on the specific needs of speakers rather than adhering to a universally consistent vision system shared by humans and related animals.

(1967) Ndembu materials and rituals Colour classification in initial cultures

Colour symbols of countries around the world, mainly in ethnology, socialism, psychology, mythology and religion

Colour language in the relationships with human mind, brain and culture

Appendix 1.5: Researches in English in terms of cognition research direction

Colour encyclopedia of tribes in North Pole from collected data on native speakers‘ colour vocabularies as well as their ability in discriminating colours

Colour vocabularies are different depending on the pretty much variant colour perception

The effect of codability on recognition (A series of Munsell chips to test colour recall and recognition in English speakers)

The availability of a basic colour term in a given language affected the retention of that colour in recall testing

A set of stimulus materials in a Whorfian-influenced study

Linguistic codability is the ease with which people can name things and the effects of naming on cognition and behavior

The relations between language, mind, biology and culture

Universal prototypes for the definition of colour categories and a universal sequence for the emergence of a colour lexicon

The natural salience of the colour prototypes plays a role in colour category formation

Based on further empirical descriptive work and the introduction of a fuzzy set formalism as well as earlier work by McDaniel & Wooten (McDaniel 1972)

Colour categorization is influenced by human biology, but it extends beyond this to include cognitive mechanisms that resemble fuzzy set theory, as well as cultural preferences for specific basic colour categories.

Prototype theory profoundly influencing the field of cognitive psychology

Color categories in human cognition are defined by distinct criteria and boundaries, as well as by prototypes that represent the most typical examples of each category These prototypes are surrounded by other colors that exhibit diminishing similarity and varying degrees of membership to the category.

Colour sensing system originates from left hemisphere and be transferred to the right through linguistic development causes the close connection between human colour cognition with human languages

Quinion (1996) English colour terms in terms of etymology

A new research direction in colour terms for comparison and contrast among different lexical systems in the world

Conducted with fifty-three adult third- year learners of Spanish, French, and German in order to investigate the

The study reveals significant effects of lexical and post-lexical idioms on understanding idiomatic meanings in both contextual and non-contextual settings It highlights the strategies second language learners use to interpret multiword phrasal units and the cognitive processes that impact their ability to create accurate mappings between target and domain idioms Additionally, the degree of opacity between target and domain idioms, along with knowledge of vocabulary, graphophonics, syntactic arrangement, and the literal meanings of idioms, significantly influences the transfer of idiomatic knowledge.

Relation between colour terms and emotional words

Color terms and emotional words vary across languages, reflecting both similarities and differences in their semantic impacts This overlapping phenomenon highlights the intricate relationship between language, color perception, and emotional expression.

Appendix 1.6: Researches in Vietnamese in terms of lexicon research direction

Authors Research subjects Contributions Limitation

Tố Hữu‘s one hundred and sixty poems from 1937 to 1971

Colour metaphors are deep and thoughtful as well as natural in accordance with modernization and realism, which clearly reflects his inner beauty and sensitive soul

The subjective language users determine metaphors

Nguyễn Khuyến‘s three hundred and seventy four poems and sixty-seven parallel sentences

The ratio of the most dominant colours; especially blue colour creates the natural beauty of Northern rural area

Polysemy of colour words in Nguyễn Bính‘s poems Distinctive artistic style

Basic colour terms or colour supplementary lexicons in Vietnamese language, particularly the working capacity of Vietnamese sub-colour words

Fundamental features on basic colour terms and sub-terms in Vietnamese language, especially on xanh and đỏ terms

(2006) Tô Hoài‘s poems Creativeness in creating many layers of white, yellow and red colour terms

Descriptive meaning of Vietnamese colour terminologies in literary works

The way to form descriptive meaning for colour words and presents some English and Vietnamese colour idioms

No deep comparison on colour terminologies between English and Vietnamese

Appendix 1.7: Researches in Vietnamese in terms of semantics research direction

Authors Research subjects Contributions Limitation

Colour terminology in combination with ―face‖ words in normal or reverse orders

The reverse orders (colour + face) express human beings‘ emotions and affections

Six hundred Vietnamese folk songs by Vũ Ngọc Phan (1997)

Colour terms mainly carry literal or specific meanings with less figurative meaning implication

Semantic features of current modern Vietnamese adjective

Semantic structure analysis of this group in researching colour adjectives

Semantic structure among Vietnamese adjectives and those in Russian

(2003) red, green, purple, pink, grey, black, white in English idioms

Each colour lexicon consists of private connections

Colour combinations carry a common meaning when in combination

Colour combination in one idiom consists some logic values

Features of format, semantic structure of colour terms in Vietnamese language in poetic works

Semantic structure of colour terms in English and in Chinese

Differences and similarities between Vietnamese and Chinese linguistic systems

Colour idioms in English and Vietnamese

Recognizing the errors in English learning that Vietnamese students face

Some idioms with red, yellow, blue, black, white terminologies in two languages

Vietnamese phrases containing đen/trắng adjectives

Vietnamese and English native speakers exhibit distinct semantic meanings that align with their cultural contexts, influencing aspects such as form, color perception, and the use of potential sememes This divergence is particularly evident in phrases where an adjective in one language may not have a direct counterpart in the other, highlighting the unique linguistic characteristics of each language community.

Hiền (2015) xanh and đỏ colour terms in Vietnamese

This article examines key theories of semantics proposed by linguistics researchers globally, serving as a foundation for analyzing significant semantic features in Vietnamese and English idioms related to love, marriage, and family.

The research enhances the comprehension of idioms by revealing that their meanings are shaped by metaphor, metonymy, and cultural context In Vietnamese, the meanings of words rely on synonym and antonym relationships Additionally, many English and Vietnamese idioms can be directly interpreted through their figurative and transferred meanings.

Lexicon formation on basic colour terms and their derivations in idioms, mostly as well as data from literary works

English language uses compounding and inflecting methods whereas Vietnamese language uses repeating method

Basic colour terms with more meanings imply a variety and power in meaning transformation away from the original meaning

Basic colour cognition in English and Vietnamese systems imploy distinctive cultural national features

The focus on original meaning, inflected meaning, transformed meaning and iconic meaning without researching inflected and specific colour terms in English and Vietnamese

Appendix 1.8: Researches in Vietnamese in terms of culture research direction

Authors Research subjects Contributions Limitations

Connection between flower and plant objects and colours in Vietnamese and English idioms

Similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese cultural features related to natural world

Linguistic and cultural impacts on colour words

A brief but general listing or summary on linguistic and cultural knowledge connected to colour terms

Colours as one universal symbol in some cultural and religious rituals in the world, under the semiotic viewpoint

Connections between these word-class features (primary and secondary colour words) and

The article explores the similarities and differences in the use of color words within English and Vietnamese idioms, highlighting the influence of linguistics, culture, and thought processes on these expressions It emphasizes the need for a comparative analysis of diverse major idioms to understand how color lexicon shapes cultural identity and communication in both languages.

OBJECT REFERENTS OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS IN ENGLISH AND

Table 2.1: Objects referents of black colour term in English data

Frequency % Examples from literary works

The path had been steadily ascending despite the towering cliffs surrounding it, leading to a precarious shelf above the Shivering Flood, which rushed and roared between the steep rock walls Above, the cliffs soared into the dark expanse of a winter night, devoid of stars and moonlight.

Marriage can often appear promising, yet it may lead to unexpected sadness, while relationships that seem bleak can evolve into periods of joy and comfort This duality highlights the unpredictable nature of marital happiness.

3 A beauty, with a white face and a mane as black as night He will soon be here, no doubt (Thomas Hardy - The Return of the Native)

4 "But somebody saw you at Throope Corner leading it home a beauty, with a white face and a mane as black as night." (Thomas Hardy - The Return of the Native)

5 Miss Moorsom‘s eyes stared black as night, searching the space before her (Joseph

In a moment of quiet reflection, I felt the lingering emotions of the house as I thought of the girl left behind, her dark hair and vacant eyes mirroring the night She sat silently in the warm, fragrant air of the walled garden, surrounded by the scent of trapped flowers.

Gaspar Ruiz felt a profound sense of despair, believing there was no place in the world for his innocence This realization plunged his simple soul into a deep gloom and resentment, enveloping him in darkness.

(Joseph Conrad - A Set of Six)

In Rider Haggard's "She," a character acknowledges the Devil's dark nature while cautioning to conceal any signs of purity, symbolized by white spots, which could reveal vulnerability.

9 Now to the west all the heavens were black as night, though the eastern sky still showed blue and cloudless (Rider Haggard - When the World Shook)

10 All was black as the night about them (Rider Haggard - The Lady of Blossholme)

11 He was black as night, black as a Sunday hat, with yellow rolling eyes set in a countenance of extraordinary ugliness and I may add, extraordinary humour (Rider Haggard - The Ancient Allan)

She possesses captivating eyes reminiscent of a buck's gaze, lips that resemble delicate rosebuds, and hair that is as black as night and as soft as silk, exuding a floral fragrance that surrounds her.

13 Philip's face grew black as night, and he shot a quick glance of suspicion at his daughter (Rider Haggard - Dawn)

A new group approaches, distinguished by their coal-black shields and dark plumes, joining the first arrivals to form a cohesive line and synchronize their chant.

15 Oh the sun shone, the air was balmy he must yet live for if he were dead all would surely be black as night to me! (Mary Shelly - Mathilda)

As darkness enveloped the western skies, the eastern horizon remained a vivid blue and clear, showcasing a striking contrast between night and day This imagery evokes a sense of mystery and depth, reminiscent of literary works such as Rider Haggard's "When the World Shook" and Charlotte Brontë's "Villette," where the interplay of light and shadow creates a profound atmosphere.

18 The place was black as night, the steps were uneven, and the stairs corkscrewed most wonderfully (John Buchan - Salute to Adventurers)

Despite the darkness of the night, navigating the way was straightforward for him, as he possessed an innate sense of direction common among his fellow countrymen, guiding him to head due west towards the glen's end.

20 The almond-shaped eyes, black as night, gleamed strangely beneath the low, smooth brow (Rohmer Sax - Brood of the Witch-Queen)

21 It grew as black as night and one couldn't breathe for sand (Rohmer Sax - Brood of the Witch-Queen)

Gaspar Ruiz felt a profound sense of despair, realizing there was no place for his innocence in the world This realization plunged his simple soul into a deep gloom and resentment, enveloping him in darkness.

23 He stood dumbly before a man who lolled back in a deep, cushioned chair and whose almond-shaped eyes, black as night, were set immovably upon him (Rohmer Sax - Fire- Tongue)

02 ink 13 9.03% 1 She took it smilingly But her cheeks were white as paper, and her eyes black as drops of ink, with anger (D.H Lawrence - The Lost Girl)

As they descended the long road into Whortley, the trees stood silent and dark, resembling ink, while the moonlight cast a pallid glow on her face, making it appear both beautiful and ethereal, with her eyes shining brightly like stars.

(HG Wells - Love and Mr Lewisham)

3 Picking the object up, I discovered it was a small bottle, containing a thick sweet-smelling liquor, as black as ink (Wilkie Collins - The Moonstone)

4 Ossipon groped his way back through the stuffy atmosphere, as black as ink now, to the

In the haunting darkness of the coast, he murmured to himself, overwhelmed by the encroaching shadows that were swallowing the once-clear Shallow Waters.

The moon, nearing the end of its first quarter, cast a bluish, ashen glow over half of the courtyard, while the opposing side remained cloaked in deep black shadows, resembling a bold stroke of Indian ink at the base of the columns.

7 My eyes fell upon my hand, and I saw that the veins stood out on the back of it, black as ink and large as cords (Rider Haggard - Ayesha)

8 The night was now as black as ink around him, and very quiet, too, except for soughings of the dying gale (John Buchan - Greenmantle)

As the sun set behind the Coolin, the hills appeared dark, contrasting sharply with the shimmering band of gold visible on the western seas I rose and made my way to the shore.

10 The patches of wood were black as ink against the pale mystery of the moonlit sward (John Buchan - Castle Gay)

As winter recedes, Baldface Mountain reveals its dark, exposed ribs, contrasting sharply against the vibrant colors of the evening sky, which ignite in stunning shades of rose and purple, accompanied by the haunting sounds of avalanches throughout the night.

12 The heather was wet, the long rushes dripped and shivered, and in the little trenches the peat-water lay black as ink (John Buchan - Witch Wood)

13 Far down lay the forest of Dawyck, black as ink on the steep hillside (John Buchan - John Burnet of Barns)

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

The diverse perspectives on our world lead to a variety of color representations that highlight the unique cognitive and cultural values of each nation This suggests that color terms should be examined not only for their everyday meanings but also through deeper cognitive lenses to understand their connections to human cognition and corresponding prototypes (Vũ Phương Anh, 2011).

In the world, the issue of colour terms has been studied from various research aspects as follows:

Research on color terminologies highlights the significant influence of culture, as opposed to examining these terms in isolation Notable studies by Geiger (1869), Conklin (1955), Lakoff (1987), and Kay & Maffi have underscored this cultural impact on the understanding and categorization of colors.

(1999) have influenced this current dissertation since cultural element used to be ignored in considering the connection between colour terminologies and their usage

In Vietnamese, Trịnh Thị Minh Hương (1999) paid more attention to lexical aspect, mainly towards one colour term or some basic colour terms in Vietnamese language

Kửvecses (1986) and Lucy (1992) established a foundational framework for understanding colour prototypes through the semantic features of colour categories In Vietnam, researchers such as Hoàng Văn Hành (1982), Nguyễn Hoàng Phương Linh (2014), and Lê Phương Thảo (2018) have examined and compared the semantic values and meanings of colour terms in both Vietnamese and English.

Chevalier and Gheerbrant (1997) and Wierzbicka (2006) highlight the significance of culture in the global system of color symbols, while Nguyễn Khánh Hà (1995) emphasizes the correlation between specific linguistic expressions and their corresponding cultural characteristics.

In respect of cognitive viewpoint, this research direction has been increasingly popular and widely applied Rivers (1897), Brown and Lenneberg

Research by Berlin and Kay (1969), Heider (1971, 1972), and Rosch (1973, 1974, 1975) emphasizes that color categories in cognition are best represented by prototypes—key objects that exemplify these categories—alongside less-similar referents Studies by Trần Thị Lan (2001), Lê Văn Thanh (2014), and Hoàng Tuyết Minh and Nguyễn Văn Quang (2015) explore the relationship between color prototypes and everyday objects, highlighting how these connections reflect the cultural and cognitive differences between Vietnamese and English societies.

Researchers focusing on specific color terms within a single language offer valuable insights into the linguistic and cognitive systems of that community However, a broader study on basic color terms, utilizing prototype theory, is necessary to uncover the fundamental color prototypes in both English and Vietnamese This research aims to provide a deeper understanding of the cultural and cognitive perspectives that highlight the similarities and differences between these two languages' color systems.

