Practical Applications and Recommendations Global Reality_15 pdf

Work and Family in a Global Context 383 Performance orientation is the extent to which society encour- ages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence (House et al., 1999). Societies high in perfor- mance orientation value training and development, expect direct and explicit communication, and value what one does more than who one is. Countries high in performance orientation include Switzerland, Singapore, and Hong Kong, and countries that score low on this dimension include Venezuela, Greece, and Russia. The United States scores relatively high on this dimension. In the following section we report the results of analyses that examine work-life effectiveness across cultural dimensions and by use of flexplace and flextime. Our analyses were designed to answer two questions: (1) do reports of work-life effectiveness vary across cultural contexts, and (2) is the use of flextime and flex- place associated with greater work-life effectiveness within specific cultural contexts (for example, high versus low collectivism). Investigation of Flexibility Use at Procter & Gamble Participants were 24,327 managers employed by Procter & Gam- ble in 50 countries throughout the globe. The majority were male (57.7%) and were low- to mid-level managers (63.2%). The aver- agetenurewiththeorganizationwasintherangeofsixtoten years. Datawere collectedvia Procter & Gamble’s annualemployee opinion survey. The majority of surveys were administered online. Participation was voluntary. Work-life effectiveness was measured with three items (‘‘When I leave work, I continue to have energy for the things I enjoy,’’ ‘‘My workload keepsme from my personal/family activities more than is reasonable’’ (reverse scored), ‘‘My work environment prevents me from living a fit and healthy lifestyle’’ (reverse scored). Response options were based on a five-point scale that ranged from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Higher scores represent greater work- life effectiveness. Coefficient alpha was .62. Cultural values were not measured explicitly; rather, the values obtained for each country by Project GLOBE (House et al., 2004) were imputed based on participants’ reported country of employment. Project GLOBE sampled middle managers from 951 organizations in 62 countries to create country-level assessments 384 Going Global of several cultural dimensions. Cultural values were based on Project GLOBE’s societal practices (‘‘as is’’) ratings rather than on societal ideal values (‘‘should be’’). Gender egalitarianism mean country scores ranged from 2.50 to 4.08 (M=3.36, SD=.34). Higher scores indicate greater gender equality. Project GLOBE created the gender egalitarianism index from a multi-item scale. Emrich et al. (2004) provide detailed information regarding scale development and scoring. Humane orientation mean country scores ranged from 3.29 to 5.12 (M=4.05, SD=.38), with higher scores representing stronger humane orientation. The initial scale used to obtain mean scores in Project GLOBE included five questions that assessed the degree to which individuals in a society are concerned, sensi- tive toward others, friendly, tolerant of mistakes, and generous. Kabasakal and Bodur (2004) provide a detailed description of scale development. Collectivism was imputed from Project GLOBE’s in-group col- lectivism measure. Scores ranged from 3.53 to 5.92 (M=4.67, SD=.66), and higher scores indicated greater collectivism. The initial scale used to obtain mean scores in Project GLOBE included four questions that assessed the degree to which indi- viduals express pride, loyalty, and interdependence in their families. Detailed information regarding the Project GLOBE scale development can be found in Gelfand, Bkawuk, Nishii, and Bech- told (2004). Performance orientation mean country scores ranged from 3.20 to 4.90 (M=4.27, SD=.34). The original measure was based on three items relating to current societal practices regarding innovation, improvement, and reward systems. Further scale information can be found in Javidan (2004). High, medium, and low bands were based on the bands created by Project GLOBE for each cultural dimension. In order to categorize societies into meaningful groups, Project GLOBE researchers used test-banding techniques, which assume that all scores within a particular band are not meaningfully different. The number of scores within each band is driven by statistics (standard error of the difference); thus, the number of countries within each band of a given cultural value varies. For more information, see Hanges, Dickson, and Sipe (2004). Work and Family in a Global Context 385 For countries that include within-country sectors with vast cultural differences (Switzerland, South Africa, and Germany), Project GLOBE reported multiple mean scores. In the present study, we were not able to determine which part of the country participants were from, and thus could not code cultural values according to these factors. Instead, when the multiple mean scores from one country were in the same band, we used the average of the two scores. If the mean scores were in different bands, we excluded the country from that particular analysis. Findings Gender egalitarianism (GE). As shown in Table 13.1, means for work-life effectiveness WLE ranged from a low of 2.72 to a high of 3.23 across the different GE bands. Individuals in moderate GE countries reported the greatest WLE. Those in low GE countries (represented solely by South Korea in our sample) reported the least WLE. As shown in Table 13.2, when taking FWA use into account, the means ranged from a low of 2.63 to a high of 3.29. Flextime use versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE only for those in high GE countries. Flexplace use versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE for those in high and medium GE countries. However, it is important to note that there are differences in statistical power across the various bands. For example, the mean difference for use versus nonuse of flexplace in the low GE band is .32, but not statistically significant. The mean difference for use versus nonuse of flexplace in the medium GE band is only .06 but statistically significant due to greater statistical power within that band. Humane orientation (HO). See Tables 13.3 and 13.4. As shown in Table 13.3, means for WLE ranged from a low of 3.05 to a high of 3.27 across the different HO bands. Individuals in medium-low HO countries reported the highest level of WLE. There were no significant differences between the other clusters. As shown in Table 13.4, when taking FWA into account, means ranged from a low of 2.96 to a high of 3.35. Flextime use versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE by individuals in high and in low HO countries. No significant differences emerged 386 Going Global Table 13.1. Mean WLE by Gender Egalitarianism. Bands High Medium Low Asia Philippines Malaysia Hong Kong CEEMEA Hungary Russia Poland Slovenia Kazakhstan Albania Latin America Mexico Venezuela Costa Rica Argentina North America Canada Western Europe Denmark Sweden England Portugal France Netherlands Greece Asia Australia Thailand Indonesia New Zealand Japan Taiwan China India CEEMEA Israel Nigeria Turkey Morocco Egypt Latin America Brazil Ecuador Guatemala North America United States Western Europe Switzerland Finland Italy Ireland Germany Austria Spain Asia South Korea N 6057 16753 210 Mean WLE 3.07 a 3.23 b 2.72 c SD .96 .95 .94 Note: South Africa removed from analyses. CEEMEA = Central and Eastern Europe, Middle East, and Africa. Means with different subscripts significantly differ from each other. Table 13.2. Mean WLE by Gender Egalitarianism and FWA Use. Bands High Medium Low Flextime Flexplace Flextime Flexplace Flextime Flexplace No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use N 4586 1125 4077 1634 12356 3516 11848 4024 97 92 151 38 MeanWLE 3.06 a 3.14 b 3.03 a 3.19 b 3.24 a 3.25 a 3.23 a 3.29 b 2.66 a 2.74 a 2.63 a 2.95 a SD .96 1.00 .97 .94 .94 .97 .96 .92 .92 .97 .95 .89 Note: Countries in each band are the same as in Table 13.1. Means with different subscripts significantly differ from each other. 388 Going Global Table 13.3. Mean WLE by Humane Orientation. Bands High Medium High Medium Low Low Asia Philippines Malaysia Thailand CEEMEA Egypt Western Europe Ireland Asia Indonesia India China New Zealand Japan Australia CEEMEA Albania Morocco Latin America Ecuador Costa Rica Venezuela North America Canada Western Europe Denmark Asia Taiwan Hong Kong South Korea CEEMEA Nigeria Israel Kazakhstan Turkey Russia Slovenia Latin America Argentina Mexico Guatemala Colombia Brazil North America U.S. Western Europe Sweden Finland Switzerland Portugal Netherlands Austria England Asia Singapore CEEMEA Poland Hungary Western Europe Italy Germany France Greece Spain N 1163 4410 13157 3684 Mean WLE 3.05 a 3.11 a 3.27 b 3.07 a SD .97 .95 .95 .97 Note: South Africa and Switzerland removed from analyses. CEEMEA = Central and Eastern Europe, Middle East, and Africa. Means with different subscripts significantly differ from each other. Work and Family in a Global Context 389 Table 13.4. Mean WLE by Humane Orientation and FWA Use. High Bands High Medium High Flextime Flexplace Flextime Flexplace No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use N 523 522 663 382 2594 1523 3032 1085 MeanWLE 2.96 a 3.18 b 3.04 a 3.12 a 3.10 a 3.13 a 3.09 a 3.19 b SD .96 .95 .98 .93 .95 .97 .96 .93 Low Bands Medium Low Low