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Aerospace Technologies Advancements 434 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Number of iterations SIR(dB) SIR of PF-CMA(1,2) SIR of CMA(1,2) Fig. 13. SIR versus the number of iterations for the conventional CMA and hybrid technique -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 Interference direction of arrival θ i (Degrees) SIR (dB) SIR of CMA SIR of PF-CMA Fig. 14. SIR variations against interference direction of arrival for desired direction of arrival = 0˚ Adaptive Beamforming Algorithm Using a Pre-filtering System 435 algorithm will be used as a reference. The results shown in Fig. 15 are obtained using an array receiving a desired signal at 0˚ and 6 interfering signals arriving at 19˚, 60˚, 120˚, 240˚, 300˚ and 341˚. The array uses 4 elements. These curves show that in case of SNR = 6 dB, the proposed hybrid technique needs -12.7 dB SINR to achieve 10 -8 BER while the conventional CMA algorithm needs -2.7 dB to achieve the same BER (a difference of 10 dB in favor of the proposed technique). When the SNR is changed to 20 dB the difference becomes 12 dB. -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 SINR (dB) Bit Error Rate y CMA(1,2) PF-CMA(1,2) (a) SNR = 6dB -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 SINR (dB) Bit Error Rate y CMA(1,2) PF-CMA12 (b) SNR = 20dB Fig. 15. BER versus SINR using CMA, hybrid technique, using 4-antenna array Aerospace Technologies Advancements 436 4.4 System capacity Beamforming often affects system capacity. Here, effect of the proposed technique on the capacity of cellular CDMA system is considered. System capacity (in terms of the number of users M) can be determined using [7] ( ) ( ) () ( ) ( ) 1 1 ER bb IB oc ER bb IB oc M γ + = + (33) where E b is the energy per bit, I o is the interference power spectral density (PSD) in Watts/Hertz, R b is the message data rate in bits per second, B c is the radio channel bandwidth in Hertz, where B c >> R b , and 1 J I j j d G G γ = = ∑ (34) is the inverse of the total SIR experienced by the mobile in the cell under considerations from the cochannel cells assuming one mobile per cochannel cell, G d is the desired beam gain evaluated at direction θ d , G Ij is the beam gain of the jth interfering cell evaluated at θ i . The aim of this proposed hybrid technique is to suppress the γ value by decreasing the interference beam gain at θ i direction. The factor γ is evaluated by simulating the beamforming system with 4- and 8-element array antenna, in environment with 20 dB SNR assuming each interfering user generates interference power equal to the desired user power. A CDMA cellular system is assumed with service bit rate of 8000 and 32000 bps for each user, and with chip rate of 4 Mcps. The results are displayed in Fig. 16. The results shows that for the case of 8000bps rate the systems capacities for E b /I o = -6dB are 213 and 228 users for the hybrid system using 4- and 8-element array respectively whereas the conventional system capacity are 80 and 89 users for 4 and 8 elements array system respectively. Thus, the proposed algorithm increases the system capacity by 1.5 folds comparing with the conventional system capacity. The same trend applies for the case of 32000 bps service bit rate as shown in Fig. 16 (b). 4.5 The outage probability Here, the effect of the proposed technique on the outage probability for both up link and down link will be consider. 4.5.1 Outage probability of the down-link system The performance of the system can be expressed in terms of the outage probability, i.e., the probability that the bit error rate (BER) exceeds a certain threshold required BER, (BER max ), normally10 -8 , i.e. ( ) max Pr o P BER BER=> (35) The outage probability can be defined as the probability that the SIR falls below minimum required SIR [6]. In cellular CDMA the system outage probability could be determined by the following [7] Adaptive Beamforming Algorithm Using a Pre-filtering System 437 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 0 50 100 150 200 250 E b /I 0 Number of users CMA, M=4 PF-CMA,M=4 CMA,M=8 PF-CMA,M=8 (a) Service bit rate =8000bps -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 E b /I 0 Number of users CMA, M=4 PF-CMA, M=4 CMA, M=8 PF-CMA, M=8 (b) Service bit rate =32000bps Fig. 16. Number of users versus Eb/Io var I out S o I out M GS P E pQ χ ⎛⎞ ⎡ ⎤ − ⎜⎟ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ = ⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ ⎡ ⎤ ⎜⎟ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ⎝⎠ (36) where 1 I in SS req η σ χ =−−, [ ] out EI S is the ratio of the intercellular interference-to-signal ratio, req σ is the required SINR for the BER to be less than max BER , M is the number of Aerospace Technologies Advancements 438 users, P G is the processing gain, S η is the ratio of received thermal noise to user signal power, and ( ) [] () 1 1 () 1 () out P J j Pk j jk M I EE SG G M E GG γ θ θ = ≠ + ⎡⎤ = ⎢⎥ ⎣⎦ ⎡ ⎤ + = ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ∑ (37) where E[γ] is the intercellular interference factor. Therefore, the outage probability will be given as () 11 1[] var[ ] M GS req P o I out M GS P E PQ η σ γ + ⎛⎞ −+− ⎜⎟ = ⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ ⎝⎠ (38) The system with seven cells (desired one and six interfering using 8-element array system), which is represented in Fig. 17, is used to simulate the down-link of the cellular system in this section. The results of this simulation model are tabulated in Table 1. Now, assuming M>>1, and using the simulation results in Table 1 we can expressed the outage probability using CMA(1,2) (conventional algorithm) for 8-element array system as follows 7.7026 1 0.4520 M Gs req P o M G P pQ η σ ⎛⎞ −− ⎜⎟ = ⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ ⎝⎠ (39) Fig. 17. Down-link cellular system with seven cells 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Adaptive Beamforming Algorithm Using a Pre-filtering System 439 Cell number (j) Technique Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 G( j θ ) 1.8304 1.5027 2.3538 2.2899 2.3533 2.3457 1.4232 CMA(1,2) G( j θ )/G( 1 θ ) 1.0000 0.8209 1.2859 1.2510 1.2857 1.2815 0.7775 G( j θ ) 9.8264 1.5895 1.0812 0.9990 1.0812 1.0098 1.1439 Hybrid Technique G( j θ )/G( 1 θ ) 1.0000 0.1618 0.1100 0.1017 0.1100 0.1028 0.1164 Table 1. Down-link beam gains at different directions of arrival while that of the proposed technique is given by 1.7027 1 0.2214 M Gs req P o M G P pQ η σ ⎛⎞ −− ⎜⎟ = ⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ ⎝⎠ (40) The results of Equation (39) and (40) are displayed in Fig. 18 for SNR = 0 dB and 20 dB. From this figure, it is clear that the hybrid technique decreases the outage probability of the system. This decrease will help in increasing the number of users that can be accommodated in the system (System Capacity). As an example, assuming that the acceptable outage probability is 1% and SNR = 0 dB, the system capacity will be 40 and 86 users for the conventional and hybrid system respectively, in case of 4-element array, and 45 and 108 users in case of 8-element array. Therefore, doubling the array size improves the system capacity by 11% and 26% for the conventional and hybrid systems respectively. In case of SNR = 20dB, the system capacity will be 45 and 95 users for the conventional and hybrid system respectively, in case of 4-element array, and 50 and 120 users in case of 8 elements array. Therefore, doubling the array size, again improves the system capacity by 11% and 26% for the conventional and hybrid systems respectively. 4.5.2 The outage probability of the up-link system To check up-link performance improvement using the hybrid technique, we simulate the uplink cellular system shown in Fig. 19 using 6 interferer sources distributed uniformly around a central base station with a single desired user communicates with this station. We assumed that the interference sources located outside of the central base station cell. For simplicity, we assumed the distance of each interferer from the base station is double that of the desired user. The results of this simulation model are tabulated in Table 2. Using Equation (38) and Table 2, the outage probability of the up-link cellular system using 16-element array for the conventional technique given by 6.9501 1 0.0303 M Gs req P o M G P pQ η σ ⎛⎞ −− ⎜⎟ = ⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ ⎝⎠ (41) Aerospace Technologies Advancements 440 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 10 -6 10 -5 10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 Number of users Outage probability CMA,M=4 PF-CMA,M=4 CMA, M=8 PF-CMA, M=8 SNR= 0dB 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 10 -6 10 -5 10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 Number of users Outage probability CMA, M=4 PF-CMA, M=4 