Clusters and Competitive Advantage The Turkish Experience_8 pdf

176 (Continued) Province ISIC Industry Location Quotient Erzincan 1310 Mining of iron ores 24.8875 1320 Mining of non-ferrous metal ores, except uranium and thorium 19.1248 2720 Manufacture of basic precious and non-ferrous metals 9.0355 1429 Other mining and quarrying n.e.c. 7.2891 6021 Other scheduled passenger land transport 6.9192 Erzurum 1422 Extraction of salt 9.7769 7310 Research on and experimental development of NSE (Natural Science and Engineering) 8.0999 1020 Mining and agglomeration of lignite 6.5639 9309 Other service activities n.e.c. 5.4203 1543 Manufacture of cocoa, chocolate and sugar confectionery 2.8477 Eskisehir 2412 Manufacture of fertilizers and nitrogen compounds 15.6866 1421 Mining of chemical and fertilizer minerals 14.5554 9000 Sewage and refuse disposal, sanitation etc. 12.4919 3330 Manufacture of watches and clocks 12.2847 1410 Quarrying of stone, sand and clay 4.4178 Gaziantep 1722 Manufacture of carpets and rugs 20.1662 2310 Manufacture of coke oven products 11.2129 2424 Manufacture of soap, detergents, perfumes etc. 6.1161 1532 Manufacture of starch and starch products 5.4365 1723 Manufacture of cordage, rope, twine and netting 4.6398 Giresun 1549 Manufacture of other food products n.e.c. 9.5858 1320 Mining of non-ferrous metal ores, except uranium and thorium 4.3470 6303 Other supporting transport activities 3.7061 1554 Manufacture of soft drinks; production of mineral waters 3.2748 6022 Other non-scheduled passenger land transport 3.0346 Gümüshane 2694 Manufacture of cement, lime and plaster 11.3555 1320 Mining of non-ferrous metal ores, except uranium and thorium 7.0442 1513 Processing and preserving of fruit and vegetables 4.4383 4010 Production, collection and distribution of electricity 3.0276 5122 Wholesale of food, beverages and tobacco 2.5745 Hakkari 6304 Travel agencies; tourist assistance activities n.e.c. 3.7886 5211 Retail sale in non-specialist stores (food, beverages or tobacco) 3.6207 4010 Production, collection and distribution of electricity 3.4425 177 2022 Manufacture of builders’ carpentry and joinery 2.1415 9241 Sporting activities 2.0951 Hatay 9000 Sewage and refuse disposal, sanitation etc. 8.9314 2023 Manufacture of wooden containers 4.9557 1514 Manufacture of vegetable and animal oils and fats 4.3501 2320 Manufacture of refined petroleum products 3.9239 5040 Sale, maintenance and repair of motorcycles 3.1783 Içel 7111 Renting of land transport equipment 28.1535 7495 Packaging activities 9.0340 7123 Renting of office machinery and equipment (incl. computers) 8.2774 6301 Cargo handling 6.7404 5110 Wholesale on a fee or contractual basis 5.1401 Igdir 1422 Extraction of salt 24.8973 1729 Manufacture of other textiles n.e.c. 17.5432 2429 Manufacture of other chemical products n.e.c. 6.8240 5240 Retail sale of second-hand goods 4.9094 8520 Veterinary activities 3.4114 Isparta 1421 Mining of chemical and fertilizer minerals 31.1074 2926 Manufacture of machinery for textile and leather production 7.7432 1722 Manufacture of carpets and rugs 7.2111 1911 Tanning and dressing of leather 6.3583 3599 Manufacture of other transport equipment n.e.c. 5.0527 Istanbul 2421 Manufacture of pesticides and other agrochemical products 3.9830 6210 Scheduled air transport 3.9818 7230 Data processing 3.6333 7413 Market research and public opinion polling 3.5430 3694 Manufacture of games and toys 3.4993 Izmir 1600 Manufacture of tobacco products 13.7714 7122 Renting of construction machinery and equipment 7.3957 5259 Other non-store retail sales 5.5086 7492 Investigation and security activities 5.4076 1429 Other mining and quarrying n.e.c. 5.1526 Karaman 6022 Other non-scheduled passenger land transport 5.6724 5121 Wholesale of agricultural raw materials and live animals 4.8861 5040 Sale, maintenance and repair of motorcycles etc. 4.1601 1020 Mining and agglomeration of lignite 3.9928 8520 Veterinary activities 3.8784 Kars 2429 Manufacture of other chemical products n.e.c. 7.7788 1422 Extraction of salt 7.4759 2699 Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products n.e.c. 6.4409 7130 Renting of personal and household goods n.e.c. 5.2590 4010 Production, collection and distribution of electricity 4.5875 178 (Continued) Province ISIC Industry Location Quotient Kastamonu 1320 Mining of non-ferrous metal ores, except uranium and thorium 17.2279 1512 Processing and preserving of fish and fish products 16.3051 2692 Manufacture of refractory ceramic products 9.1138 2022 Manufacture of builders’ carpentry and joinery 3.9766 2021 Manufacture of veneer