This dissertation presents reliable information on the prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, along with a clear explanation of the cultural and cognitive characteristics of both communities The study's findings serve as a valuable resource for English and Vietnamese learners, enabling them to accurately translate or interpret these color prototypes from cultural and cognitive perspectives Additionally, native speakers can recognize similarities and differences in daily usage between the two linguistic systems, particularly in terms of prototypes, class classification, and category sub-classification of basic color terms.

This dissertation aims to analyze and compare the cognitive and cultural prototypes of color terms in English and Vietnamese, focusing on black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey.

This study aims to highlight the similarities and differences in the prototypes of basic color terms between English and Vietnamese, analyzed from cognitive and cultural perspectives The objectives outlined will provide a comprehensive understanding of these distinctions.

- To classify object referents functioning as colour-term referents of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data into 06 classes and categories

- To identify the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data based on prototype theory

- To point out the similarities and the differences of the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data from cognitive and cultural perspectives

In order to achieve the aims of the study, this dissertation sets out the following research questions:

- What are the classes and the categories of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data?

- What are the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data?

- What are the similarities and the differences of the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data from cognitive and cultural perspectives?

This dissertation utilizes a framework based on prototypes, categories, and cognitive and cultural elements to analyze basic color terms A prototype is defined as the most prominent feature associated with a set of object referents related to a specific color term, while a category groups these referents based on their similarities to the prototype Furthermore, cognitive and cultural factors play a crucial role in explaining the prototypes of basic color terms in both English and Vietnamese, highlighting the similarities and differences between the two languages.

With regard to research subjects, a basic colour term, based on Berlin and Kay‘s

In 1969, linguistic criteria were established to define a single root adjective as an independent lexical unit, reflecting the mental and psychological aspects of human consciousness and our perception of the world This article focuses on the foundational research by Berlin and Kay, which identified 11 basic color terms in the English language: white, black, red, yellow, blue, green, brown, purple, pink, grey, and orange The corresponding basic color terms in Vietnamese include trắng, đen, đỏ, vàng, xanh da trời (xanh dương), xanh lá cây, nâu, tím, hồng, xám, and cam.

The terms xanh da trời (blue) and xanh lá cây (green) are deemed inappropriate as basic color terms in Vietnamese due to their lack of independent lexical status Initial data collection revealed that the occurrences of the basic color terms brown (nâu), purple (tím), pink (hồng), and orange (cam) were insufficient for reliable analysis, with counts of 17, 4, 2, and 1 respectively For robust conclusions, each color term should ideally have over 10 tokens; however, only the terms for brown and pink met this threshold The primary objective of this study is to compare the prototypes of color terms in English and Vietnamese, but the pairs brown/nâu, purple/tím, pink/hồng, and orange/cam do not fulfill the necessary criteria for inclusion in the research Thus, these color terms are excluded from further analysis in this study.

This dissertation focuses on the official research color terms in English, specifically white, black, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey, as well as their Vietnamese counterparts: trắng, đen, đỏ, vàng, xanh, and xám The consistent sequence of these basic color terms is maintained throughout the presentation layout in all chapters of the dissertation.

This study identifies prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese by comparing idiomatic expressions structured as "+ basic color term + as + object referent X." Through this comparative analysis, the research highlights the similarities and differences in color terminology between the two languages.

Comparative idioms derived from English and Vietnamese literary works provide valuable insights into the referents associated with basic color terms This analysis reveals the finalized appearance percentages of various object referents, categorized by different levels of salience Such data serves as a foundation for identifying and explaining prototypes effectively.

In regard to data criteria, the data of this dissertation is collected and analyzed based on:

- Basic colour terms in English (black, white, red, yellow, green, blue grey) and basic colour terms in Vietnamese (đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, xám) are the research colour terms

- Comparative idioms comprise as + basic colour term + as/như + object referent X structure in the scope of the study in English and Vietnamese data

Research questions

In order to achieve the aims of the study, this dissertation sets out the following research questions:

- What are the classes and the categories of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data?

- What are the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data?

- What are the similarities and the differences of the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data from cognitive and cultural perspectives?

Scope of the study

This dissertation employs a multifaceted approach, incorporating prototype, category, and cognitive and cultural elements A prototype is identified as the most prominent feature associated with a basic color term, while a category groups object referents based on shared characteristics with the prototype Furthermore, cognitive and cultural factors play a crucial role in elucidating the prototypes of basic color terms in both English and Vietnamese, highlighting their similarities and differences.

With regard to research subjects, a basic colour term, based on Berlin and Kay‘s

In 1969, linguistic criteria identified a single root adjective as an independent lexical unit that encapsulates the mental and psychological aspects of human consciousness and our perception of the world This article focuses on the foundational research by Berlin and Kay, which outlines 11 basic color terms in the English language: white, black, red, yellow, blue, green, brown, purple, pink, grey, and orange Correspondingly, the basic color terms in Vietnamese are trắng, đen, đỏ, vàng, xanh da trời (xanh dương), xanh lá cây, nâu, tím, hồng, xám, and cam.

The terms xanh da trời (blue) and xanh lá cây (green) are deemed inappropriate as basic color terms in Vietnamese due to their lack of independence as single lexical words Initial data collection revealed that the frequency of other basic color terms—brown (nâu), purple (tím), pink (hồng), and orange (cam)—was insufficient, with occurrences of 17, 4, 2, and 1 respectively For reliable conclusions, each color term should ideally have over 10 tokens; however, only brown (nâu) and pink (hồng) surpassed this threshold The primary objective of this study is to compare the prototypes of color terms in English and Vietnamese, but the pairs brown/nâu, purple/tím, pink/hồng, and orange/cam do not fulfill the necessary criteria, leading to their exclusion as research subjects.

This dissertation focuses on the official research color terms in English—white, black, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey—and their Vietnamese equivalents: trắng, đen, đỏ, vàng, xanh, and xám The consistent sequence of these basic color terms is utilized throughout the presentation layout in all chapters of the dissertation.

The study identifies prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese by analyzing comparative idioms structured as "+ basic color term + as + object referent X." This comparative approach highlights the similarities and differences in color terminology between the two languages, providing insights into their linguistic frameworks.

Idioms featuring comparative structures have been derived from both English and Vietnamese literary works This analysis provides insights into the object referents linked to each primary color term, along with the finalized appearance percentages of various surrounding object referents across different salience levels These findings serve as a foundation for identifying prototypes and explaining their significance.

In regard to data criteria, the data of this dissertation is collected and analyzed based on:

- Basic colour terms in English (black, white, red, yellow, green, blue grey) and basic colour terms in Vietnamese (đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, xám) are the research colour terms

- Comparative idioms comprise as + basic colour term + as/như + object referent X structure in the scope of the study in English and Vietnamese data

In both English and Vietnamese, a basic color term's prototype is defined as the most prominent example within its category, determined by the highest frequency of occurrence among its members This means that the object associated with a basic color term that appears most frequently is recognized as the prototype for that term.

The process of comparing prototype basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese is grounded in Wierzbicka's (1996) hypothesis, which explores the symbolic meanings associated with these fundamental colour terms.

According to Wierzbicka (2005), individuals interpret concepts based on their perceptions, suggesting that a specific color term reflects the shared understanding and intentions of its users In essence, as Wierzbicka (1996) notes, the meaning of a color term is inherently tied to what people intend to convey when they utilize it.

This dissertation classifies basic color terms in English and Vietnamese into six categories: Flora, Fauna, Inanimate Nature, Food and Beverage, Man-made Objects, and Body and Bodily Products, as established by Griber et al (2018) Additionally, it provides a comprehensive sub-classification within these categories, further enriching the analysis.

For the purpose of comparing and contrasting, this research applies Theoretical Contrastive Analysis which looks for the realization of a universal category X in both

The concept of 'X' serves as a prototype for a fundamental color term, which highlights the color categories found in both language A (English) and language B (Vietnamese) (Fisiak et al., 1978: 10).

Figure 0.1: Theoretical CAs (Adapted from Fisiak et al 1978: 10)

To effectively analyze prototypes of basic color terms, it is essential to compare their appearance frequency related to object referents prior to identifying the prototypes Additionally, a semantic comparison of these prototypes in both English and Vietnamese is necessary to understand their meanings Furthermore, examining the cognitive and cultural characteristics associated with these basic color terms in both languages provides deeper insights into their usage and significance.

Methodology of the study

This thesis employs a combined methodology, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches, to conduct a contrastive study of basic color term prototypes By comparing these prototypes across two languages, the research aims to uncover the similarities and differences in basic color terms within their respective cultural contexts.

The quantitative method, particularly through linguistic statistical analysis using SPSS, yields reliable results, while the qualitative method, especially descriptive analysis, elucidates the unique characteristics of color terms such as black (đen), white (trắng), red (đỏ), yellow (vàng), green (xanh), and grey (xám) Additionally, the contrastive method highlights the similarities and differences in the cognitive systems of English and Vietnamese regarding color terms, offering insights into the cultural distinctions and commonalities reflected in their linguistic data.

Significance of the study

This dissertation examines the key representative features of object referents for finalized prototypes of basic color terms in both English and Vietnamese, while also exploring the cultural and cognitive characteristics that influence these terms.

This research establishes a foundational understanding of basic color terms in both English and Vietnamese, paving the way for future studies on color term prototypes in these languages.

This study offers fresh insights into the prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, reinforcing findings in cognitive linguistics and highlighting unique cultural and cognitive traits Furthermore, it provides a clear explanation of the cultural characteristics and cognitive processes of English and Vietnamese speakers, illuminating both the similarities and differences between these two linguistic systems.

This study provides valuable insights for English and Vietnamese teachers and learners by clarifying the prototypes of color terms such as black/đen, white/trắng, and others, enhancing the teaching and learning process It also raises awareness among native speakers of both languages regarding the similarities and differences in their linguistic expressions Understanding these cultural and national distinctions through color prototypes enables readers to appreciate underlying messages in literature and idiomatic expressions Ultimately, these findings promote a deeper comprehension of cognitive characteristics shaped by cultural perspectives, aiding in the avoidance of cultural misunderstandings.

Structure of the study

Apart from Introduction and Conclusion, Development part is divided into:

Chapter 1 of the Literature Review provides a comprehensive overview of previous studies on color and color terms, highlighting existing research gaps that this study aims to address It examines relevant literature on prototype theory, including naming theory, categorization, cognition, and cultural influences, while also discussing the distinct cultural features of English and Vietnamese and their relationship with language and cognition Additionally, the chapter focuses on basic color terms, analyzing their physical characteristics and linguistic criteria in both English and Vietnamese Finally, it presents the theoretical framework that underpins this dissertation.

Chapter 2, the Methodology Chapter, outlines the selection of quantitative and qualitative methods, along with a comparative-contrastive analysis approach It details the procedures for data collection and analysis, aimed at enhancing the research process.

Chapter 3 explores the classes and categories of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, presenting a thorough analysis of idioms related to colors such as black (đen), white (trắng), red (đỏ), yellow (vàng), green/blue (xanh), and grey (xám) found in literary works It introduces a six-class classification system for these basic color terms in both languages, along with sub-classifications This chapter sets the stage for a more in-depth examination of prototype identification and comparison in the subsequent chapter.

Chapter 4 delves into the comparison of basic colour term prototypes in English and Vietnamese, highlighting their cognitive and cultural similarities and differences This analysis enriches our understanding of the cultural identities of English and Vietnamese speakers through the examination of key colour terms such as black/đen, white/trắng, red/đỏ, yellow/vàng, and green/blue/xanh, as well as grey/xám.

Last but not least, References and Appendices come at the end of the dissertation.

LITERATURE REVIEW

REVIEW ON PREVIOUS STUDIES

The exploration of color terminology throughout history and across cultures began in the late 19th century, highlighting a universalist viewpoint in the color discourse during that period (Biggam, 2012) Various perspectives have been employed to investigate color terms.

The discussion on color terminology gained prominence following Berlin and Kay's influential 1969 study Subsequent research, both prior to and following this pivotal work, has explored various dimensions of color terms The historical investigation into basic color terms can be categorized into four primary research directions.

Early lexicon research on color terms highlights the limited vocabulary and unusual usage of colors in Homeric language (Gladstone, 1858), as well as similar observations in Indian Vedic Poems, the Old Testament, the Quran, and Icelandic Sagas (Geiger, 1869) Both Gladstone and Geiger proposed a universal evolutionary sequence, suggesting that color vocabulary develops alongside the biological evolution of color perception, concluding that full color vision has emerged relatively recently in human history Gladstone emphasized the distinction between mind and brain in generating varying perceptual states, while Kay and Maffi (1999) argued that psychological differences in perceived colors diminish the influence of culture, as supported by the works of Berlin and Kay (1969) and Rosch (1972).

Gladstone's influential perspective led to the creation of a diachronic model for the development of color language, based on evidence from synchronic applications of color terms This model posits that the refinement of color term references can be observed across different synchronic sources, suggesting an evolutionary process experienced by all races (Magnus, quoted in Biggam, 2012: 13).

Biologic-psychological theories explore the universal aspects of color coding knowledge and the lexical domain of color, focusing on linguistic relativity and language determinism Research on Mesoamerican color terms primarily examined hue, neglecting intensity and saturation (Klineberg, 1935) In contrast, studies on human color perception utilized original materials from over 60 North American Mesoamerican tribes (Jackendoff, 1952).

A study by Lenneberg and Robert (1953) supports the linguistic relativity hypothesis, originally intended as a research tool Their research involved 320 color chips varying in hue and brightness, revealing that Zuni speakers faced more challenges in color recall compared to English speakers, who have specific terms for these colors The significant differences in color term usage between Zuni speakers from the American Southwest and native English speakers provide compelling evidence for the linguistic relativity hypothesis.

The study of color categorization in the Hanunoo tribe of the Philippines highlights the significance of the lexical set of color terms (Conklin, 1955) Similar research conducted among students from the Universities of Maryland and Illinois, involving 270 and 172 subjects respectively, as well as comparative studies between American and Scottish populations, revealed a lack of substantial agreement on color categories (Battig and Montague, 1965; Brown, 1978).

Research on color lexicons, influenced by the structure and function of the visual system, highlights the concept of semantic universals McDaniel (1972, 1974) emphasized the significance of perception in shaping language, suggesting that the properties of the visual system play a crucial role in defining color categories across different languages.

A significant study by Lakoff in 1987 explored the comparison of color categories, including focal colors, across different languages, highlighting the diversity and complexity of color terms in linguistic studies.

In a novel research approach, participants aged 17 to 70 were asked to list as many color terms as they could without a time limit, allowing for an exploration of the maximum number of color terms that can be recalled (Taft and Sivik, 1997).

Linguistic analysis of Old English color terms, such as "grey" and "blue," highlights how collocations, referents, and contrasts can reveal the nuances of color meanings This suggests that in-depth contextual studies of individual tokens significantly contribute to the overall semantic understanding of specific terms (Biggam, 1997).