CMA, M=8 PF-CMA, M=8 (b) SNR= 20dB Fig. 18. The outage probability of cellular down link system with 4- and 8-element array while that of 16-element array for the propose hybrid technique is 3.4715 1 0.1202 M Gs req P o M G P pQ η σ ⎛⎞ −− ⎜⎟ = ⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ ⎝⎠ (42) Adaptive Beamforming Algorithm Using a Pre-filtering System 441 Cell number (j) Technique Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 G( j θ ) 2.4981 2.4392 2.4998 2.4981 2.4967 2.4998 2.4394 CMA(1,2) G( j θ )/G( 1 θ ) 1.0000 0.9764 1.0007 1.0000 0.9995 1.0007 0.9765 G( j θ ) 10.000 0.9167 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.2663 Hybrid Technique G( j θ )/G( 1 θ ) 1.0000 0.0917 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1266 Table 2. Up-link beam gains at different directions of arrival Fig. 19. Up-link cellular system with seven cells The results are as shown in Fig.20 It is clear that the hybrid technique decreases the outage probability of the system. This decrease will help in increasing the number of users that can be accommodated in the system (System Capacity). As an example, assuming that the acceptable outage probability is 1% and SNR = 0dB, the system capacity will be 28 and 59 users for the conventional and hybrid system respectively, in case of 8-element array, and 34 and 67 users in case of 16-element array. Therefore, doubling the array size improves the system capacity by 21% and 14% for the conventional and hybrid systems respectively. In case of SNR = 20dB, the system capacity will be 31 and 65 users for the conventional and hybrid system respectively, in case of 8 elements array, and 37 and 75 users in case of 16 elements array. Therefore, doubling the array size, improves the system capacity by 19% and 15% for the conventional and hybrid systems respectively. Here we can observe that the capacity improvement percentage of the conventional algorithm is slightly greater than the improvement percentage of the overall hybrid technique, but in all of above cases the hybrid system capacity is greater. Aerospace Technologies Advancements 442 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 -6 10 -5 10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 Number of users Outage probability CMA, M= 16 PF-CMA, M= 16 CMA, M= 8 PF-CMA, M=8 (a) SNR=0 dB 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 -6 10 -5 10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 Number of users Outage probability CMA, M= 16 PF-CMA, M= 16 CMA, M=8 PF-CMA, M=8 (b) SNR=20dB Fig. 20. Outage probability of up-link system with 8- and 16- element array Adaptive Beamforming Algorithm Using a Pre-filtering System 443 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 Number of array elements Number of complex operations CMA PF-CMA RLS Fig. 21. Computation complexity for the hybrid algorithm and some of the conventional types of adaptive beamforming algorithms 4.6 Convergence speed of the proposed algorithm Here, a comparison between the convergence speed of the conventional adaptive beamforming algorithms and the proposed hybrid technique is carried out. This speed is determined by measuring the error behavior of the algorithms versus the used samples in the training period i.e. measuring the value of the cost function (the mean square error) at each sample time. The cost functions of LMS and CMA (1, 2) algorithms are respectively as follows: 2 () () () LMS JkEdkyk ⎡ ⎤ =− ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ (43) and 2 (1,2) () () 1 CM JkEyk ⎡ ⎤ =− ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ (44) where d(k) and y(k) are the desired and output signal samples respectively. Using the same environment used for the beam pattern performance, we plotted the result of error curves in Fig. 22 by taking into account only the first significant iterations (samples) of both algorithms. From the figure it is clear that the convergence speed of the conventional algorithms is slightly faster than the hybrid technique, but this difference is very small. [...]