sheets, plywood, laminated board etc. 3.3318 Kayseri 1542 Manufacture of sugar 25.1365 1310 Mining of iron ores 13.8427 1532 Manufacture of starch and starch products 10.2831 9000 Sewage and refuse disposal, sanitation etc. 6.1036 1722 Manufacture of carpets and rugs 5.1696 Kirklareli 6592 Other credit granting 18.1451 1110 Extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas 10.6959 3599 Manufacture of other transport equipment n.e.c. 8.9950 7422 Technical testing and analysis 7.5713 3140 Manufacture of accumulators, primary cells and batteries 5.7115 Kirikkale 2310 Manufacture of coke oven products 29.2998 2320 Manufacture of refined petroleum products 21.3521 1511 Production, processing and preserving of meat etc. 11.1442 2423 Manufacture of pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemicals etc. 6.9761 2694 Manufacture of cement, lime and plaster 3.9358 Kirsehir 1552 Manufacture of wines 19.4470 1410 Quarrying of stone, sand and clay 4.5353 2921 Manufacture of agricultural and forestry machinery 3.9829 6601 Life insurance 3.5064 1531 Manufacture of grain mill products 3.4330 K. Maras 3591 Manufacture of motorcycles 11.9977 2692 Manufacture of refractory ceramic products 9.2978 2720 Manufacture of basic precious and non-ferrous metals 9.0733 2320 Manufacture of refined petroleum products 7.0529 1020 Mining and agglomeration of lignite 6.7194 Kocaeli 2412 Manufacture of fertilizers and nitrogen compounds 24.3247 1532 Manufacture of starch and starch products 8.2925 7320 Research on and experimental development of SSH (Social Sciences and Humanities) 6.2371 6022 Other non-scheduled passenger land transport 5.0692 6120 Inland water transport 4.7422 Konya 2927 Manufacture of weapons and ammunition 29.2171 1543 Manufacture of cocoa, chocolate and sugar confectionery 5.9826 179 3591 Manufacture of motorcycles 5.8347 1533 Manufacture of prepared animal feeds 4.8738 2921 Manufacture of agricultural and forestry machinery 4.8716 Kütahya 1020 Mining and agglomeration of lignite 28.3098 1429 Other mining and quarrying n.e.c. 18.4535 1421 Mining of chemical and fertilizer minerals 12.5454 2691 Manufacture of non-structural, non-refractory ceramic ware 8.0114 1320 Mining of non-ferrous metal ores, except uranium and thorium 7.3370 Malatya 5251 Retail sale via mail order 8.1850 7310 Research on and experimental development of NSE 7.4615 8520 Veterinary activities 5.2587 7493 Building cleaning activities 4.8635 7123 Renting of office machinery and equipment (incl. computers) 4.6570 Manisa 2692 Manufacture of refractory ceramic products 9.7505 4550 Renting of construction equipment with operator 9.3036 1020 Mining and agglomeration of lignite 6.6896 1542 Manufacture of sugar 6.6454 3312 Manufacture of instruments for measuring, testing etc. 6.6454 Mardin 1421 Mining of chemical and fertilizer minerals 24.4693 1110 Extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas 8.3912 2694 Manufacture of cement, lime and plaster 4.0050 1531 Manufacture of grain mill products 3.1403 6021 Other scheduled passenger land transport 2.6008 Mugla 3512 Building and repair of pleasure and sporting boats 11.8470 1429 Other mining and quarrying n.e.c. 8.1659 5510 Hotels and other providers of short-stay accommodation 7.2328 1020 Mining and agglomeration of lignite 5.9185 3320 Manufacture of optical instruments, photographic equipment 5.2021 Mus 6302 Storage and warehousing 14.0483 3691 Manufacture of jewellery and related articles 5.2435 5211 Retail sale in non-specialist stores (food, beverages or tobacco) 3.2656 1531 Manufacture of grain mill products 2.8777 3130 Manufacture of insulated wire and cable 2.8525 Nevsehir 1552 Manufacture of wines 59.3168 2691 Manufacture of non-structural, non-refractory ceramic ware 14.3179 3420 Manufacture of bodies for motor vehicles etc. 9.8496 2692 Manufacture of refractory ceramic products 9.5661 2699 Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products n.e.c. 7.1356 180 (Continued) Province ISIC Industry Location Quotient Nigde 1429 Other mining and quarrying n.e.c. 20.9229 1911 Tanning and dressing of leather 12.7957 2695 Manufacture of articles of concrete, cement and plaster 4.3250 7310 Research on and experimental development of NSE 4.2482 1721 Manufacture of made-up textile articles, except clothing 3.4642 Ordu 1549 Manufacture of other food products n.e.c. 4.2547 3511 Building and repair of ships 3.5830 1410 Quarrying of stone, sand and clay 3.3016 1541 Manufacture of bakery products 2.5008 2413 Manufacture of plastics in primary form 2.3887 Rize 1549 Manufacture of other food products n.e.c. 9.4490 2925 