Air Quality edited by Ashok Kumar SCIYO Air Quality Edited by Ashok Kumar Published by Sciyo Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2010 Sciyo All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited. After this work has been published by Sciyo, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Ana Nikolic Technical Editor Goran Bajac Cover Designer Martina Sirotic Image Copyright Caitlin Mirra, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published September 2010 Printed in India A free online edition of this book is available at www.sciyo.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from publication@sciyo.com Air Quality, Edited by Ashok Kumar p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-131-2 SCIYO.COM WHERE KNOWLEDGE IS FREE free online editions of Sciyo Books, Journals and Videos can be found at www.sciyo.com Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Preface VII Anthropogenic air pollution sources 1 Francisc Popescu and Ioana Ionel Development and application of a methodology for designing a multi-objective and multi-pollutant air quality monitoring network for urban areas 23 Nicolás A. Mazzeo and Laura E. Venegas Optimization of the design of air quality monitoring networks and its application to NO2 and O3 in Seville, Spain 49 Antonio Lozano, José Usero, Eva Vanderlinden, Juan Raez, Juan Contreras, Benito Navarrete and Hicham El Bakouri Monitoring spatial and temporal variability of air quality using satellite observation data: A case study of MODIS-observed aerosols in Southern Ontario, Canada 65 DongMei Chen and Jie Tian Methods for online monitoring of air pollution concentration 81 Ionel Ioana and Francisc Popescu Trace elements and radionuclides in urban air monitored by moss and tree leaves 117 Dragana Popović, Dragana Todorović, Mira Aničić, Milica Tomašević, Jelena Nikolić and Jelena Ajtić Characteristics and application of receptor models to the atmospheric aerosols research 143 Zoran Mijić, Slavica Rajšić, Andrijana Žekić, Mirjana Perišić, Andreja Stojić and Mirjana Tasić Estimation of uncertainty in predicting ground level concentrations from direct source releases in an urban area using the USEPA’s AERMOD model equations 169 Vamsidhar V Poosarala, Ashok Kumar and Akhil Kadiyala Contents VI Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Modeling of Ventilation Efficiency 201 Mahmoud Farghaly Bady Nonlocal-closure schemes for use in air quality and environmental models 233 Dragutin T. Mihailović and Ana Firanja Air quality monitoring in the Mediterranean Tunisian coasts 247 Karim Bouchlaghem, Blaise Nsom and Salem Elouragini Secondary organic aerosol formation from the oxidation of a mixture of organic gases in a chamber 265 Marta G. Vivanco and Manuel Santiago Algorithm for air quality mapping using satellite images 283 H. S. Lim, M. Z. MatJafri and K. Abdulla A review of general and local thermal comfort models for controlling indoor ambiences 309 José Antonio Orosa García A new HVAC control system for improving perception of indoor ambiences 327 José Antonio Orosa García Assessment of indoor air quality and heat stress exposure in an automotive assembly plant 343 Aziah Daud, Edimansyah Abdin, Azwan Aziz, Lin Naing and Rusli Nordin Fungal air quality in medical protected environments 357 Ricardo Araujo and João P. Cabral Air pollution is about ve decades or so old eld and continues to be a global concern. Therefore, the governments around the world are involved in managing air quality in their countries for the welfare of their citizens. The management of air pollution involves understanding air pollution sources, monitoring of contaminants, modeling air quality, performing laboratory experiments, the use of satellite images for quantifying air quality levels, indoor air pollution, and elimination of contaminants through control. Research activities are being performed on every aspect of air pollution throughout the world in order to respond to public concerns. There are many books that are available on the subject of air pollution. Some books are directed toward undergraduate students, and others are written for environmental professionals and graduate students. This book will be helpful for the second group – professionals and graduate students. Most of the chapters are based upon the ongoing research in the eld of air pollution. Some topics are more important to professionals than others, because of their need for information. The book chapters were invited by the publisher on the above topics. The book is grouped in ve different sections. Some topics are more detailed than others. The readers should be aware that multi-authored books have difculty maintaining consistency. A reader will nd, however, that each chapter is intellectually stimulating. The rst chapter discusses the sources of anthropogenic air pollution and points out that number of sources are increasing with the rise in population and the growing demand for energy. A brief discussion on air pollution technologies to reduce emission of gaseous pollutants is also given. The chapters 2 through 6 focus on the difcult task of monitoring air pollutants. Ambient monitoring, satellite monitoring, online monitoring, and biological monitoring are discussed in this section of the book. The multi-pollutant planning procedure for designing an urban air quality monitoring system is given in chapter 2. A new method to design or optimize air quality networks is discussed in chapter 3. The procedure is based on four steps: preliminary evaluation, sampling campaigns, spatial interpolation, and selection of best locations. A case study to investigate monitoring of spatial and temporal distribution patterns of aerosols in southern Ontario, Canada is discussed in chapter 4. In the age of information technology, it is important to