Flextime Flexplace Flextime Flexplace No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use N 10521 2028 9270 3279 2527 911 2587 851 MeanWLE 3.28 a 3.29 a 3.25 a 3.35 b 3.01 a 3.24 b 3.06 a 3.11 a SD .94 .96 .95 .91 .96 .99 .98 .94 Note: Countries in each band are the same as in Table 13.3. Means with different subscripts significantly differ from each other. between use and nonuse within medium-high and medium-low HO countries. The reverse was found with regard to flexplace. Flexplace use versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE by individuals in medium-high and in medium-low HO countries. No significant differences emerged between use and nonuse within high and low HO countries. Collectivism. As shown in Table 13.5, means for WLE ranged from a low of 2.97 to a high of 3.33 across the collectivism bands. Individuals in low collectivism countries reported the greatest WLE whereas individuals in low collectivism countries reported the least WLE. As shown in Table 13.6, when taking FWA into account, means ranged from a low of 2.94 to a high of 3.39. Flextime use versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE at all levels 390 Going Global Table 13.5. Mean WLE by Collectivism. Bands High Medium Low Asia Philippines India China Thailand Indonesia Singapore Taiwan South Korea Malaysia CEEMEA Turkey Morocco Albania Egypt Russia Nigeria Poland Slovenia Latin America Ecuador Colombia Mexico Guatemala Venezuela Argentina Western Europe Portugal Spain Asia Hong Kong Japan CEEMEA Kazakhstan Hungary South Africa Israel Latin America Brazil Costa Rica Western Europe Greece Ireland Italy Austria France Asia Australia New Zealand North America Canada U.S. Western Europe England Finland Switzerland Netherlands Sweden Denmark N 5926 3751 12241 Mean WLE 2.97 a 3.03 b 3.33 c SD .96 .98 .92 Note: Germany removed from analyses. CEEMEA = Central and Eastern Europe, Middle East, and Africa. Means with different subscripts significantly differ from each other. Table 13.6. Mean WLE by Collectivism and FWA Use. Bands High Medium Low Flextime Flexplace Flextime Flexplace Flextime Flexplace No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use No Use Use N 3904 1493 4115 1282 2288 1238 2962 600 10192 1593 8191 3594 MeanWLE 2.94 a 3.05 b 2.94 a 3.07 b 3.00 a 3.11 b 3.04 a 3.01 a 3.32 a 3.39 b 3.32 a 3.37 b SD .96 .95 .96 .94 .97 1.00 .98 .97 .92 .92 .93 .90 Note: Countries in each band are the same as in Table 13.5. Means with different subscripts significantly differ from each other. 392 Going Global of collectivism. Flexplace use versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE in high and in collectivism countries only. There were no significant differences between flexplace use and nonuse in medium collectivism countries. Performance orientation (PO). As shown in Table 13.7, means for WLE ranged from a low of 2.96 to a high of 3.29 across the PO bands. Individuals in high PO countries reported the greatest WLE. Individuals in low PO countries reported the least WLE. As shown in Table 13.8, when taking FWA into account, means ranged from a low of 2.90 to a high of 3.34. Flextime use versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE in medium and in low PO countries. There were no significant differences in high PO countries. Flexplace use versus nonuse was associated with greater WLE in high and medium PO countries. There were no significant differences in low PO countries. Practical Implications and Recommendations Our data, based on a large sample of managers working across the globe, indicate that reports of work-life effectiveness vary across cultural contexts. Gender egalitarianism was associated with the greatest variation in work-life effectiveness. Work-life effectivenessappears to suffer the most in cultural contexts marked by low levels of gender egalitarianism. However, this finding should be considered with caution given that our data were represented by only one country within this band. Perhaps what is somewhat surprising is that work-life effectiveness was greater in medium gender egalitarian countries than in high gender egalitarian countries. That is, a moderate level of GE rather than a low or a high level appears to be most highly associated with work-life effectiveness. Although highly prescribed gender roles maymakeitdifficulttoeffectivelymanageworkandnonwork,the findings also suggest that highly fluid gender roles might provide the opportunity for confusion or misunderstandings with regard to appropriate ways to manage work and nonwork. Humane orientation was associated with the least variation in work-life effectiveness. Although it might be expected that members of cultures high in humane orientation would provide greater support for managing work-life challenges (Francesco, & [...]