Manufacture of machinery for food and tobacco processing 6.0872 9211 Motion picture and video production and distribution 3.3329 9241 Sporting activities 2.8142 1410 Quarrying of stone, sand and clay 2.1821 Sakarya 1532 Manufacture of starch and starch products 23.8513 3699 Other manufacturing n.e.c. 6.8228 2430 Manufacture of man-made fibres 5.7875 2029 Manufacture of other products of wood, etc. 5.0208 3591 Manufacture of motorcycles 3.2525 Samsun 7123 Renting of office machinery and equipment (incl. computers) 6.0494 2411 Manufacture of basic chemicals (excl. fertilizers and nitrogen 3.9064 6022 Other non-scheduled passenger land transport 3.5411 2021 Manufacture of veneer sheets, plywood, laminated board etc. 3.3608 3720 Recycling of non-metal waste and scrap 2.8387 Siirt 1110 Extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas 56.0627 2411 Manufacture of basic chemicals, excl. fertilizers and nitrogen 7.0898 6022 Other non-scheduled passenger land transport 7.0156 9220 News agency activities 4.4111 4010 Production, collection and distribution of electricity 2.7454 Sinop 1512 Processing and preserving of fish and fish products 78.9327 2692 Manufacture of refractory ceramic products 30.5443 2693 Manufacture of non-refractory clay and ceramic products 4.6182 181 3512 Building and repair of pleasure and sporting boats 4.3992 6303 Other supporting transport activities 4.2412 Sirnak 1030 Extraction and agglomeration of peat 777.4033 5211 Retail sale in non-specialist stores (food, beverages or tobacco) 3.0584 2010 Saw milling and planing of wood 2.8856 6303 Other transport-supporting activities 2.4512 6719 Activities auxiliary to financial intermediation n.e.c. 2.2447 Sivas 1310 Mining of iron ores 49.4867 1422 Extraction of salt 9.2920 1554 Manufacture of soft drinks; production of mineral waters 4.2911 9220 News agency activities 3.6291 4010 Production, collection and distribution of electricity 3.1514 Tekirdag 1552 Manufacture of wines 25.8270 6592 Other credit granting 12.2284 3720 Recycling of non-metal waste and scrap 9.1812 2921 Manufacture of agricultural and forestry machinery 6.6159 1520 Manufacture of dairy products 4.1556 Tokat 2692 Manufacture of refractory ceramic products 16.3351 1552 Manufacture of wines 10.8813 3599 Manufacture of other transport equipment n.e.c. 9.2227 1723 Manufacture of cordage, rope, twine and netting 7.4418 1533 Manufacture of prepared animal feeds 7.0354 Trabzon 3511 Building and repair of ships 11.5556 1512 Processing and preserving of fish and fish products 11.3632 1549 Manufacture of other food products n.e.c. 6.3960 6420 Telecommunications 4.5488 1721 Manufacture of made-up textile articles, except clothing 2.1843 Tunceli 1422 Extraction of salt 10.4205 7250 Maintenance and repair of office and accounting machinery 5.5124 4010 Production, collection and distribution of electricity 4.5307 7414 Business and management consultancy activities 4.3337 1729 Manufacture of other textiles n.e.c. 3.3449 S. Urfa 5110 Wholesale on a fee or contractual basis 7.0048 1541 Manufacture of bakery products 4.7122 7123 Renting of office machinery and equipment (incl. computers) 4.2859 5240 Retail sale of second-hand goods 4.1156 1554 Manufacture of soft drinks; production of mineral waters 3.5961 182 (Continued) Province ISIC Industry Location Quotient Usak 2430 Manufacture of man-made fibres 88.2922 1911 Tanning and dressing of leather 37.5450 1711 Preparation and spinning of textile fibres; weaving of textiles 25.3057 1722 Manufacture of carpets and rugs 12.4834 1712 Finishing of textiles 8.7605 Van 5190 Other wholesale 94.9212 2213 Publishing of recorded media 32.9473 5240 Retail sale of second-hand goods 30.4632 8010 Primary education 27.9796 5121 Wholesale of agricultural raw materials and live animals 10.6603 Yozgat 5259 Other non-store retail sale’ 10.6453 1320 Mining of non-ferrous metal ores, except uranium and thorium 7.3305 1531 Manufacture of grain mill products 5.1166 2921 Manufacture of agricultural and forestry machinery 2.9186 1020 Mining and agglomeration of lignite 2.6102 Zonguldak 1010 Mining and agglomeration of hard coal 43.6150 6301 Cargo handling 6.9926 5251 Retail sale via mail order 3.9650 2923 Manufacture of machinery for metallurgy 3.2441 7493 Building cleaning activities 2.6490 183 Appendix 2 A Brief Description of Fuzzy-Set Analysis When applying the technique that Ragin (2000) introduces in his book Fuzzy-Set Social Science, the first task is to assess the degree of fuzzy membership for each of the variables included in the analysis. Theoretical knowledge guides the identification of the maximum (fuzzy membership score 1) and minimum (fuzzy membership score 0) scores as well as the boundaries of the categories in between. Amongst the latter the ‘crossover point’ (that is, the raw score corresponding to 0.5 in terms of the fuzzy membership score) is of special importance, since scores of less than 0.5 but greater than 0 represent objects that are more out of the set than in it, and vice versa. As in the case of crisp sets of Boolean algebra, fuzzy sets can be negated. Predictably, in the former negation switches membership scores from 1 to 0 and from 0 to 1, whereas in the latter the membership of a case in the negation of fuzzy set A is calculated by subtracting its membership in set A from 1. In similar vein, it is possible to calculate ‘logical AND’ and ‘logical OR’ with fuzzy sets. Specifically, logical AND is calculated by taking the minimum whereas logical OR is calculated by taking the maximum of each case in the sets that are intersected. The general principle regarding the ‘necessary conditions’, which are of vital importance in the method developed, holds both for crisp and fuzzy sets: whenever a causal condition is necessary for an outcome, instances of the outcome will form a subset of instances of the causal condition. Arithmetically this translates into the following: set A is a subset of set B if the membership scores of cases in set A are less than or equal to their respective membership scores in set B. In other words, to demonstrate necessity the researcher must show that the outcome is a subset of the cause. The application of the subset principle when assessing the ‘sufficient conditions’, on the other hand, requires the researcher to show that the cause is a subset of the outcome, again by applying the arithmetic relationship ‘less than or equal to’. Finally, Ragin (2000) suggests that probabilistic criteria can be used in a fuzzy set analysis to assess necessity and sufficiency. Thus it is possible to introduce new concepts that imply, for instance, quasi-sufficiency of causal conditions using linguistic qualifiers (benchmarks) such as ‘more often than not’, ‘usually’ and ‘almost always’. It is then possible to use the conventional statistical analysis for proportions to assess whether the observed rate is significantly greater than the benchmark, using probabilistic criteria. 184 Notes and References 1 Introduction: A Background to Clusters 1. It is certainly not the aim here to provide full coverage of the extensive literature on the many aspects of clustering. The works cited in the following pages should therefore be considered as just some examples of the major contributions that have aided our understanding of the subject. 2. Examples of ground-breaking books in the new genre are Harvey’s The Limits of Capital (1982), Massey’s Spatial Division of Labor (1984) and Smith’s Uneven Development (1984). 3. The collapse of the socialist bloc cast some doubt on the credibility of Marxist theory and its application to economic geography. Neo-Marxist works nonetheless continue to be an influential part of the economic geography literature (Bryson et al., 1999). 4. Different studies focus on different dimensions of urbanization, including increasing returns, services, infrastructure and access to inputs and markets. Here we shall concentrate on the most relevant studies for our purposes: those which distinguish urbanization from localization. 5. See, among others, Henderson (1988, 2000), Sveikauskas et al. (1988) and Nakamura (1985). 6. Since it is impossible to express these factors mathematically, Krugman (1995) thinks that they are best left to sociologists. In his view there is no alternative to models, and all thinking involves implicit modelling. However it should be borne in mind that models are merely metaphors that enable us to understand certain aspects of reality, rather than portraying the reality itself. Economic geographers, on the other hand, think that the factors that are omitted from formal models play a key role in determining the spatial agglomeration of economic activity (Martin, 1999). 7. The examples in this section have been chosen from more recent studies. Of course there are many older studies of the geographic concentration of individual indus- tries that provide detailed information on and insights into the emergence and development of clusters. Two classic examples are those of the US shoe and leather industries (Hoover, 1937) and the US aircraft industry (Cunningham, 1951). 