... -10 0 200 400 600 800 Number of iterations 1000 1200 140 0 (a) Tracking from 60˚to 30˚ 30 SIR of CMA(1,2) SIR of FFT-CMA(1,2) 25 20 SIR(dB) 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 0 200 400 600 800 Number of iterations 1000 1200 140 0 (b) Tracking from–20˚ to 60˚ Fig 23 Tracking capabilities of the hybrid and conventional techniques References 446 Aerospace Technologies Advancements the desired target Also in case of the desired... loud Free Water 14 Frequency in Percent 12 Mean StDev N 190.8 15.82 36310 285.2 3.445 21761 10 8 6 4 2 0 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 Channel 5 Brightness Temperature (Kelvin) Fig 2 The histogram of channel 5 brightness temperature for cloud over water and cloud free water pixel 450 Aerospace Technologies Advancements Weilbull Distribution was used as the fitted distribution in Figure 2 It was... less than a certain value of T4, it can be masked as a cloudy pixel 452 Aerospace Technologies Advancements Histogram of T4 for Cloud Over Water and Cloud Free water Pixel Normal 30 Variable cloud ov er water C loud free water 25 Mean StDev N 180.4 42.24 7684 286.7 3.383 21725 Percent 20 15 10 5 0 84 112 140 168 196 224 252 280 T4 Fig 5 The histogram of channel 4 brightness temperature for cloud over... was around 0 to 18%, but the reflectance of cloud was around 36% to 100% (Figure 8) 454 Aerospace Technologies Advancements Histogram of R1 Normal Variable C loud ov er Water C loud Free Water Frequency in Percent 40 Mean StDev N 83.55 15.02 36310 7.298 3.570 21761 30 20 10 0 0 18 36 54 72 90 Channel1 Reflectance (%) 108 126 Fig 8 The histogram of channel 1 reflectance for cloud over water and cloud... Based on "Tunable Leaky-Mode MEMS Filters for Multispectral Imaging Applications," by R Magnusson and M Shokooh-Saremi, which appeared in IEEE Aerospace Conference Proceedings, March 1-8, 2008 (Copyright symbol) 2008 IEEE 1 464 Aerospace Technologies Advancements In particular, we provide numerical results for a fixed transmission filter, a tunable reflection filter mounted on a low-index substrate, and... reflectance, and T is transmittance 466 Aerospace Technologies Advancements TE 1 Transmittance 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 λ (μm) Fig 2 Transmittance spectrum of a narrow bandpass filter designed by PSO for TE polarization (electric field vector normal to the plane of incidence) The period is Λ = 6.57 μm, thickness d = 5.93 μm and {F1,F2,F3,F4} = {0.137,0.177,0.372,0. 314} Also, nC = nS = nL= 1.0 and... physical situation for Ftune = 0.05 is the 468 Aerospace Technologies Advancements 1 0.05 0.10 0.8 0.15 0.2 R 0 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 λ (μm) Fig 5 Examples of reflectance spectra of the silicon double grating tunable filter for various values of Ftune for TE polarization The zero-order reflectance is denoted by R0 same as that for Ftune = 0.70 Figure 6 shows the distribution of the total... σc=12.161196, σcf=3.56 8147 μcf< μc and μcf+3 σcf< μc-3 σc Therefore, thereshold = 12.228 Therefore, the pixel was masked as cloudy if the reflectance was greater than 12.228% Sea and land pixels: μl=8.137, μs=4.163, σl=1.133, σs=2.655 (iv) Test: Ratio of near infrared to visible reflectance test Image: Ratio of Channel 2 albedo and Channel 1 Albedo, R2/R1 458 Aerospace Technologies Advancements Histogram... albedo The entire solar zenith angle for the image was below 56.61˚ Almost all of the pixels’ reflectance was greater than 1%, and 460 Aerospace Technologies Advancements only 0.0079% of the pixels’ reflectance was less than 1% Therefore the daytime algorithm was used Fig 17 The frequency distribution for the solar zenith angle and channel 2 albedo viewed with the image processing software Daytime algorithm... Besides of that, the study also provided the database for determining the thresholds values at the South China Sea 462 Aerospace Technologies Advancements 5 References Coakley; J.A and Bretherton, F.P (1982) Cloud Cover from high-resolution scanner data;detecting and allowing for partially filled of view Journal of Geophysical Research, 87, 4917-4932 Cracknell, A.P.(1997) The Advance Very High Resolution . Aerospace Technologies Advancements 434 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Number of iterations SIR(dB) SIR of PF-CMA(1,2) SIR of CMA(1,2) Fig. . Rate y CMA(1,2) PF-CMA12 (b) SNR = 20dB Fig. 15. BER versus SINR using CMA, hybrid technique, using 4-antenna array Aerospace Technologies Advancements 436 4.4 System capacity Beamforming. 6.9501 1 0.0303 M Gs req P o M G P pQ η σ ⎛⎞ −− ⎜⎟ = ⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ ⎝⎠ (41) Aerospace Technologies Advancements 440 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 10 -6 10 -5 10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 Number

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