Besides the support towards colour terminology universalism, criticism related to an autonomous neuro-physiological colour pathway is revealed in the study of physiological colour perception (Saunders and van Brakel, 1997)

The Berlin and Kay hypothesis, illustrated by the World Colour Survey, outlines the evolution of Basic Colour Terms, starting with the distinction between black and white It categorizes colors into warm primaries (red and yellow) versus cool primaries (green and blue), with red being a distinct term on its own This hierarchical ordering is based on extensive data collected from a vast majority of the languages analyzed in the survey (Kay and Maffi, 1999).

The development of colour language is influenced by the specific needs of speakers, shaped by physiological differences and diverse literary contexts Basic colour terms vary among native speakers in different regions, reflecting unique human characteristics in colour cognition and the influence of multicultural colour development This interplay between biology and linguistics has made colour a significant area of study, revealing how differences in colour cognition lead to variability in colour terms, which often exhibit culture-specific traits across languages (Surridge, Osorio, and Mundy, 2003; Kay and Reiger, 2006).

The relationship between primary and secondary color terms reveals significant differences in how native community members categorize basic and secondary colors These distinctions are based on specific criteria that highlight the close connection between fundamental color sensory agents and the naming of these colors (Hardin, 2005).

Berlin and Kay's theory of basic colour terminology reflects an ethnocentric bias rooted in Western traditions, leading to criticism of their translation method for colour terms across 78 languages Additionally, the Munsell colour system's effectiveness in eliciting colour terminology and identifying focal hues is questioned, particularly regarding its limitations in methodology and contextualization (Saunders, 2014).

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Previous studies on color terms in English and Vietnamese have paved the way for this dissertation This section outlines the key components of the theoretical framework, emphasizing the relationship between language, cognition, and culture as fundamental patterns of behavior and reasoning within communities Cognitive semantics highlights the significance of prototype theory and natural categorization in understanding lexical semantics, particularly regarding basic color terms in both languages This theoretical foundation also introduces the basic color terms and comparative idioms in English and Vietnamese, serving as the official data source for subsequent analyses.

Human knowledge evolves through stages of strengthening, connecting, comparing, abstracting, and reflecting, where reality is shaped by our cognitive heritage stemming from bodily experiences and the objective world This interplay suggests that the human mind is influenced by how our species-specific bodies engage with their environment, emphasizing the importance of embodied experience Understanding the connections between mind, body, and language is crucial, as these links are established through interactions with both the physical and cultural world Additionally, the relationship between body and mind is influenced by social factors, as the properties of certain categories arise from human biological capacities and experiences in physical and social contexts.

The three typical views on cognition is presented in details as follows:

Cognition is traditionally viewed as the organization of an individual's sensorimotor experiences and interactions with their environment, as defined by Piaget (1936) However, emphasizing cultural differences in cognitive development suggests that individual growth requires sociocultural embedding through transformative processes This perspective highlights that the cognitive abilities of an 'en-culturated' person emerge from developmental processes where primitive humans evolve into culturally aware individuals through social interactions (Vygotsky, quoted in Lindblom & Ziemke, 2007: 139-141).

Human cognition is intrinsically linked to bodily experiences and the continuous interactions between organisms and their environments This embodied perspective emphasizes that thinking is rooted in physical activities and social interactions, highlighting the interconnectedness of the mind and body in shaping human experience (Johnson & Rohrer, 2007: 18-23).

Cognition is a fundamental human ability that facilitates the accessibility of experiences to our conceptual system by introducing and managing information processing (Barsalou, 1999) It is inherently linked to our bodily experiences and sensorimotor systems, emerging from our interactions with both the physical and socio-cultural world (Violi, 2008) Perception involves two emotive phases—feeling and perception—alongside a reasoning phase that includes symbols and definitions Ultimately, cognition encompasses the processes of receiving, storing, and transforming information into knowledge (Lý Toàn Thắng, 2008).

Cognition encompasses both physical processes of information handling and socio-cultural aspects of concept introduction and information control, enabling humans to uniquely perceive the world, particularly through language It is essential to understand cognition as a dynamic interplay between individuals and their environment rather than merely an internal, abstract phenomenon This dissertation explores the cognitive perspective on the term 'cognition,' emphasizing its interplay with cultural factors, which serve as a foundational framework for understanding how humans develop diverse interpretations of color terms.

In researching cultural-national characteristics of languages, nomination feature of different languages is highly recommended (Nguyễn Đức Tồn, 2010:

160) In the realm of colour terminology, traditional research has primarily been concerned with Nomination (Naming)

The naming process is fundamentally linked to linguistic concepts and serves to identify various entities and phenomena Kolshansky defines nomination as the association of a linguistic symbol with a concept, highlighting the distinctive features of a denotatum and the relevant characteristics and processes of the subject Vietnamese linguists provide further insights, with the Đà Nẵng Publishing House's "Từ điển tiếng Việt" defining nomination as the act of naming a subject or phenomenon, while Nguyễn Như Ý's "Từ điển chuyên ngành" describes it as the creation of linguistic units that categorize and represent subjective reality through words, phrases, clauses, and sentences Hoàng Phê emphasizes the essential lexical function of naming, and Hà Quang Năng connects nomination to cognitive processes, asserting that effective naming is closely tied to our awareness of the surrounding world.

Nomination involves addressing name-related questions like "How do you express X?" and begins with a foundational concept, such as an idea, object, quality, or activity, seeking its corresponding names This process starts by forming a concept of a referent, which is a generalized idea representing a class of objects, highlighting essential characteristics that differentiate it from other classes Concepts tend to be similar across different languages, as human cognitive abilities play a crucial role in concept formation.

The naming process involves identifying the unique characteristics and connections of each subject in the physical world, creating a complex system within a nation These distinctive features contribute to the knowledge associated with each entity When encountering a new subject, familiar traits can be recognized, but only the most outstanding characteristics are chosen for naming to differentiate it from others V G Gac (1976) emphasizes that naming is closely linked to classification, as natural languages express specific entities based on their unique features, relying on distinct linguistic expressions inherent to national languages (Nguyễn Đức Tồn, 2016: 57).

Nomination involves two key participants: the nominator, who assigns names, and the referent, which is the object being named For effective naming, the nominator must observe and recognize key characteristics of the object, allowing for a representative description (Hoàng Thị Huệ, 2019) This process is intricately linked to cognitive functions, as it requires comparative analysis of objects and their perceptions to identify distinct features Naming is not merely about labeling; it reflects the relationship between words and their referents, encapsulating personal viewpoints and contributing to the diversity of expressions for the same subject (Humboldt, 1956: 85).

Various factors contribute to the differences in concepts across language communities, including objective reality, knowledge of referents, and the overarching system of notions within each community Speakers of different languages perceive the world uniquely; however, despite these differences, there exists a potential for overlap and connection between their distinct worldviews.

Nomination regulations stipulate that names must be meaningful and connected, emphasizing that they should be general and abstract The nomination process should focus on the most representative characteristics and distinctive values of the entities involved, ensuring clear distinctions among different classes and categories Further elaboration on the selection of representative traits and the classification of these categories will be provided in the subsequent sections discussing Culture, Prototype Theory, and Category.

Culture is defined as the complex whole of knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, and other capabilities acquired by members of society (Tylor, 1903) It represents a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, allowing people to communicate and develop their understanding of life (Geertz, 1979) Culture encompasses patterned ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting, primarily conveyed through symbols, which reflect the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their artifacts (Krober and Klukhohn, 1952) Furthermore, culture includes everything a person needs to know, feel, and do to effectively navigate their environment (Schmitt, 1999).

The article highlights the intrinsic link between culture and language, defining culture in an anthropological context as the unique way of life and environment of the native inhabitants within a specific geographical area This relationship is confined by language boundaries and is expressed through a single language.

Vietnamese researchers view culture as an organic system of material and spiritual values developed through the interaction between humans and their natural and social environments (Trần Ngọc Thêm, 2000) National culture is seen as a unique product of each nation, reflecting the spiritual life and long-term experiences of its people Simplistically, culture is created by humans through their cognitive connections with nature and society (Phạm Đức Dương, 2000: 15) Additionally, the chronological aspect is crucial in defining culture as it represents the accumulation of values that evolve over time, distinct from natural events Material and spiritual values within a cultural system are interconnected and coexist, fostering parallel development (Nguyễn Đức Tồn, 2015).

Theoretical framework of dissertation

For the purpose of obtaining the goals of this study, the theoretical framework to conduct the dissertation is formulated on the following foundation:

Basic color terms are defined by comparing their features to representative objects in nature or by directly identifying these objects that give rise to the color terms In English, the primary color terms include black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey, while in Vietnamese, they are đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, and xám.

This study analyzes comparative idioms structured as + basic colour term + as/như + object referent X in English and Vietnamese, drawing data from literary works, idiom dictionaries, and online sources The aim is to identify the object referent X linked with basic colour terms, highlighting the diverse national characteristics and values inherent in both languages These idioms vividly reflect the beauty of the natural world, as well as the physical, mental, and national spirit of the English and Vietnamese cultures (Hoàng Văn Hành, 1976).

A category is defined as a collection of object referents that share common attributes through family resemblance According to prototype theory, color categories do not exist objectively in the world but are represented in our cognition as prototypes, which are the clearest examples of a category These prototypes are surrounded by other object referents that exhibit decreasing similarity and membership Essentially, a basic color term category consists of all object referents linked to that term, distinct from the comparative idioms traditionally used by native speakers In this dissertation, a basic color term category is specifically defined as the complete collection of object referents associated with a single basic color term.

A prototype represents the most central features of category members, characterized by the highest percentage of membership as judged by native speakers This classification relies on the most representative examples, with decreasing similarity and membership as one moves away from the prototype According to prototype theory, a colour prototype exemplifies the best representation within a colour category This theoretical framework aids in exploring basic colour prototypes in English and Vietnamese, identifying them through a comparative analysis of object referents associated with basic colour terms, focusing on those with the highest occurrence percentage among native speakers.

This article analyzes the comparative criteria for prototypes of basic color terms and categories in English and Vietnamese It classifies these terms based on the percentage of identification of color prototypes and organizes them into six categories: Flora, Fauna, Inanimate Nature Objects, Food and Beverage, Man-Made Products, and Body and Bodily Products.

Explanatory tools reveal the similarities and differences in the prototypes of basic color terms between English and Vietnamese, highlighting the influence of cultural elements and cognitive backgrounds These cognitive and cultural factors are essential for understanding how prototypes of basic color terms vary across these two languages.

The foundation of English and Vietnamese language enhances our understanding of the physical world, particularly through everyday objects linked to fundamental color terms Additionally, cultural elements, reflecting the core values of a community, provide insights into the similarities and differences in English and Vietnamese thought processes, as seen in the selection of preferred objects that represent these basic color terms.

This dissertation aims to elucidate the prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, highlighting the unique cognitive and cultural characteristics of each nation within a defined theoretical framework.

Figure 1.3: Theoretical framework of dissertation

English data: as + color term + as + object referent Vietnamese data: màu + như + đối tượng so sánh chuẩn

06-Class classification Category sub-classification

Prototypes of basic color terms

Summary

This research focuses on empirical studies of color terms from multiple perspectives, including lexical, semantic, cultural, and cognitive aspects, in both English and Vietnamese It identifies a gap in existing literature, particularly the lack of studies examining prototypes of basic color terms through cognitive and cultural lenses This dissertation aims to explore the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese color term usage, addressing the need for a deeper understanding of these languages' color categorization.

This dissertation uniquely combines prototype theory, which defines prototypes of basic color terms based on the most salient object referents, with a six-class color classification system that includes Flora, Fauna, Inanimate Nature, Man-made Objects, Food and Beverage, and Body and Bodily Products This approach, enriched by cognitive and cultural insights, provides a comprehensive analysis of the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese prototypes of basic color terms.

This chapter establishes the theoretical foundation of key elements in mainline research, focusing on naming theory, prototype theory, categories, cognition, and culture It explores the definitions and developmental stages of prototype theory, as well as the concepts of categories and categorization, including their definitions, historical development, and classification criteria Furthermore, it examines the roles of cognition and culture in explaining similarities and differences, offering multi-faceted definitions alongside the unique cultural characteristics of English and Vietnamese.

This article explores the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese cultures regarding basic color terms, while also examining the relationship between language, cognition, and culture It aims to clarify the intricate and interdependent connections among these elements, providing a deeper understanding of how they influence one another.

This section examines specific basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, highlighting their linguistic and physical characteristics It also provides an overview of comparative idioms, including their definitions, relevant research, and the unique national values they reflect Additionally, the relationship between language, culture, and cognition is explored to enhance understanding of these concepts.

This literature review is structured within a theoretical framework to enhance visual understanding The insights gained from this framework will be further explored and detailed in the subsequent chapters, which will focus on description and comparison of key elements.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research approach

The combined approach (quantitative method and qualitative method) and comparative-contrastive approach are based on the foundation below:

Combined methods research has gained popularity due to the limitations of both quantitative and qualitative approaches The concept, which originated in 1959, was notably advanced by Campbell and Fiske, who utilized multiple methods to assess the validity of psychological traits through their 'multi-method matrix.' This innovative approach encouraged the integration of qualitative data from field methods, such as observations and interviews, with traditional survey data, a trend further explored by S.D Sieber in 1973.

The concept of triangulation emerged to address the limitations of individual research methods, allowing results from one method to inform and enhance another (Green, Caracelli & Graham, 1989) This approach enables researchers to nest methods within one another, offering insights across various levels of analysis (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1989) and serving a transformative purpose for advocating marginalized groups (Mertens, 2003) Consequently, researchers have developed mixed strategies of inquiry, including multi-method, convergence, integration, and combination (Creswell, 1994), which shape research procedures (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003) The mixed methods approach is grounded in pragmatic knowledge claims, focusing on consequence-oriented, problem-centered, and pluralistic perspectives, and involves the simultaneous or sequential collection of both quantitative and qualitative data This dual data collection ensures that the final dataset encompasses a comprehensive representation of both statistical and textual information.

In the late 19th and throughout the 20th century, quantitative research strategies were grounded in post-positivist perspectives, encompassing true experiments, quasi-experiments, and correlation studies (Campbell and Stanley, 1963), as well as specific single-subject experiments (Cooper, Heron, and Heward, 1987; Neuman).

The quantitative method starts with a research question or hypothesis that is explored through data quantification and numerical analysis This approach primarily relies on postpositive claims to enhance knowledge and utilizes various inquiry strategies, such as experiments and surveys, to gather data using predetermined instruments that produce statistical results Experiments can be categorized into true experiments, which involve random assignment of subjects to treatment conditions, and quasi-experiments, which employ nonrandomized designs Surveys encompass both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, utilizing questionnaires or structured interviews to collect data, aiming to generalize findings from a sample to a larger population.