8. The products in question are dyes (Basel in Switzerland), pharmaceuticals (Basel, New York and New Jersey), packing and filling machinery (Bologna in Italy), continuous synthetic fibres (Fukui, Ishikawa and Toyama in Japan), musical instruments (Hamamatsu in Japan), ceramic tiles (Sassuolo in Italy); Scotch whisky (Scotland), factory automation equipment (Turin, Milan and Piacenza in Italy), motion pictures (Hollywood), optics (Oberkochen and Wetzlar in Germany), cutlery (Solingen in Germany), woollen textiles (Prato in Italy) and watches (Geneva and Jura in Switzerland). Enright (1990) also includes shorter abstracts of other case studies in the appendix: freight forwarding (Basel in Switzerland), stone and stonework (Carrara in Italy), aerospace (Los Angeles), ski boots (Montebelluna in Italy), pens and pencils (Nuremberg in Germany), media (Munich in Germany), carbon fibres (Osaka in Japan), footwear (Pusan in South Korea), electronics (Silicon Valley in the United States) and textile machinery (Zurich and St Gallen in Switzerland). Notes and References 185 9. For example in her analysis of districts in Tuscany – including Empoli (clothing), Santa Croce (leather tanning), Prato (textiles), Poggibonsi (furniture), Monsummano (footwear), Carrara (marble and building stone) and Arezzo (jewellery) – Dei Ottati (1996) focuses on changes in the competitive context and the strategies adopted by local firms, and concludes that a transformation occurred with respect to strategies for product diversification, innovation and quality upgrading. Crestanello (1996) is also optimistic about the continuing success of the clusters in Veneto and Tuscany, as are Brusco et al. (1996), who argue that the ongoing success of the clusters in Emilia-Romagna has shown that competitiveness is not rendered invalid by high labour costs. Becattini (1990), on the other hand, points to some signs that Italian clusters have found it difficult to adjust to fluctuations in external conditions, particularly the growth of unemployment. 10. The distinguishing feature of the clusters in South Korea, which is classified as a newly industrialized country, is that small and medium-sized enterprises are hierarchically networked and spatially clustered around large enterprises and industrial conglomerates (chaebols) (Nadvi, 1994). 11. In his 1990 study Porter writes of clusters as groups of related industries, regardless of geographical location, and stresses that such clusters tend to be localized in space. Thus a distinction should be made between how Porter uses the term cluster in his 1990 study (closer to networks) and in his 1998 study (geographic clusters). See Chapter 2 for a discussion of this issue. 12. For more on defining clusters see the methodology section in Chapter 3, which discusses the scope and boundaries of clusters. 13. This in turn means that old Fordist regions have undergone a major restructuring, which can be interpreted as a Schumpeterian process of localized creative destruc- tion. The consequences of this have been serious enough to cause a ‘second industrial divide’, according to Piore and Sabel (1984), who claim that flexible specialization is a reaction to the ‘crisis of Fordism’ and can be considered as a partial return to more craft-based modes of production, where there is ‘cooperative competition’ among smaller firms, greater reliance on social relationships (particularly trust) as a means of organizing transactions, and flexible manufacturing equipment and techniques. 14. The two perspectives covered in this section have parallels with the overall approach in the management literature. 15. Krugman’s (1991a) colourful account of the emergence and development of the carpet industry in Dalton is just one of many interesting examples that point to the importance of historical accident in the initiation of a cluster. 16. This also points to the necessity of making a distinction between business and social networks, whose relative importance might result in different kinds of cluster (McDonald and Vertova, 2002). 2 Clusters in the Management Literature 1. With regard to the latter, McCann and Fingleton (1996) found tighter linkages following the adoption of just-in-time production by a small sample of Scottish electronic firms. 2. Relatedly, Parkin (1999) presents a game theoretic model that demonstrates that interfirm cooperation is best fostered by repeated contact, which is in turn reinforced by geographic proximity. 3. The temporary loss of custom that Swiss watch producers suffered as a result of the new technology introduced by Japanese companies is an interesting example in this respect. [...]