... Low Note: Countries in each band are the same as in Table 13.7 Means with different subscripts significantly differ from each other MeanWLE SD N No Use Flextime High Bands Table 13.8 Mean WLE by Performance Orientation and FWA Use Work and Family in a Global Context 395 Ying, 2009), our results showed no difference between the high and low bands and that the medium-low band was associated with the greatest... diversity and, 38–40; cultural relativism issue of, 27, 40–41; economic dynamism and, 37; for global selection, 148–151; individualism versus collectivism and, 28–33; masculinity versus femininity and, 35; of multicultural teams, 46–73; power distance and authoritarianism and, 33–34; problems created by poor, 42; societal cynicism and, 36; training for competent, 256–294; uncertainty avoidance and, 34–35;...Work and Family in a Global Context 393 Table 13.7 Mean WLE by Performance Orientation Bands High Medium Low Asia Singapore Hong Kong New Zealand Taiwan South Korea Philippines China Indonesia Australia Malaysia CEEMEA Albania North America Canada U.S Western Europe Austria Ireland Netherlands Asia India Japan Thailand CEEMEA Egypt Israel Morocco Nigeria Poland Turkey Latin America... have 398 Going Global its benefits, but often involves costs and a loss of efficiency (Palich & Gomez-Mejia, 1999; Raghuram et al., 2001) Depending on the size and complexity of the organization, a balance needs to be found between standardization and customization Another area of practical importance in dealing with FWA change efforts is performance management Implementing FWA policies and programs offers... R Crane, & E J Hill (Eds.), Handbook of families and Work and Family in a Global Context 399 work: Interdisciplinary perspectives Lanham, MD: University Press of America Avery, C., & Zabel, D (2001) The flexible workplace: A sourcebook of information and research Westport, CT: Quorum Books Baltes, B B., Briggs, T E., Huff, J W., Wright, J A., & Neuman, G A (1999) Flexible and compressed workweek schedules:... of 62 societies (pp 437–512) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Giglio, K (2005) Workplace flexibility case study Sloan Work and Family Network Greenhaus, J H., & Beutell, N J (1985) Sources and conflict between work and family roles Academy of Management Review, 10, 76–88 Halpern, D F (2004) Public policy, work, and families: The report of the APA presidential initiative on work and families Washington, DC: The... Guatemala Western Europe Germany Denmark France England Spain Finland Sweden 7688 CEEMEA Slovenia Kazakhstan Hungary Russia Latin America Argentina Venezuela Western Europe Portugal Italy Greece 3.10b 99 2.96c 97 N 12073 Mean WLE 3.29a SD 93 2083 Note: Switzerland and South Africa removed from analyses CEEMEA = Central and Eastern Europe, Middle East, and Africa Means with different subscripts significantly... involvement and, 36 See also Language differences Cross-linking Web sites, 134–135 ‘‘Cultural Detection’’ simulation (Royal Dutch Shell), 265 Cultural differences: conflict of organizational values and national, 10–11; on conformity and nonconformity, 321; context vs content of communication and, 180fig –181; creating competitive advantage out of, 41–42; culture assimilator to understand, 263–264, 266; as globalization... GlaxoSmithKline’s ‘‘Candidate Care’’ model, 183–184 Global marketplace: employee confidence context of, 234–244; employees’ work perceptions/expectations differences in, 303– 307; organizational ambidexterity and, 244–245; organizational change and resilience in the, 245–249; setting the stage for, 232–233; vitality in the, 231–243, 245–253 See also Labor market Global mergers & acquisitions (M&As), 12–13 Global. .. these programs as vital to the company’s success (Allen, 2001) Understanding the local culture at the country or region level is one way that companies can better enable this change effort However, a tradeoff exists between standardization and customization based on the local culture Standardization of FWA polices across regions and cultural context offers the benefits of efficiency The development of . America U.S. Western Europe Sweden Finland Switzerland Portugal Netherlands Austria England Asia Singapore CEEMEA Poland Hungary Western Europe Italy Germany France Greece Spain N 1163 4410 1 3157 3684 Mean WLE 3.05 a 3.11 a 3.27 b 3.07 a SD. Rica Western Europe Greece Ireland Italy Austria France Asia Australia New Zealand North America Canada U.S. Western Europe England Finland Switzerland Netherlands Sweden Denmark N 5926 3751. South Africa and Switzerland removed from analyses. CEEMEA = Central and Eastern Europe, Middle East, and Africa. Means with different subscripts significantly differ from each other. Work and Family