Recent advancements in quantitative strategies have led to complex experiments utilizing factorial and repeated measure designs, allowing for the analysis of numerous variables Statistical methods and specialized mathematical tools are employed to interpret numerical data (Lia, 2010: 52) SPSS Statistics, a popular software package, facilitates both interactive and batched statistical analyses, particularly in social sciences However, quantitative research has notable weaknesses, including an excessive focus on technical details and measurement techniques, as well as an overreliance on numerical data, which is often perceived as objective despite being intentionally produced (McMillan and Schumacher, 1993; Jonker and Pennink, 2010).

Quantitative approaches focus on measuring 'how much, how often, or how many' (Judd et al., 1991) and are often referred to as 'numerical research' (Brown and Rodgers, 2002) These studies involve formal and systematic measurement, utilizing statistical analyses to derive findings Importantly, researchers do not necessarily adopt a purely realist or objectivist stance; instead, they recognize that the categories or entities they operationalize are socially and cognitively constructed (Ender, 2012).

In the 1990s, qualitative research gained prominence with various approaches becoming more apparent Clandinin and Connelly (2000) outlined the practices of narrative researchers, while Moustakas (1994) explored the philosophical foundations and procedures of the phenomenological method Additionally, Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998) detailed the processes involved in grounded theory, contributing to the evolution of qualitative research methodologies.

(1999) summarized ethnographic procedures and Stake (1995) identified the processes of case study research

Ethnographies represent a key strategy within the qualitative approach, where researchers immerse themselves in a natural setting to study an intact cultural group over an extended period This method primarily involves the collection of observational data, allowing for an in-depth understanding of the group's behaviors and interactions.

Grounded theory involves deriving an abstract theory from participants' views (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, 1998) Case studies provide an in-depth exploration of programs, events, or individuals, utilizing diverse data collection methods over time (Stake, 1995) Phenomenological research seeks to understand the essence of human experiences related to a phenomenon through participants' descriptions, focusing on 'lived experiences' (Moustaas, 1994) Lastly, narrative research examines individuals' lives by collecting their stories, merging participants' perspectives with the researcher's insights in a collaborative narrative (Clandinin and Connelly, 2000).

The qualitative approach involves constructivist knowledge claims and ethnographic design, focusing on understanding phenomena from participants' perspectives Researchers identify culture-sharing groups to study their behavior patterns over time through observation and participation in activities This method also includes narrative design and open-ended interviews to explore issues of individual oppression, collecting personal stories to understand their experiences Qualitative research often combines constructivist and advocacy perspectives, utilizing various inquiry strategies such as narratives, ethnographies, and case studies The primary goal is to gather open-ended data to develop meaningful themes.

The qualitative approach is essential for analyzing linguistic data as it provides a detailed description and analysis of specific programs or settings (McMillan & Schumacher, 1993) Its primary aim is to uncover unknown phenomena from the participants' perspectives, recognizing that multiple realities are key to understanding diverse thoughts and actions The research integrates personal values, histories, and characteristics such as gender, culture, class, and age, which are vital for interpreting the meanings individuals assign to experiences This interpretive method emphasizes that research outcomes are shaped by the researcher's subjective interpretation Following data collection, hypotheses can be formulated, making qualitative methods particularly suitable for studying small, purposefully selected samples Qualitative research involves open-ended explorations of individuals' words, thoughts, actions, and intentions (Judd et al., 1991: 299) and aims to understand issues from informants' viewpoints, creating a rich and holistic understanding of the phenomena under investigation.

The qualitative approach offers significant advantages, such as enabling in-depth exploration of issues and generating a wealth of detailed information (Patton, 2002) However, it also presents notable weaknesses, including challenges in clearly distinguishing facts, the inherent subjectivity of the researcher, and limitations in generalizability (McMillan & Schumacher, 1993; Patton, 2002; Jonker & Pennink, 2010).

Comparative linguistics, a specialized area within linguistics, employs the comparative method to analyze the similarities and differences between multiple languages This approach is essential for establishing a linguistic foundation that supports all branches of linguistics.

Comparative linguistics, as defined by Johansson and Hoffland (1994), involves the systematic comparison of two or more languages to identify their similarities and differences Bussmann (1996) highlights the comparative method, which examines specific phenomena across related languages The contrastive approach, noted by James (1980), focuses more on the differences between languages rather than their similarities Fisiak (1981) further clarifies that this sub-discipline of linguistics aims to analyze both the distinctions and commonalities among languages Vietnamese researchers, including Nguyễn Văn Chiến (1992) and Lê Quang Thiêm, contribute to this field by exploring these linguistic comparisons.

In the field of Contrastive Linguistics, researchers like Bùi Mạnh Hùng (2008) and Nguyễn Văn Khang (2019) emphasize the importance of two primary methods: comparing and contrasting Nguyễn Văn Khang (2019: 40-41) defines the 'comparative' approach as examining two subjects to identify similarities and differences, while the 'contrastive' approach uses one subject as a reference point for analysis Bùi Mạnh Hùng (2008: 149) further explains that the comparative approach encompasses a broader scope than the contrastive method, which is considered a specific type of comparative analysis Understanding these distinctions is crucial for effective linguistic studies.

Regarding the rules in comparing and contrasting languages, Byung-gon Y

Research methods

This thesis employs a contrastive study approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative methods to leverage the strengths of each By doing so, it aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of social issues from multiple perspectives, enhancing the comprehension of the phenomenon under investigation.

The combined research method offers significant advantages by integrating the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research, ultimately providing more robust evidence for addressing research problems This approach encourages the use of diverse worldviews, challenging the traditional association of specific paradigms with either quantitative or qualitative methods (Creswell and Clark, 2011) By utilizing both qualitative and quantitative approaches, researchers can leverage their unique strengths, as these methods are alternative strategies that can be employed simultaneously (Patton, 1990) Furthermore, this combination enriches the understanding of cultural-cognitive perspectives, as quantitative research focuses on prototypes and classifications, while qualitative techniques yield valuable insights without compromising the overall integrity of the study (Burns, 2000) Thus, the combined methods design in this dissertation effectively harnesses the strengths of each approach to enhance the research process.

In this research, a combined methods strategy of inquiry is employed, following Creswell et al (2003), where quantitative data is collected first, followed by qualitative data to explore the frequency of object referents in literary works The initial phase gathers broader quantitative data, while the second phase focuses on a more limited yet reliable dataset SPSS is utilized for statistical analysis, particularly to determine the appearance percentage of color terms from idioms related to black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey, along with their associated object referents This synthesis reveals cognitive and cultural features of basic color terms, leading to quantitative results that inform qualitative outcomes, as demonstrated by the statistical overview of English and Vietnamese texts The study begins with a quantitative approach, counting prototypes and naming theories, followed by qualitative exploration of salient object referents linked to color terms Differences in linguistic structures are analyzed through their quantitative aspects, emphasizing common features of groups over individual variances, thereby capturing these characteristics through counting, scaling, and categorization.

The analysis of conceptual basic color prototypes involves both qualitative and quantitative methods, which are interconnected The quantitative approach utilizes statistical data to identify research trends, while the qualitative method addresses the limitations of quantitative analysis by discerning necessary elements from incidental ones, focusing on the most prominent characteristics of the two cognitive systems Employing linguistic statistical methods allows for a comprehensive overview of extensive text samples, specifically examining 430 examples in English and 443 in Vietnamese related to basic color terms In contrast, the qualitative approach entails a meticulous analysis of specific color comparative idioms that reveal potential prototypes, synthesizing the occurrence rates of object referents linked to these basic color terms.

The study explores the cognitive and cultural characteristics of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, focusing on the prominent object referents linked to their prototypes Quantitative findings reveal significant qualitative insights into the use of color terminology in both languages (Booth et al., 2013).

This study prioritizes both qualitative and quantitative data equally, focusing on the similarities and differences in basic color terms between English and Vietnamese It emphasizes quantitative figures through practical statistical percentages, highlighting the importance of mixed methods The research first presents quantitative information, followed by a detailed classification of more restricted data, utilizing prototype theory and naming theory as the deductive framework for analysis.

This study integrates qualitative and quantitative data analysis to explore the prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese The research emphasizes the subjective interpretation of qualitative data, which aids in understanding the cognitive and cultural dimensions of these prototypes By employing a sequential explanatory approach, the study prioritizes quantitative data, specifically the frequency of basic color terms in comparative idioms from literary works, and uses qualitative insights to enhance the interpretation of these findings The thesis aims to identify various prototypes and their connections to cultural characteristics represented through object referents, utilizing a descriptive method to outline the semantic features and cognitive values associated with basic color terms in both languages.

In conclusion, a comprehensive theoretical perspective, particularly cognitive and cultural frameworks, is essential for guiding the study's design and explanation sections This foundational approach enables a comparative analysis of color terms such as black/đen, white/trắng, đỏ/red, yellow/vàng, green/blue/xanh, and grey/xám, highlighting the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese cultures.

This research employs a sequential explanatory strategy model, one of the simplest mixed methods approaches, which involves first collecting and analyzing quantitative data, followed by qualitative data The study focuses on the classification of basic color term prototypes and explores the cultural and cognitive reasons behind their naming through quantitative methods This systematic classification yields quantitative results that effectively compare the prototypes of basic color terms in both English and Vietnamese.

This dissertation employs both quantitative and qualitative methods to analyze color terms in English and Vietnamese The quantitative method identifies the appearance percentage of object referents, ranking them from highest to lowest, with the highest being the prototype for each basic color term Meanwhile, the qualitative method examines the similarities and differences between English color terms—black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey—and their Vietnamese counterparts—đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, and xám.

This thesis employs contrastive linguistic analysis to explore the similarities and differences among basic color terms—black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey—in English and Vietnamese This approach is crucial for addressing significant theoretical issues and practical applications, helping to verify and clarify universal concepts in linguistic data By utilizing a comparative-contrastive method, the research aims to identify distinctive features of each language, thereby enhancing our understanding of how these color terms vary across two different cultures.

This article employs a comparative-contrastive method to explore the similarities and differences between color terms in English and Vietnamese, focusing on their linguistic and cognitive systems By examining the cognitive categories associated with color terms, the study aims to illuminate the unique characteristics of these terms in both form and meaning The analysis is grounded in two key areas: the object referents linked to each color term in both languages, and the cognitive and cultural systems that influence the selection of these referents Specifically, it compares the prototypes of basic color terms—such as black/đen, white/trắng, red/đỏ, yellow/vàng, green/blue/xanh, and grey/xám—highlighting cultural-cognitive features This approach enhances the descriptive analysis of color terms and emphasizes previously overlooked aspects of English and Vietnamese color terminology.

In research, contrasting the signs between two languages is essential for understanding overgeneralization and systemization This analysis involves examining sub-classifications, linguistic means, and specific features of the research subjects while avoiding the imposition of one language's characteristics onto the other By focusing on similarities in basic color terms, the analysis of prototypes and category sub-classifications can effectively highlight the cognitive and cultural distinctions between English and Vietnamese.

The semantic descriptive and analysis methods are grounded in objective, inheriting, and open viewpoints, focusing on the relationship between language and culture This approach aims to clarify the distinctiveness and similarities between English and Vietnamese linguistic systems, particularly in their conceptualization of basic color prototypes Additionally, it highlights the unique semantic features of these color terms, supported by comparative analysis and illustrative tables for enhanced clarity Utilizing the descriptive method, this thesis provides a comprehensive overview of researching basic color prototypes through the lens of prototype theory within cognitive linguistics.

This article explores cognitive values associated with color terms by comparing and contrasting various idioms found in literary works Extensive data collection focused on identifying comparative idioms that incorporate color terms such as black (đen), white (trắng), red (đỏ), yellow (vàng), green (xanh), and grey (xám) The aim is to provide a comprehensive analysis of how these color terms are utilized in literature.

Data collection

Literary works serve as a vibrant expression of life, showcasing linguistic richness beyond mere dictionary definitions This research focuses on comparative idioms in English and Vietnamese literature, drawing on authentic cultural data that encapsulates the daily experiences of indigenous communities Such data offers valuable insights into the unique cultural and ethnic perspectives that shape the essence of each language By selecting this specific data scope, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how basic color terms are represented in both English and Vietnamese, highlighting the connection between language and cognition.

This study analyzes data from 27 English authors, encompassing 169 literary works with 430 examples and 205 object referents featuring color terms such as black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey Additionally, it includes 52 Vietnamese authors with 219 literary works, yielding 230 object referents and 443 examples containing color terms like đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, and xám The focus on the quantity of tokens collected enhances the reliability of the data, emphasizing the format of "as + basic color term + as/như + object referent X" during the data collection phase While the study prioritizes the number of tokens, future research may explore other criteria, such as the similarity of literary genres between English and Vietnamese data and the comparative equality of tokens extracted from each author.

During the late Modern English period, the 19th century saw a surge in novel publications driven by Victorian Britain's demand for romantic narratives This era popularized euphemisms for body parts and sensitive topics, reflecting societal norms Jane Austen's early 19th-century works showcased modern vocabulary and grammar while maintaining subtle distinctions in meaning, as non-standard language was largely frowned upon The early science fiction and speculative fiction genres introduced new ideas and vocabulary, alongside a trend of blending words As the 20th century approached, revolutionary literary works emerged, characterized by experimental stream-of-consciousness writing, rich literary allusions, puns, and dream-like associations, elevating the English language to new heights of complexity.

(adapted from https://www.thehistoryofenglish.com/history_late_modern.html)

Gutenberg.com, funded by Bill Gates to provide access to classical literature without financial gain, and freeclassicebooks.com, a reputable site offering a vast collection of literary works, feature 27 authors of British nationality.

169 literary works in 06 categories have resulted in 430 tokens containing black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, grey colour terms as below:

- Adventure: Rudyard Kipling, Mary Shelly, H R Rider Haggard, John Buchan

- School stories for children: Angela Brazil, T B Reed, Lewis Carroll, Anna Sewel, Kenneth Grahame

- Fictions (detective, crime, science, adventure): Charles Dickens, Christina Agatha, G K Chesterton, H G Wells, Joseph Conrad, Thomas Hardy, Wilkie Collins, Rohmer Sax

The Vietnamese national language script, known as chữ Quốc ngữ, is a modern writing system that utilizes the Latin alphabet, influenced by Romance languages, particularly Portuguese It incorporates digraphs and nine diacritics—four for additional sounds and five to denote tones This study focuses on chữ Quốc ngữ, which traces its origins back to the 1620s when Latin script was first employed to transcribe Vietnamese, ultimately leading to the creation of the contemporary Vietnamese alphabet.

In 1910, the French colonial administration promoted chữ Quốc ngữ, the modern Vietnamese alphabet, for publishing popular literature, despite criticism from Chinese-educated imperial elites who deemed it vulgar Following French colonization, chữ Quốc ngữ emerged as the preferred written language for the Vietnamese independence movement By the end of the 19th century, chữ Quốc ngữ became the sole written language embraced by Vietnamese people globally, as highlighted in the statement, "Thế kỷ của Văn học Quốc ngữ, thế kỷ XX" (adapted from Tuyển tập Văn học Việt Nam).