... categories and then the links between inputs and products in these categories The map also portrays the relations between producers and their supporting government agencies, universities, research centres and trade associations Other clusters that are linked to the cluster in question are included as well Porter’s cluster diagram therefore maps not only the input – output structure but also the local... significant figure given that the sector was dominated by small firms 6 There were 17 leather factories and about 100 small tanneries in Kazliçesme in the late 1920s (Yelmen, 1992) 7 Yelmen, the father figure of the Turkish leather industry, argues that the official figures underestimate the size of the Istanbul leather industry, whose dominance was arguably even more pronounced from the 1960s (Sümer, 1969)... fact the Turkish and Russian mafias have begun to play a role in the market This is associated with the recent involvement of wholesalers and transportation companies in the later stages of the value chain Notes and References 195 24 The fact that the parties to a typical transaction are of the opposite sex introduces another dynamic in that the customary long-term, stable relationship with the commercial... and Greeks The second stage began in the 1950s and was dominated by the first generation of Turkish leather industrialists The third and fourth stages can be considered as succession periods, during which management was transferred to the second and third generation of family members, respectively New entrants to the sector – migrants from Eastern Turkey – marked the beginning of the fifth stage, and. .. century the number of tanneries in Istanbul had risen to about 700 4 Specifically, a French physician went to Turkey in 1737 and travelled around the country to learn the secrets of tanning and leather manufacture The records further show that an Armenian also came to Turkey from England to find out the secrets of making colored (yellow and red) morocco leather This type of soft leather has since then... School) KOSGEB established the Istanbul Leather Specialization Centre to support small and medium-sized enterprises, and there are four foundations (VAGEF, TASEV, HASEV and the Turkish Leather Foundation) that aim to improve the state of the Turkish leather industry, all of which are located in Istanbul 11 Yükseker (2003) notes that relations among informal traders engaged in the same area of activity... part in the emergence of other clusters touched upon in this book are similar, including chance events in the case of the Tavas men’s outwear cluster, and historical circumstances in the Yatagan’s cutlery cluster (see Chapter 5) 2 Relatedly, the case of the Istanbul leather clothing cluster provides evidence against Cohen and Field’s (1999) argument that clusters in the same business 196 Notes and References... of the Turkish government and UNIDO 19 About 150 firms are located in this part of Gaziantep, most of them in the footwear, flour, carpet, yarn and metal manufacturing sectors 20 Likewise small and medium-sized enterprises in the footwear cluster around Nizip Street aspire to move to the organized zones 21 Ayata (1987) found that 40 per cent of the entrepreneurs and 60 per cent of the producers in the. .. in the city in the past, Armenians in particular (see also Quataert, 1999) 7 The Leather Clothing Cluster in Istanbul 1 Other leading locales are Izmir, Usak, Manisa, Bolu, Bursa, Denizli and Tekirdag 2 Istanbul was also among the main commercial centres for commodities such as raw leather, processed leather, fur, silk and spices in the Byzantine era (Mantran, 2001) Notes and References 193 3 By the. .. indices, and hence is not reported here 10 The Istanbul metropolitan area consists of Istanbul, Kocaeli, Sakarya, Tekirdag and Bursa, the Izmir metropolitan area of Izmir, Manisa, Aydin and Denizli, the Adana metropolitan area of Adana, Mersin and Hatay, and the Ankara metropolitan area of Ankara and Kirikkale The Regional centres are Kayseri, Gaziantep, Konya, Samsun and Eskisehir (Eraydin, 2002a) 11 The . other than cotton), SITC 84 169 (other male underwear etc., not knitted), SITC 84 289 (other female underwear etc., not knitted), SITC 84 389 (other male underwear etc., knitted), SITC 84 489 (other female. necessity the researcher must show that the outcome is a subset of the cause. The application of the subset principle when assessing the ‘sufficient conditions’, on the other hand, requires the researcher. (2003). 8. All the necessary data are available for the year 1992 and have been obtained from the State Institute of Statistics. Notes and References 187 9. The list obtained by using the C8EMP