The "Tuyển tập văn học Việt Nam" collection, published by the National Center for Social Sciences and Humanities and Khoa học Xã hội Publishing House, features 42 books by 52 authors, encompassing 219 literary works across five categories This extensive collection highlights the use of 443 tokens, illustrating color terms such as black, white, red, blue, yellow, and gray.

- 20 th book on Literary works in chữ Quốc ngữ with Nguyễn Tử Siêu, Bửu Đình, Nguyễn Trọng Thuật, Hồ Biểu Chánh, Lê Đức

- 26 th and 27 th books on Romanticism with Nhất Linh, Thế Lữ, Huy Cận,

Hoàng Đạo, Hoàng Ngọc Phách

Vào các ngày 28, 29, 30 và 31, sẽ diễn ra sự kiện giới thiệu 28 cuốn sách về Chủ nghĩa hiện thực, với sự tham gia của các tác giả nổi tiếng như Lê Văn Trương, Trọng Lang, Tam Lang, Trần Tiêu, Hồ Dzếch, Nguyễn Tuân, Vũ Bằng, Thanh Châu, Ngọc Giao, Kim Lân, Phạm Quỳnh, Phạm Việt Long, Đoàn Giỏi, Nguyễn Khoa Đăng và Nguyễn.

Vỹ, Nhật Tiến, Võ Phiến, Nguyễn Mộng Giác, Nguyễn Huy Thiệp, Nguyễn Đình Phùng, Nguyễn Quang Sáng, Nguyễn Huy Tưởng, Nguyễn Tuân, Đặng Trần Huân,

- 32 nd and 33 rd books on Criticism with Nguyên Hồng, Nguyễn Công Hoan,

Vũ Trọng Phụng, Nam Cao, Ngô Tất Tố, Thạch Lam

- 34 th , 35 th and 36 th books on Patriotism with Phong Ba, Mạc Tô Tử, Nguyễn Văn Xuân, Cúc Chi, Trường Chinh, Nguyễn Xuân Khánh

The "Tuyển tập văn học Việt Nam" collection features a list of 42 authorized authors, and additional literary works by these writers can be found on www.vietmessenger.com, expanding the collection further.

Further details regarding authors, literary works and tokens collected from English and Vietnamese data are presented in Table 2.1 and 2.2 in Appendix 3.

Procedures of data collection and data analysis

In order to fulfill the task of data collection and analysis, procedures take place in the following steps:

Step 1: In linguistic practical usage, colour terms are defined based on the comparison between colour term characteristics to the features of the typical object referents or the particular representatives in the natural world Comparative idioms formatted as ‗colour terms + as/như + object referent X‘ and black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, grey, đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, xám colour terms in

English and Vietnamese languages are the key words to be concentrated in terms of English and Vietnamese data

This article focuses on the selection of tokens and examples featuring comparative structures that include color terms such as black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, grey, and their Vietnamese equivalents: đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, and xám It specifically identifies comparative structures like "as black as X," "as white as X," "as red as X," "as yellow as X," "as green as X," "as blue as X," "as grey as X," and their Vietnamese counterparts: "đen như X," "trắng như X," "đỏ như X," "vàng như X," "xanh như X," and "xám như X" in both English and Vietnamese data.

Step 2: From these structures above, the collection associated with one specific colour term from every single ‗X‘ object referent from initial examples from English and Vietnamese data is determined Based on as + basic colour term + as/như + object referent X structure in the scope of the study in English and Vietnamese data, X is considered as the object referent as the best example with the most central characteristic of this specific basic colour term On the subject of data representative examples as central, salient, favorite, frequent, good, typical object referents to be compared to equivalent characteristics of the target colour terms

To be more specific, further outcomes regarding the total tokens and the number of associated object referents are depicted as below:

- 144 and 132 tokens consisting black/đen colour terms introducing 58 and

- 154 and 112 tokens composing white/trắng colour terms presenting 60 and

- 55 and 106 tokens holding red/đỏ colour terms proposing 25 and 54 object referents, respectively

- 27 and 34 tokens carrying yellow/vàng colour terms bringing in 20 and 26 object referents, respectively

- 19, 21 and 46 tokens comprising green/blue/xanh colour term suggesting

- 10 and 16 tokens including grey/xám colour terms establishing 09 and 07 object referents, respectively

Step 3: The appearance percentage of the object referents is the focus during comparing process to the X object referents, in English data, in the following as + basic colour term + as + object referent X structure in the scope of the study in English in order to identify the prototypes of black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, grey colour terms in English data

The study analyzes object referents based on their frequency of appearance, ultimately determining the prototypes for basic color terms in both English and Vietnamese This process involves calculating the finalized appearance percentages to identify the most prominent object referent for each color term Additionally, a similar methodology is applied to the Vietnamese structure “as + basic color term + as/như + object referent X” to pinpoint the prototypes for the Vietnamese color terms đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, and xám.

Step 4: The object referent with the highest appearance percentage as the best example or the most typical referent or the most representative object is concluded as the prototype of one specific colour term The list of object referents associated with one basic colour term is defined as comprising the list of objects having the characteristics of one colour or looking like a colour

Further outcomes related to the prototypes of basic colour terms are concluded as below:

- In English data, night, snow, blood/rose, corn, emerald, sapphire, badger are the prototypes of black/white/red/yellow/green/blue/grey colour terms

- In Vietnamese data, mực, ngà, son, nghệ, tàu lá, tro/gio are the prototypes of đen/trắng/đỏ/vàng/xanh/xám colour terms

Step 5: These object referents associated with one basic colour term are classified into 06-class (Flora, Fauna, Inanimate nature, Food and beverage, Man-made object, Body and bodily product) as well as category sub-classification

Step 6: These prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data should be explained from cognitive and cultural distinctive features between English and Vietnamese communities These prototypes, in further details, are described (with the concentration on the gaps among these object referents in order to figure out the similarities and the differences) and explained from cultural-cognitive perspectives so as to draw the conclusions on the connection between these prototypes of basic colour terms and national linguistic and cultural characteristics.

Data analysis

After data collection, data analysis in the study is performed as follows:

This article analyzes the classification of prototypes, categories, and classes in relation to object referents associated with basic color terms in English and Vietnamese It focuses on comparative idioms to explore the similarities and differences in how these languages utilize color terminology The study aims to enhance understanding of cultural perceptions reflected in language through color classifications.

In both English and Vietnamese data, the prototype of a specific basic color term is identified as the object referent with the highest appearance percentage, determined by the total frequency of occurrences.

In classifying objects associated with a specific basic color term, we categorize them into six distinct classes: Flora, Fauna, Inanimate Nature, Food and Beverage, Man-made Products, and Body and Bodily Products.

In respect of category sub-classification, the object referents within one class classification are further sub-divided into one specific category based on identical features

This study aims to compare and contrast the prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, focusing on specific color pairs such as black/đen, white/trắng, red/đỏ, yellow/vàng, green/blue/xanh, and grey/xám By analyzing these terms through cognitive-cultural features, the research seeks to identify both similarities and differences in the basic color terminology of the two languages, with particular emphasis on the unique national prototype selections that reflect each culture's perspective on color.

This figure below is another illustration in terms of data analysis as theoretical framework of this dissertation:

Figure 2.2: Data analysis procedure of dissertation

Comparative idioms English data: as + color term + as + object referent Vietnamese data: màu + như + đối tƣợng so sánh chuẩn

Prototypes of basic color terms

06-class classification Category sub-classification

Man-made object Food and beverage Inanimate nature Fauna Flora

Summary

This Methodology section outlines the general research approaches and provides a detailed analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of quantitative, qualitative, and comparative-contrastive methods, forming the essential theoretical foundation for this thesis The theoretical background reinforces the selection of mixed methods, integrating quantitative and qualitative research, along with the comparative-contrastive method This research framework serves as the backbone of the study, guiding the process from data selection to data analysis.

This article outlines the criteria for data selection and processing procedures for both English and Vietnamese data It emphasizes the synthesis and classification of basic color systems, aiming to accurately analyze the most prominent objects associated with each color The research collects and organizes data to highlight the cognitive and cultural features linked to basic color terms in both languages Specifically, the study utilizes generalized data from color term phrases, derived from computerized analysis and descriptive processes A comparative-contrastive method is employed, focusing on the investigation of contexts that feature color terms in their natural and diverse forms.

This article explores the cognitive and cultural factors that shape the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese linguistic systems It concludes that the processed data reveals prototypes for each color term in both languages, particularly highlighting that the prototypes of basic color terms are linked to specific objects that frequently represent those colors in English and Vietnamese literature.

This article provides a prototype conclusion summarizing the basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, highlighting the cognitive features and cultural values that differentiate each language system.

CLASS CLASSIFICATION AND CATEGORY SUB-CLASSIFICATION

Class classification and category sub-classification of basic colour terms in

A comprehensive analysis of English data has revealed 430 examples featuring color terms such as black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey, associated with a total of 205 distinct object referents Detailed insights into each individual color term in the English dataset are provided below.

3.1.1 Class and category classification of black colour terms in English data

After data investigation, 144 examples containing black colour term introducing 58 object referents associated with black colour term in English data are identified in Table 3.1

In the analysis of individual frequency and appearance percentage of object referents in English literary works, the "night" referent stands out with a frequency of 23, representing 15.97% of the total Following closely is the "ink" referent at 9.03%, while "pitch" ranks third at 6.94% The "coal" referent holds the fourth position with 5.56% Both "pit" and "jet" referents share an equal percentage of 4.17% The "ebony," "sloe," and "thunder" referents each account for 3.47%, and the "thundercloud" referent appears at 2.78% The group of "cloud," "death," and "tar" referents collectively represents 2.08%, with five other referents—"charcoal," "midnight," "raven," "sin," and "sweep"—sharing a frequency of 1.39%.

The analysis of black color terms in English reveals that various words such as "African," "ebony," "crow," and "Stygian" occur with a frequency percentage of 0.69% This includes references to natural elements like "oak" and "sky," as well as cultural symbols like "Sunday hat" and "plumes upon a hearse." Additionally, terms associated with darkness and death, such as "Erebus," "hell," and "the 9th plague of Egypt," contribute to this consistent frequency, highlighting the multifaceted nature of black color terminology in the language.

To enhance understanding of the classification and sub-classification of the black color term in English, object referents are categorized as shown in Table 3.2 These object referents are systematically classified into distinct groups.

The article categorizes various elements into five distinct classes: the Flora class includes plants like sloe, ebony, and oak; the Fauna class encompasses animals and insects such as leeches, horses, and ravens; the Inanimate nature class features geological and atmospheric elements like coal, caves, and thunderclouds; the Man-made object class lists items like ink, boots, and window panes; finally, the Body-and-bodily product class highlights human features and cultural references, including skin color and significant historical events.

The Inanimate Nature class leads with a total appearance percentage of 50.59%, followed by the Man-made Object class at 26.31% The Flora class ranks third with 8.32%, closely followed by the Body and Bodily Product class at 8.31% Lastly, the Fauna class holds the lowest percentage at 6.22%.

With reference to category sub-classification within one class of black colour term in English data, further details regarding sub-categories is figured out as below:

Inanimate nature is divided into three categories: Natural Objects & Substances, Chemical Compounds, and Milieu The Milieu category leads with a significant 26.31% representation, featuring elements like night, thunder, and clouds Following this, the Natural Objects and Substances category holds a 13.88% share, including references to coal, caves, and rocks Lastly, Chemical Compounds account for the lowest percentage at 10.40%.

Chemical compound category with pitch, tar, ash-bud, tar-barrel object referents

The night was enveloped in darkness, with phosphorescent waves crashing ominously, creating an eerie atmosphere that felt almost predatory.

The man-made product class is divided into several categories: the Artifact category, which accounts for 18.72%, includes items such as ink, jet, boots, hats, buckets, crocks, draw-wells, picks, sides of wells, and window panes The Storage place category represents 3.45% and comprises references to cellars, chimney crooks, slates, tunnels, and chimneys Lastly, the Imaginative destination category, making up 4.14%, features references to Styx, Stygian, the gate of Erebus, Erebus, Tophet, and the face of hell.

My eyes fell upon my hand, and I saw that the veins stood out on the back of it, black as ink and large as cords (Rider Haggard, Ayesha, p 54)

The Body and Bodily Product class is divided into four subcategories: Bodily Part, Occupation, Human Race, and Human Attribute Among these, the Human Attribute category contains the highest number of object referents, including concepts like death and the 9th plague of Egypt, and has the highest appearance percentage at 4.85% In contrast, the Occupation category, which includes only the sweep object referent, accounts for 1.39% The Bodily Part category, featuring object referents such as Croele's skin and Negro's skin, has a representation of 1.38%, while the Human Race category, represented solely by the African object referent, occupies a smaller portion.

Snow fell also, and the night was still black as death so black that a man could scarcely see the hand he held before his face (Rider Haggard, The Brethren, p 92)

The Flora class consists of two main categories: Plants and Fruits The Plant category holds a higher percentage at 4.85%, compared to the Fruit category, which stands at 3.47% Within these categories, sloe is classified under Fruits, while ebony and oak are categorized as Plants.

Her complexion was pale, contrasting sharply with her dark, deep-set eyes Her long, ebony hair cascaded down her cheeks, framing her face Additionally, her lips were full and vibrant red, adding to her striking appearance.

The Fauna class consists of three categories: Birds, Animals, and Fauna Parts, representing 2.77%, 2.07%, and 1.38% of the total, respectively The Animal category includes insect, leech, and horse, which parallels the Bird category with its members like raven, crow, and turkeycock Additionally, elements such as plumes and horse mane are classified under the Fauna Parts category.

I had a beautiful husband once, black as the raven was his hair ' (J M Barrie, Alice Sit by the Fire, p.140)

The analysis of the term "black" in English reveals 144 examples across 58 distinct object referents, categorized into five main classes: Flora (including Fruit and Plant categories), Fauna (encompassing Animal, Bird, and Fauna part categories), Inanimate Nature (covering Natural objects, Chemical compounds, and Milieu), Man-made Objects (comprising Artifact, Storage place, and Imaginative destination categories), and Body and Bodily Products (featuring Bodily part, Occupation, Human race, and Human attribute categories).

3.1.2 Class and category classification of white colour term in English data

After investigating the data, 154 examples containing white colour term introducing 60 object referents associated with white colour term in English data are identified in Table 3.3

According to the data presented in Table 3.3, the snow object referent leads with a significant individual frequency of 21.95%, followed by the sheet object referent at 10.39% The death and milk object referents occupy the third and fourth positions with frequencies of 5.19% and 4.55%, respectively Additionally, ash, chalk, and lily object referents each represent 3.25%, while the ghost and paper object referents also contribute to the overall analysis.

Class classification and category sub-classification of basic colour terms in

According to Vietnamese data, a total of 443 instances of color terms—specifically black (đen), white (trắng), red (đỏ), yellow (vàng), green (xanh), and gray (xám)—have been identified, encompassing 230 distinct object referents Detailed information on each individual color term is provided in the analysis.

3.2.1 Class and category classification of đen colour term in Vietnamese data

After investigating the data, 131 examples containing đen colour term introducing 62 object referents associated with đen colour term in Vietnamese data are identified in Table 3.15

In the analysis of individual frequency from Vietnamese literary works, the "mực" object referent holds the top position with an appearance percentage of 25.95% Following closely, the "cột nhà cháy" object referent ranks second at 6.11% The third and fourth positions are occupied by the "củ súng" object referent at 5.34% and the "mun" object referent, respectively.

The analysis reveals that the object referents "nho" and "than" each have a percentage of 3.82%, while "nhung" and "bồ hóng" are lower at 2.29% Six other referents, including "núi," "nước cống," "đất," "hạt huyền," "mõm chó," and "sét," show an appearance percentage of 1.53% The remaining object referents, such as "bóng tối," "bùn," and "cạc ngựa," have the lowest percentage of 0.76% This comprehensive breakdown highlights the varying frequencies of these referents in the dataset.

In order to gain a deeper understanding of the classification and sub-classification of the term "đen" (black) in Vietnamese, object referents are categorized into five distinct classes: the Flora class includes items such as củ súng and quả bồ kết; the Fauna class encompasses various animals like trâu and rắn; the Inanimate Nature class covers elements such as núi and bùn; the Man-made Object class features items like nhung and than; and the Body- and Bodily Product class includes aspects like chàm and răng nhuộm This classification aids in comprehending the diverse associations and meanings attributed to the color black within the Vietnamese context.

Cao Miên, người Cao Miên, người Thượng, Tây đen, hung thần, thằng quỷ)

The analysis reveals that the Man-made object class dominates with a total appearance percentage of 48.08%, followed by the Flora class at 20.48% The Inanimate nature class ranks third with 13.72%, while the Fauna class holds fourth place at 10.65% Lastly, the Body and bodily product class has the lowest representation, accounting for 7.64%.

With reference to category sub-classification within one class of đen colour term in Vietnamese data, further details regarding sub-categories are figured out as below:

The man-made object class is divided into two categories: Artifact and Fabric The Artifact category dominates with 45.03% and includes nine object referents such as cột nhà cháy, cửa đề lao, chiếu, hũ nút, mực, hắc ín, nho, than, and bồ hóng In contrast, the Fabric category represents only 3.05% and consists of two object referents: nhung and vải tang.

Dưới cái bệ thờ trong gian thâm cung tối tăm, có một hầm bí mật mà ít ai biết đến (Nguyễn Xuân Khánh, Đội gạo lên chùa, p 264).

The Flora class accounts for 20.48% of the total and is divided into five categories: Vegetable, Fruit, Plant, Nut, and Herbal medicine The Vegetable category, representing the largest portion at 6.76%, includes three object referents: củ súng, quả bồ kết, and quả trám Similarly, the Plant category also features three object referents, with a slightly lower percentage of 6.1%, comprising mun, mái rạ, and thân cây đa The Fruit category ranks third, showcasing the highest number of object referents, which include hạt huyền, cóc, củ cẩm, and củ gấm The Nut category, making up 2.28%, consists of hạt vừng, hột na, and nước gạo rang Lastly, the Herbal medicine category, with the smallest percentage at 1.53%, includes tam thất and táo tiệm thuốc Bắc.

Tôi, tôi chẳng thích gì M.: đen như củ súng, mà ăn nói láu táu (Tâm sự gái già, Huy Cận, p 1036)

The Inanimate Nature class encompasses three main categories: Natural Objects and Substances, Milieu, and Metals Among these, the Natural Objects and Substances category holds the largest share, accounting for 9.15% of the total, and includes various referents such as mountains, stones, and the Kà forest.

Tót ban đêm, nước rừng, nước cống, đất, đất thó, bùn, hố sâu Milieu category has

3 object referents: bóng tối, đêm 30 Tết, đêm mùa hạ whereas Metal category includes only sắt object referent

Hạnh cầm chặt chiếc ly nhỏ chứa nước cà phê nguội, màu sắc đen sánh như nước cống, tạo nên một hình ảnh u ám trong bóng tối.

The Fauna class encompasses various categories, including Ploughing animals, Butterflies, Reptiles, and Animal organs Notably, the Animal organ category holds the highest percentage at 6.85%, featuring a diverse range of object referents such as dog snouts, horse hooves, buffalo tails, buffalo horns, and crow feathers The Butterfly category includes object referents like beetles, ants, and flies, while the Ploughing animal category contributes to the overall diversity of the Fauna class.

Reptile category both share the same 0.76% and the same number of object referent included: trâu and rắn, respectively

Trên con đường nhựa Hải Phòng - Hà Nội, anh đĩ Mùi trở về từ chợ với gánh nặng khoai lang, tạo nên hình ảnh sống động của cuộc sống thường nhật.

The body and bodily product class includes three main categories: Bodily product, Human type, and Evil type The Human type category, which represents the largest portion at 3.82%, features the highest number of object referents, including cô gái người Cao Miên, người Cao Miên, người Thượng, and Tây đen The Bodily product category encompasses object referents such as chàm, răng nhuộm, and gân mái mắt người già Lastly, the Evil type category consists of object referents like hung thần and thằng quỷ.

Các cụ già nhớ lại rằng trước đây có người từng nói về một loại dưa vỏ xanh, ruột đỏ và hạt đen như răng nhuộm, được cho là có khả năng chữa bệnh sốt ác và làm giảm cơn khát suốt cả ngày.

The Vietnamese term for "đen" (black) encompasses 131 examples across 62 object referents, categorized into five main classes and 17 specific categories These include the Flora class, which features categories like Vegetables, Fruits, Plants, Nuts, and Herbal medicine; the Fauna class, comprising Ploughing animals, Butterflies, Reptiles, and Animal organs; the Inanimate nature class, which includes Natural objects and substances, Milieu, and Metals; the Man-made object class, covering Fabrics and Artifacts; and the Body and bodily product class, which encompasses Bodily products, Human types, and Evil types.

3.2.2 Class and category classification of trắng colour term in

After investigating the data, 112 examples containing trắng colour term introducing 56 object referents associated with trắng colour term in Vietnamese data are identified in Table 3.17

Summary

430 examples containing black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, grey colour terms and 443 examples containing đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, xám colour terms,

205 object referents of black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, grey colour terms and

230 object referents of đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, xám colour terms have been identified

In respect of the total number of object referents associated with one colour term, it is noted that:

In English, the white color term is associated with the highest number of object referents, totaling 60, followed by black with 50 Red ranks third with 25 object referents, while yellow and blue share the fourth position with 20 each Green and grey have the lowest counts, with 13 and 9 object referents, respectively.

In Vietnamese data, the color term "đen" is associated with the highest number of object referents, totaling 62, followed closely by "trắng" with 56 referents The color "đỏ" ranks third with 54 object referents, while "vàng" holds fourth place with 26 referents The color terms "xanh" and "xám" have the lowest counts, with 25 and 7 object referents, respectively.

In the analysis of color classification, English data reveals that white and red color terms consist of six classes, while black and green terms comprise five classes, and yellow, blue, and grey terms are categorized into four classes Conversely, Vietnamese data shows that trắng (white), đỏ (red), and vàng (yellow) color terms form six classes, đen (black) and xanh (green) terms consist of five classes, and xám (grey) is classified into four classes.

In English data, the white color term leads with the highest number of 21 categories, followed by red with 18 categories Black ranks third with 15 categories, while yellow holds fourth place with 11 categories Blue comes in fifth with 8 categories, and green occupies the sixth position.

In the analysis of color terms, the grey category features the lowest number of five categories, while Vietnamese data reveals that the trắng/đỏ color terms dominate with the highest count of 18 categories Following closely, the đen color term ranks second with 17 categories, and the xanh color term occupies the third position with 15 categories The fourth place is held by the vàng color term, which encompasses 12 categories, while the xám color term has the lowest representation with six categories.

The analysis reveals 205 object referents in English and 230 in Vietnamese, highlighting the connection between subjective reality and national thought processes in choosing suitable object referents This diversity reflects how a single basic color term can be associated with various object referents in both languages, illustrating distinct national psychological perspectives shaped by cultural history, social events, and traditional customs.

English and Vietnamese communities uniquely associate specific colors with intentional meanings tied to various objects and events Both cultures expand their understanding of colors by incorporating related objects that reflect particular thoughts and characteristics Typically, these objects embody the expressive and distinctive traits associated with their corresponding colors This phenomenon highlights the presence of traditional and contemporary referents that align with specific color terms found in English and Vietnamese idioms.

In conclusion, both Vietnamese and English cultures exhibit unique and shared perspectives on color terms, highlighting the distinctive features that define each national identity.

English men often choose familiar objects from their nomadic lifestyle, such as night, moon, and winter, to represent color terms They also select items like chimney, bacon, and emerald to reflect their Western life features Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, who follow their prey and carry tents, have influenced the domestication of various animals and plants in their habitats Consequently, these objects have become integral to daily life, creating strong associations between names and items Ultimately, basic color terms in English are defined by the colors of familiar objects and natural phenomena, facilitating easier perception and understanding within the community.

Vietnamese culture, rooted in the South-East Asian cultural landscape, reflects a rich variety of natural agricultural products such as hột na, mái rạ, and quả bồ kết, among others These items are integral to the traditional Vietnamese culinary practices, showcasing the deep connection between local biodiversity and daily life The domestication of numerous plants and animals, particularly rice and various wild species, has shaped the Vietnamese diet and herbal medicine since ancient times, highlighting the significance of these elements in the country's cultural heritage.

The names of object referents have integrated into everyday English and Vietnamese expressions, establishing connections between specific object referents and color terms Basic color terms in both languages, such as black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey in English, and đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, and xám in Vietnamese, are defined by the colors of familiar natural objects within their respective communities.

COMPARISON OF PROTOTYPES OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS IN

Prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data

Based on the percentage identified in the preceding sections, the prototypes of basic colour terms accompanied by the examples from literary works are presented as below:

In English data: night object referent, with the highest percentage of 16%, as prototype of black colour term, as illustrated in:

Gaspar Ruiz felt a profound sense of isolation, believing there was no place for his innocence in the world This realization plunged him into a deep gloom and resentment, akin to the darkness of night In a related analysis, the term "snow" emerged as the most significant reference for white color, accounting for 21.95% of the data presented.

Ann, it's best for you to go to bed instead of lingering there with those sleepy faces; you look as worn out as a fiddle You must be exhausted, and I'll take care of the doors and set the clock If you don't rest now, you'll be pale as a sheet tomorrow.

16.4%, as 02 prototypes of red colour term, as expressed in:

Fungi thrived in various locations, including decaying leaves and tree stumps, showcasing their diverse appearances Some displayed damp caps, while others revealed their dripping gills The colors ranged from deep red splotches reminiscent of arterial blood to vibrant saffron yellow, with some fungi being tall and slender, resembling macaroni Additionally, some featured a leathery texture in rich brown hues.

The bore embodies a strength and joy that surpasses our own, resembling a demigod or even a god, as he finds endless novelty in the repetition of life’s cycles; for the divine, each nightfall is a fresh experience, and every rose retains its vibrant red This concept aligns with the observation that the corn object serves as the primary referent for the yellow color term, accounting for 20.7% of its usage.

The location of the old man's cell was obscured by a blazing forest fire, making it impossible to determine if he was dead or alive The intense light transformed the scene into a vivid display of emerald flames, representing a striking 26.3% of the green color spectrum.

He traversed the secluded areas of the park, where green moisture seeped from decayed wounds on the trees, creating a vivid emerald hue on the bark, while the lichenous coating added to the vibrant scenery This imagery highlights the beauty of nature, particularly the sapphire-like quality of the blue color, which constitutes 9.52% of the color terms identified.

In Thomas Hardy's "The Woodlanders," a character observes the light shifting to a sapphire blue, illustrating a moment of idle contemplation Additionally, research indicates that the term "badger" serves as the primary referent for the color grey, accounting for 20% of its usage as a prototype in related studies.

Bronckhorst was a middle-aged man in the Army, characterized by his three-cornered physique and grey hair resembling that of a badger Some believed he had a hint of rural ancestry in his background.

In Vietnamese data: mực object referent, with the highest percentage of 25.95%, as prototype of đen colour term, as illustrated in:

A sudden, dark whirlwind, reminiscent of a roaring tiger, swept through, uprooting the small villages, trees, and homes surrounding Mother This vivid imagery captures the overwhelming power of nature, illustrating the chaos brought by the storm The term "ngà," which refers to a specific object, stands out with a notable percentage of 10.71%, serving as a prototype for the color white.

Hai cô con gái trẻ đẹp với nụ cười rạng rỡ và những đường cong quyến rũ, luôn nói cười một cách ngây thơ và lẳng lơ Hình ảnh của họ gợi lên cảm giác ấm áp, như thể họ đang ôm lấy người khác, hỗ trợ trong những khoảnh khắc tập đi xe đạp đầy thú vị Sự kết hợp giữa vẻ đẹp tự nhiên và tính cách hồn nhiên đã tạo nên một bức tranh sống động, khiến người ta không thể rời mắt.

The description of the hand is vivid, portraying it as red like vermilion, while the wrist is compared to ivory, emphasizing its whiteness Additionally, the hand is characterized by a unique temperature, being both cool and warm This passage highlights the use of color terms, particularly the significant representation of the color gold, which is noted to have the highest occurrence at 23.53%.

They believe that wearing "ba - đờ - suy" is already a sign of sophistication, even if the garment may not be visually appealing Additionally, they adorn themselves with several square pieces of golden fabric, resembling turmeric, or colorful "phu - la" scarves wrapped around their necks or covering their heads (Trần Tiêu, Con Trâu, adapted from www.vietmessenger.com) The term "tàu lá" is noted as the most representative object, accounting for 28.26% as a prototype of the color term "xanh."

Huệ Chi có màu xanh tươi mát như tàu lá, nhưng cũng có vẻ u ám như tàu lá úa, gục đầu lên đầu gối của Bích Nga, người đang ngồi ở mép giường.

261) tro/gio object referent, with the highest percentage of 31.25%, as prototype of xám colour term, as expressed in:

Hai dãy nhà đối diện nhau, mang vẻ chán nản như những cặp vợ chồng khổ sở, vừa thương vừa tội Gia đình tôi hiện lên với sắc thái xám xịt như tro và tái tê như đá đen.

Trên bộ ghế nhựa, ba cái xác nằm duỗi dài, trong đó có một phụ nữ và hai nam giới, với chân tay xám như tro, má hõm và lỗ mắt sâu hoắm.

Comparison of prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data 132 1 Prototype of black colour term in English compared to prototype of đen colour

In English, the term "red" is represented by the prototype "son," while in Vietnamese, "đỏ" serves as its equivalent The color green is exemplified by "emerald" in English and "xanh" as "tàu lá" in Vietnamese For the color blue, "sapphire" is the English prototype, whereas Vietnamese uses "xanh." Lastly, "corn" represents the prototype for the yellow color term in English.

This section compares and contrasts the English and Vietnamese color terms, using "nghệ" as the prototype for the color yellow in Vietnamese and "badger" for the color gray in English, alongside "tro/gio" as the prototype for gray in Vietnamese.

4.2 Comparison of prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data

When comparing the prototypes of basic color terms between English and Vietnamese, the findings reveal that "night" serves as the prototype for the black color term in English, while "mực" is identified as the prototype for the "đen" color term in Vietnamese.

In Vietnamese data, the term "ngà" serves as the prototype for the color white, contrasting with "snow," which is the English equivalent Similarly, the English terms "rose" and "blood" represent prototypes for the color red, while "son" is the corresponding prototype for "đỏ" in Vietnamese.

In Vietnamese, the term for green is exemplified by "emerald," while "sapphire" serves as the prototype for blue Additionally, "tàu lá" represents the blue color term in Vietnamese For the yellow color term, "corn" is identified as the prototype.

The English term "badger" serves as a prototype for the color grey, while the Vietnamese term "tro" or "gio" represents the equivalent prototype for the color xám Similarly, the English color term "vàng" is mirrored by the Vietnamese "nghệ" as its prototype These findings establish a basis for comparing and contrasting these color prototypes across English and Vietnamese data.

This section explores the universal perception of color terminology, drawing on definitions from the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (9th Edition, 2015) and Từ điển Tiếng Việt (Hoàng Phê, 2003) It highlights the significance of color terms in both English and Vietnamese, providing insights into their encyclopedic meanings and cultural implications.

The article explores the cultural and cognitive implications associated with individual color prototypes, specifically focusing on terms such as black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey.

The comparison between the prototypes of basic colour terms in English data and those in Vietnamese data is described in the following section:

4.2.1 Prototype of black colour term in English compared to prototype of đen colour term in Vietnamese

Table 4.1 reveals that in English, "night" serves as the primary reference for the black color term, accounting for 16% of the data, while in Vietnamese, "mực" is the leading reference for the term "đen," comprising 25.95% of the data.

In universal concept, black colour term, associated with power, fear, mystery, strength, authority, elegance, formality, death, evil, aggression, authority, rebellion, and sophistication, represents strength, seriousness, power and authority

In Western countries, black colour term refers to mourning, death and sadness Moreover, black term represents the emotions and actions of rebellion in teenagers and youth

The term "black" is defined as having the very dark color of cola or the night sky, while "đen" is associated with the colors of charcoal and black ink This dissertation finds that the cultural referents for "black" differ from those for "đen," with "black" symbolizing night in English culture, which is characterized by the absence of sunlight Night occurs when the Earth faces away from the Sun, resulting in a black sky due to the lack of light scattering In contrast, the Moon's sky remains black both day and night due to the absence of an atmosphere Figuratively, night is often linked to danger and evil in English, stemming from the fear associated with darkness and vulnerability to threats Historically, the Saxons referred to night as the "death mist," reflecting the dangers concealed by darkness Additionally, the concept of night as a prototype for the black color term evokes the nomadic lifestyle of the English, who navigated vast fields under the cover of night, highlighting their connection to the natural world.

In Vietnamese data, mực as prototype of đen colour term means what

Ink, a liquid containing pigments or dyes, has been utilized by various ancient cultures for writing and drawing, with its earliest forms believed to be made from lampblack, a soot easily collected from fire In Ancient Egypt, ink was employed for writing on papyrus as early as the 26th century BC Similarly, during the Chinese Neolithic Period, inks derived from plant, animal, and mineral sources, such as graphite, were created by grinding materials with water and applying them with brushes The traditional Chinese ink-making process involved grinding a mixture of hide glue, carbon black, lampblack, and bone black pigment, which was then dried in a ceramic dish This method highlights the enduring calligraphy practices of the ancient Vietnamese, who used ink for writing Hán and Nôm characters.

The terms "night" in English and "mực" in Vietnamese exemplify the distinct cultural perspectives on the color black In English, "night" is categorized within the inanimate nature class, while "mực" is classified under the artifact category in Vietnamese This highlights the differing associations and meanings attached to the color black in English and Vietnamese communities.

4.2.2 Prototype of white colour term in English compared to prototype of trắng colour term in Vietnamese

Table 4.1 reveals that in English data, "snow" serves as the primary prototype for the white color term, accounting for 21.95%, while in Vietnamese data, "ngà" represents the primary prototype for the trắng color term, comprising 10.71%.

The color white symbolizes mental clarity and fresh beginnings, promoting feelings of renewal and purification It is often associated with purity, innocence, light, and goodness, as well as safety and cleanliness Additionally, white embodies spirituality, humility, and sincerity, representing protection, softness, and the potential for perfection.

The term "white" is defined as resembling the color of fresh snow or milk, while the Vietnamese term "trắng" is described as having the color of lime or cotton The choice of fresh snow and milk as cultural referents for the color white aligns with the findings of this dissertation, whereas the use of lime and cotton as referents for "trắng" presents a divergence from the dissertation's conclusions.

Summary

The diverse natural conditions, climates, and geographies across countries lead each nation to choose unique symbolic objects that represent their distinctive national and social identities.

England's unique culture, distinct from Welsh, Scottish, and Northern Irish traditions, has been shaped by its influential position within the United Kingdom since Anglo-Saxon times While British culture encompasses various races and ethnicities, the predominant group is White or Anglo-Saxon The majority of the British population identifies as Christian, with Catholicism and Protestantism playing significant roles in shaping contemporary traditions Historically, nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes influenced the region, leading to the domestication of diverse animals and plants This nomadic lifestyle has left a lasting impact on the English language, with terms for familiar objects becoming integral to daily expressions Consequently, English people often describe colors using familiar items from their surroundings, such as night, snow, rose, corn, and badger, alongside symbols of the British monarchy like emerald and sapphire, reflecting the features of Western life.

Vietnamese culture, rooted in the Nam Á community (Bách Việt), has evolved within the Southeast Asian cultural landscape, highlighting the significance of agriculture and domesticated plants and animals Rice cultivation stands out as a primary achievement, alongside other agricultural practices that have shaped daily life and traditional herbal treatments This rich interplay has led to the integration of various natural elements into everyday language, particularly in the description of colors Vietnamese people often define color terms by referencing familiar objects from their environment, making these descriptions more relatable and vivid In this tropical setting, items such as 'nghệ, tro/gio, ngà, son, mực' play a crucial role in linking basic colors to the culinary traditions of Vietnam.

Human awareness serves as a crucial link between culture and language, with this relationship relying on the integration of cultural concepts and linguistic expressions Cultural information is processed and reorganized within human awareness, enabling native speakers to perceive the world uniquely Effective communication requires selecting appropriate means tailored to specific contexts to achieve communication goals Different nations categorize the objective and non-realistic worlds distinctively, reflecting their unique perceptions in language The botanical and natural worlds exhibit diverse characteristics shaped by varying climates and geographies, leading each nation to adopt different symbolic representations that define its national identity While human perception of color is biologically similar, the interpretation of its symbolic meanings varies across cultures National characteristics emerge through active social participation in cultural practices, with acquired cultural knowledge being central to national thinking Consequently, the distinctive thinking patterns related to colors in English and Vietnamese cultures highlight the salient trends in national thought.

The distinct cultural differences between English and Vietnamese significantly influence their respective languages, making the study of their linguistic units particularly fascinating A thorough review of the similarities and differences in cultural characteristics highlights the unique features of both languages, shaped by historical development, psychological traits, local customs, and the prevailing impact of natural and socio-cultural contexts within each nation.

CONCLUSION

Recapitulation

This dissertation employs a framework centered on prototype theory, focusing on the classification of basic color terms It examines the structure of basic color terms in relation to object referents within English and Vietnamese literary works, supported by cognitive and cultural explanations.

The identification of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese reveals that "night" serves as the prototype for the black color term, while "mực" represents the prototype for the Vietnamese "đen." Similarly, "snow" is identified as the prototype for the white color term, contrasting with "ngà," which is the prototype for "trắng." Additionally, "blood" or "rose" is also highlighted in this context.

This article explores various color prototypes, highlighting the red color term with two prototypes: "son" and "đỏ." It compares the emerald prototype of green to "tàu lá" as the representative of "xanh." For yellow, "corn" serves as the prototype, contrasting with "nghệ" for "vàng." Lastly, it examines the grey color term, using "badger" as a prototype in comparison to "tro/gio," which represents "xám."

Concerning class classification, it is concluded that in English data, white/red colour terms are comprised of 06 classes, black/green colour terms are composed of

In the classification of color terms, the yellow, blue, and grey categories comprise four distinct classes, while Vietnamese color terms such as trắng (white), đỏ (red), and vàng (yellow) are organized into six classes Additionally, the đen (black) and xanh (green) color terms consist of five classes each, and the xám (grey) color term is categorized into four classes.

In English data, the white color term leads with 21 sub-categories, followed by red with 18, black with 15, yellow with 11, blue with 8, and green, which occupies the 6th position.

The analysis reveals that the grey color term encompasses the fewest categories, with only five, while the white and red color terms also share this distinction In second place, the black color term includes 17 categories, followed by the blue color term in third place with 15 categories The yellow color term ranks fourth with 12 categories, and lastly, the grey color term holds the lowest count of six categories.

Concluding remarks

The primary object referents linked to basic color terms in English and Vietnamese represent the prototypes of these terms, reflecting their highest occurrence rates These prototypes, formed through cognitive processes over time and influenced by the historical development of each community, serve as foundational elements in lexical semantics They consistently embody specific colors used for comparisons in idiomatic expressions The formation of these prototypes illustrates the connection between subjective reality and national cognitive systems, revealing distinct psychological perspectives tied to cultural history, social events, and traditional customs Ultimately, these prototypes highlight the unique cognitive and cultural characteristics inherent to each nation, making them difficult to trace back to their original sources.

This dissertation analyzes 430 examples with 205 object referents from English and 443 examples with 230 object referents from Vietnamese data, highlighting how both cultures perceive and select salient object referents for color terms The findings reveal the similarities and differences in cognitive systems shaped by distinct social and cultural contexts Community members share personal experiences related to the selection of object referents tied to basic color terms, passing this knowledge through generations Historical developments have introduced more diversity and distinctiveness in these selections, reflecting living conditions, national perspectives, and cultural elements Ultimately, language serves as a unique medium to encode various cultural aspects, with prototypes of basic color terms embodying the distinctive features of each nation.

This dissertation reveals new outcomes related to colour term prototypes in English and Vietnamese, including night, rose, corn, emerald, sapphire, and badger for English, and nghệ and tro/gio for Vietnamese The research highlights significant differences in the Flora and Inanimate nature classes, shaped by diverse natural conditions, climates, and geographies Each nation identifies unique symbolic objects that represent their national identity The study concludes that living conditions, national features, and cultural-cognitive thinking significantly influence the relationship between language, cognition, and culture Despite the differences between English and Vietnamese colour term systems, there are notable similarities that reflect unique perspectives on the world.

The exploration of basic color terms reveals distinct cognitive and cultural differences between English and Vietnamese perspectives This analysis delves into how factors such as living environments, national characteristics, and socio-cultural elements shape the worldviews of these two nations, providing a comprehensive understanding of their unique linguistic frameworks.

English and Vietnamese data highlight the shared characteristics of their communities during long-term cooperation, international communication, and cultural exchange The similarities in culture-specific references in both languages underscore a commonality in basic color terms This indicates a mutual influence where universal thinking trends have been exchanged between English and Vietnamese cultures As societies evolve, cultural exchanges introduce new linguistic contact methods, shaping cognitive perspectives on fundamental color terminology.

The differences in basic color term prototypes between English and Vietnamese idioms stem from distinct national perspectives and worldviews These variations arise from disparities in meaning, abstractness, and specificity, shaped by each nation's unique historical, geographical, and cultural contexts, including lifestyle, customs, and economic development Consequently, the contrasting data from English and Vietnamese reflect the unique cognitive approaches of each language's speakers towards the natural world, influenced by psychological traits and the prevailing social and cultural factors inherent to each nation.

The study of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese reveals how language shapes human perception and description of the physical world By providing diverse linguistic expressions, these languages enrich our understanding and create a more vibrant representation of reality, ultimately influencing and reshaping human thought and awareness.

The rich cultural-historical idioms in English and Vietnamese are vividly illustrated through the use of basic color terms, which extend beyond mere word collocations to encompass new symbols and meanings derived from various object referents These basic color terms encapsulate not only general historical experiences but also unique cultural elements specific to English and Vietnamese societies Consequently, they embody both connotative and expressive meanings, deeply influenced by national characteristics such as geography, culture, religion, and worldviews This study reinforces that the classification of basic color terms reveals distinctive national cultural signals, reflecting unique perspectives on and constructions of the physical world.

Cultural differences often lead to communication misunderstandings, making the translation between languages a challenging task Mastering a foreign language requires not only phonetic skills and body language but also a deep understanding of the intricate relationship between culture, language, and cognition To effectively learn a new language, it is essential to acquire the cultural values of the linguistic community This cultural background influences how language learners construct sentences and perceive reality By exploring the basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, teachers and learners can enhance their awareness of both the similarities and differences between the two languages.

Understanding the cognitive and cultural characteristics of both native and non-native speakers is crucial for effective language teaching and learning, particularly in avoiding cultural shock Learners must be well-versed in the historical and cultural aspects of a language to communicate effectively As cultural exchanges between nations intensify, it becomes essential for speakers and listeners to possess knowledge of the target community's history and cultural traits Familiarity with cultural distinctions, such as the prototypes of basic color terms, aids readers in recognizing similarities and differences, enhancing their comprehension of underlying messages in literature and national idioms.

Understanding the prototypes and classification of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese can enhance teaching and translation practices by revealing the rich semantic and cognitive-cultural features of these terms This knowledge empowers foreign language teachers to better support learners in grasping the cognitive-cultural nuances that differentiate and connect the two languages Consequently, both teachers and learners can tailor their self-study approaches to explore additional prototypes of color terms from various sources This practical application integrates cognitive linguistic insights into modern language teaching methodologies, specifically focusing on the prototypes and categories of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese.

This dissertation provides valuable insights for designing teaching materials and compiling English-Vietnamese and Vietnamese-English dictionaries, as well as reference materials for advanced translation and interpretation courses The findings aim to enhance the quality of teaching and reference resources for English and Vietnamese languages, while also improving translation practices to meet optimal quality standards.

Limitations and suggestions for further study

This thesis's theoretical framework highlights a significant gap in existing research on basic colour terms in both English and Vietnamese, as no comprehensive studies have examined all basic colour terms across these linguistic systems Utilizing Prototype theory, the study explores colour prototypes derived from comparative idioms, supported by cognitive-cultural explanations Consequently, researchers are encouraged to delve deeper into identifying additional gaps to enhance the development of a more thorough and insightful thesis.

This dissertation aims to conduct extensive data collection from both traditional folk works and modern literary sources, highlighting the long-term literary contributions from cultural communities and individual expressions It seeks to provide a comprehensive conclusion on cultural interchange and the evolution of English and Vietnamese thinking systems By integrating these elements, the research proposes a novel interdisciplinary direction in linguistics, presenting a challenging yet promising opportunity for theoretical validation However, the study currently lacks access to English and Vietnamese linguistic corpora for statistical analysis of basic color term prototypes, making it difficult to generalize findings from a limited primary source Future research should prioritize gathering a wider range of referents from various resources to ensure a more reliable and representative collection of prototypes for both languages.

This study focuses on basic color terms in English (white, black, red, yellow, blue, grey) and their Vietnamese equivalents (trắng, đen, đỏ, vàng, xanh, xám), establishing them as primary research subjects Future research should expand to include all basic color terms in both languages, offering a more comprehensive understanding of cultural perspectives Additionally, this dissertation addresses only single root color terms, excluding derivational forms and collocations Further investigations should explore a wider range of color term formations, including derivational words, to enhance the overall scope of color term research.

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108 Hoàng Văn Hành (2008) Thành ngữ học tiếng Việt Viện Ngôn ngữ học

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Trịnh Thị Thu Hiền (2004) đã nghiên cứu đặc điểm của các từ chỉ màu phụ trong tiếng Việt, trình bày tại hội nghị khoa học của Viện Ngôn ngữ Bài viết được xuất bản trong cuốn sách "Những vấn đề về Ngôn ngữ học" của Nxb Khoa học xã hội, trang 58-78 Nghiên cứu này góp phần làm rõ vai trò và ý nghĩa của các từ chỉ màu phụ trong ngôn ngữ Việt Nam.

111 Trịnh Thị Thu Hiền (2015) Đặc điểm của từ chỉ màu sắc xanh đỏ trong tiếng

Việt Luận văn thạc sĩ Học viện Khoa học xã hội

112 Nguyễn Mai Hoa (2017) Đặc trưng văn hóa dân tộc thể hiện qua các thành ngữ so sánh ngang bằng tiếng Anh và tếngViệt Ngôn ngữ và đời sống (3), 32-36

Bài viết của Nguyễn Mai Hoa (2020) khám phá những đặc trưng văn hóa và dân tộc thể hiện qua tên gọi của các nhóm từ chỉ trang phục trong tiếng Việt và tiếng Anh Tác giả phân tích sự khác biệt và tương đồng giữa hai ngôn ngữ, làm nổi bật vai trò của ngôn ngữ trong việc phản ánh bản sắc văn hóa Qua đó, bài viết góp phần làm rõ mối liên hệ giữa ngôn ngữ và đời sống, thể hiện sự phong phú và đa dạng của trang phục trong từng nền văn hóa.

Bài viết của Nguyễn Thị Tố Hoa (2017) nghiên cứu về các cụm từ cố định trong tiếng Việt có chứa thành tố "đen" và "trắng", đồng thời so sánh với tiếng Anh Nghiên cứu này được đăng trong Từ điển học và bách khoa thư, tập 2, trang 31-34, góp phần làm rõ vai trò và chức năng của các thành tố màu sắc trong ngôn ngữ.

115 Hà Thị Thu Hoài (2006) Từ chỉ màu sắc để miêu tả thiên nhiên trong tác phẩm Truyện Tây Bắc của nhà văn Tô Hoài Ngôn ngữ và Đời sống (8), 9- 12

Hoàng Thị Huệ (2019) đã thực hiện một luận án Tiến sĩ ngôn ngữ học tại Viện Hàn lâm Khoa học xã hội Việt Nam, tập trung vào việc đối chiếu thuật ngữ thời trang giữa tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt Nghiên cứu này góp phần làm rõ sự khác biệt và tương đồng trong ngôn ngữ thời trang của hai nền văn hóa.

117 Nguyễn Văn Huyên (2019) Văn minh Việt Nam Nxb Hội nhà văn

118 Trần Thị Thu Huyền (2001) Hoa cỏ và màu sắc trong thành ngữ- tục ngữ tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt Ngôn ngữ và Đời sống (12), 35- 36

119 Trịnh Thị Minh Hương (1999) Tính biểu trưng của từ ngữ chỉ màu sắc trong tiếng Việt Luận văn thạc sĩ Trường ĐHSP Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh

120 Nguyễn Văn Khang (2019) Trở lại một số vấn đề của Ngôn nghữ học đối chiếu International Research Symposium Proceedings (Linguistics Foreign

Language Education Interdisciplinary Fields) ULIS, VNU (40-53)

121 Trần Thị Lan (2001) Phương thức dịch các thành ngữ nhận xét đánh giá con người giữa các ngôn ngữ Việt – Anh – Nga Luận án Tiến sĩ Đại học KHXH

& NV, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội

122 Đỗ Huy Liêm (2017) Tính tương đồng văn hóa của người Thái Lan và người Việt thông qua thành ngữ và tục ngữ Ngôn ngữ và đời sống, (5) 51-54

Bài viết của Trần Thị Phương Lý và Lê Cao Thắng (2019) khám phá khái niệm màu sắc từ lý thuyết của Kay và Berlin và áp dụng vào nghiên cứu tiếng Việt Nghiên cứu này được đăng trong tạp chí Ngôn ngữ và đời sống, số 3, trang 3-14 Tác giả phân tích sự phát triển và ứng dụng của các phạm trù màu sắc trong ngôn ngữ Việt Nam, góp phần làm rõ mối liên hệ giữa lý thuyết ngôn ngữ và thực tiễn sử dụng.

124 Hoàng Tuyết Minh (2014) Phép so sánh tu từ ngang bằng tiếng Anh (đối chiếu với tiếng Việt) Nxb Giáo dục Việt Nam

125 Hoàng Tuyết Minh & Nguyễn Văn Quang (2015) Điển dạng của màu đen trong tiếng Việt và dưới góc nhìn của Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận Kỷ Yếu Ngôn ngữ học

126 Nguyễn Thị Thanh Nga (2008) Một số vấn đề từ vựng – ngữ nghĩa tiếng Việt Đề tài tiềm năng Viện Khoa học xã hội Việt Nam

127 Hà Quang Năng (2013: 01), Đặc điểm định danh thuật ngữ; Tạp chí Từ điển học & Bách khoa thư Số 4 (24), H., tr.1

128 Phan Ngọc (2015) Bản sắc văn hóa Việt Nam Nxb Văn học

129 Bùi Thị Oanh (2018) Phương thức định danh của từ ngữ chỉ màu sắc trang phục trong tiếng Việt và tiếng Anh Ngôn ngữ và đời sống Số 1 (268), 46-51

Bùi Thị Thùy Phương (2004) trong luận văn thạc sĩ của mình đã nghiên cứu các từ chỉ màu sắc như đỏ, vàng, đen, trắng và xanh trong tiếng Hán, đồng thời đối chiếu với các từ tương đương trong tiếng Việt Nghiên cứu này được thực hiện tại Đại học Ngoại ngữ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội, nhằm làm rõ ý nghĩa và sự khác biệt trong cách sử dụng màu sắc giữa hai ngôn ngữ.

131 Nguyễn Văn Quang (2017) Các từ chỉ màu sắc cơ bản trong thành ngữ tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt dưới góc nhìn xuyên văn hóa Đại học Mở, Hà Nội

132 Dương Hồng Quân (2020) Một vài đặc điểm của thành ngữ tiếng Anh Ngôn ngữ và đời sống (7), 103-108

Phan Văn Quế (1996) đã thực hiện một nghiên cứu sâu sắc về ngữ nghĩa của các thành ngữ và tục ngữ có liên quan đến động vật trong tiếng Việt Luận án phó tiến sĩ của ông, được trình bày tại Viện Ngôn ngữ học, không chỉ phân tích các thành tố này mà còn so sánh chúng với tiếng Việt, từ đó làm nổi bật sự phong phú và đa dạng trong cách sử dụng ngôn ngữ.

134 Trương Đông San (1974) Thành ngữ so sánh trong tiếng Việt Ngôn ngữ (1)

135 Đào Thản (1993) Hệ thống từ ngữ chỉ màu sắc tiếng Việt trong sự liên hệ với mấy điều phổ quát Ngôn ngữ (2), 11-15

136 Trần Văn Sáng (2009) Thế giới màu sắc trong ca dao Ngôn ngữ (2), 63-68

137 Đào Thản (1972) Màu đỏ trong thơ Ngôn ngữ (1), 67-74

138 Nhất Thanh (2018) Đất lề Quê thói – Phong tục Việt Nam Nxb Hồng Đức

139 Lê Văn Thanh (2014) Màu đỏ trong tiếng Việt dưới góc nhìn của Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận Tạp chí Khoa học Viện Đại học Mở Hà Nội

Lê Phương Thảo (2018) đã thực hiện một nghiên cứu sâu sắc về sự tương đồng và khác biệt của các từ ngữ chỉ màu sắc trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt Luận án Tiến sĩ này được thực hiện tại Viện Hàn lâm Khoa học Xã hội Việt Nam, nhằm cung cấp cái nhìn toàn diện về cách mà các ngôn ngữ này biểu đạt màu sắc Nghiên cứu không chỉ giúp hiểu rõ hơn về ngôn ngữ mà còn góp phần vào việc phát triển lý thuyết ngôn ngữ học so sánh.

141 Nguyễn Thị Thành Thắng (2001) Màu xanh trong thơ Nguyễn Bính Ngôn ngữ (11), 11- 12

142 Lý Toàn Thắng (2008) Từ lý thuyết đại cương đến thực tiễn tiếng Việt Nxb

143 Trần Ngọc Thêm (2000) Phác thảo chân dung văn hóa Việt Nam-Hà Nội

Nxb Chính trị quốc gia

144 Trần Ngọc Thêm (2000) Cơ sở văn hóa Việt Nam, Nxb Giáo dục

145 Chu Bích Thu (1996) Những đặc trưng ngữ nghĩa của tính từ tiếng Việt hiện đại Luận án Phó Tiến sĩ khoa học Viện Ngôn ngữ học

146 Phạm Minh Tiến (2008) Đặc điểm thành ngữ so sánh tiếng Hán: có đối chiếu với tiếng Việt Luận án tiến sĩ ngữ văn Viện Ngôn ngữ học

147 Nguyễn Đức Tồn (2015) Đặc trưng văn hóa- dân tộc của ngôn ngữ và tư duy Nxb Khoa học xã hội

148 Lê Thị Vy (2006) Đặc trưng văn hóa dân tộc thể hiện qua các từ chỉ màu sắc

Ngôn ngữ và Đời sống (6), 31- 34

Nguyễn Ngọc Vũ (2008) trong luận án Tiến sĩ của mình tại Đại học Quốc gia TP.HCM đã nghiên cứu về thành ngữ tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt có liên quan đến các bộ phận cơ thể người, từ góc nhìn của Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận Nghiên cứu này không chỉ làm rõ sự tương đồng và khác biệt giữa hai ngôn ngữ mà còn cung cấp cái nhìn sâu sắc về cách mà các thành ngữ này phản ánh văn hóa và tư duy của người sử dụng.

150 Hoàng Thị Yến (2017) Đặc trưng tín hiệu thẩm mĩ trong thành ngữ so sánh tiếng Việt Nghiên cứu nước ngoài (5), 145-155

RESEARCHER’S ARTICLES RELATED TO THE DISSERTATION

1 Nguyễn Đông Phương Tiên (2018) An overview of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese International Research Symposium Proceedings (Linguistics Foreign Language Education Interdisciplinary Fields) ULIS, VNU (696-707)

2 Nguyễn Đông Phương Tiên (2019) Prototypes of ‗blue‘, ‗green‘ and ‗xanh‘ colours in English and Vietnamese literary works from cognitive viewpoint

International Research Symposium Proceedings (Linguistics Foreign Language Education Interdisciplinary Fields) ULIS, VNU (810-820)

3 Nguyễn Đông Phương Tiên (2019) Prototype of white colour in English and prototype of trắng colour in Vietnamese from cognitive perspective Language and Life Journal (11), 25-30

4 Nguyễn Đông Phương Tiên (2020) Điển dạng màu ‗đen‘ trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt từ ngữ liệu một số tác phẩm văn học Anh và Việt Từ điển và Bách khoa thư (02) 81-88 + 93

5 Nguyễn Đông Phương Tiên (2020) A comparison on category classification of black and đen and white and trắng colour terms in English and Vietnamese data Language and Life Journal (5B) 52-61

6 Nguyễn Đông Phương Tiên (2021) A comparison on category classification of green and blue and green color terms in English and Vietnamese data Journal of Science, Hanoi Open University (No 75, 01/21) 58-66

Appendix 1.1: Main development representatives in terms of prototype & categories

The ideas of family resemblance, centrality and gradience

J L Austin The relationships among meanings of words

Crystalizing earlier ideas in lexicography and historical semantics and being a precursor of the contemporary view of polysemy involving family resemblances among meanings

Lotfi Zadeh The technical study of categories with fuzzy boundaries

Conceiving of a theory of fuzzy sets as a generalization of standard set theory

Floyd Lounsbury The generative analysis of kinship categories

Linking between the idea that a generator can generate a category and that a category has central members (and subcategories)

1969 The research on colour categories Establishing empirically the ideas of centrality and gradience

The boundaries of words and their meanings

Research on family things categorization

The importance of the embodiment of concepts and the role that embodiment

Putting together colour research from anthropology and neurophysiology

Roger Brown The study of ―basic-level categories‖

Brent Berlin and his associates differentiate between "natural" or "first level" categorization, where children learn to identify and name objects, and higher-level and lower-level categorization, which they describe as "achievements of the imagination." This distinction highlights the developmental stages of categorization in children, emphasizing the role of imagination in advanced cognitive processes.

The fundamental ideas associated with basic-level categorization and basic-level primacy

Demonstrating that embodiment determines some of the most significant properties of human categories

Paul Ekman & his co-workers

The confirmation of ideas as basic-level concepts, basic-level primacy and centrality

Demonstrating that emotional concepts are embodied

Categories as one important issue in cognition

Proposing the generalizations behind studies of particular organized cases in terms of prototypes and basic-level structures

Developing experimental paradigms to assess how individuals rate the quality of category examples reveals inconsistencies with classical theories of categorization These findings impose significant constraints on the requirements for a comprehensive understanding of how categorization functions.

Establishing research paradigm in cognitive psychology for demonstrating centrality, family resemblance, basic- level categorization, basic-level primacy and reference- point reasoning as well as certain kinds of embodiment

Appendix 1.2: Researches in English in terms of lexicon research direction

Analysis of Homeric language related to colours