update a monitoring system using the latest technologies. Chapter 5 discusses the use of online monitoring of air pollution concentrations. Active bio-monitoring using moss bags and tree leaves is discussed in chapter 6 for detecting trace elements and radionuclides. The next section covers four topics related to modeling. Chapter 7 provides the application of receptor models and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to establish the relationship between ambient air quality and pollutant sources. Another interesting chapter explains the procedure for estimating uncertainty in predicting ground level concentrations using the Preface VIII equations from the US EPA’s model. The concept of ventilation efciency used in indoor air quality work is applied in order to understand the magnitude of urban air pollution problem. An overview of nonlocal atmospheric boundary layer mixing schemes developed in the last two decades to describe vertical mixing during convective condition is given in chapter 10. Various air quality data collection methods and associated analyses are discussed in chapters 11 to 13 of this book. Chapter 11 will be helpful for those who are involved in analyzing air quality data for a plant located near a coast or lakeshore. This chapter provides information on collecting data and using models and synoptic weather maps in order to draw conclusions. Analysis of data collected in an outdoor smog chamber, to understand the formation of secondary organic particles from a mixture of volatile organic compounds is given in chapter 12. The next chapter discusses methods to use satellite images to determine the concentration of particulate matter less than 10 microns. The last part of the book deals with indoor air pollution. The chapter 14 reviews general and local thermal comfort models for controlling indoor ambiences. The author argues the benets of using new heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems based on their simulations. A new methodology for controlling HVAC systems is discussed in chapter 15. The focus of this study is to lessen the number of unhappy workers and reduce energy consumption. A case history for an automobile assembly plant for studying the indoor air quality and heat stress is given in chapter 16. The last chapter deals with the issue of fungi in medical indoor environments. An outline for preventing and controlling fungal diseases is also given. Note that all the chapters have been prepared by individuals who are experts in their eld. The views expressed in the book are those of the authors and they are responsible for their statements. Efforts have been made to check the accuracy of each chapter by the authors through several iterations. In conclusion, the editor, publisher, and hard-working air quality professionals have put together an air quality book that could be used as a reference book in coming years. Our goal was to provide current information and present a reasonable analysis of air quality data compiled by knowledgeable professionals in the eld of air pollution. Editor Ashok Kumar Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606 Anthropogenic air pollution sources 1 Anthropogenic air pollution sources Francisc Popescu and Ioana Ionel X Anthropogenic air pollution sources Francisc Popescu and Ioana Ionel University “Politehnica” from Timisoara Romania 1. Introduction What one experiences today as atmosphere is a transient snapshot and result of its evolutionary history. Much of the development and present status was explained based both on scientific knowledge, and combined with established facts, even speculation. The planet Earth was formed around 4600 million years ago by the gravitational accretion of relatively small rocks and dust, within the solar nebula. The first evidence of single-celled life, for which tiny oxygen concentration was an essential prerequisite, is shown in the fossil record from around 3000 million years ago. Subsequently, the process of respiration led to a gradual increase in the atmospheric oxygen concentration. This in turn allowed the development of O 3 which is thought to have been a necessary shield against solar UV. Subsequent evolution of the atmosphere has been dominated by the balance between production and consumption of both CO 2 and O 2 (Colls, 2002). Presently the lower part of the atmosphere is known as *air* and is formed by mainly nitrogen, oxygen and other gases, trace gases and particles. The composition, even if is suspected to major changes, is under the influence of the man kind evolution, both in terms of population number growth, as in industrial and agricultural and household development (in one word civilization). The energy consumption and technical evolution related to these sources is one main cause of the man made pollution, causing modification of the air quality, above limits, stipulated generously in legislation, adapted and modified according the to the level of knowledge, permanently. These anthropogenic pollution sources are exhausting diverse specific species to the free atmosphere and are stressing over the limit the natural possibility of the ecosystem to adapt or to cover these caused concentration augmentation. One has to notice that all the man made sources (from industry, agriculture, transportation, household sources, etc.) are contributing to the air quality level in addition to the natural sources, that existed since the Earth was created and in direct dependence to it. The population reached presently over 6 billion, is now forecast to reach 7.5 billion by 2020 and will be stabilize at approx. 9 billion by 2050. 90% of the future growth will occur in developing countries, and most of that will be concentrated in urban areas. By their nature, the air pollution sources can be classified, mainly, as physical, chemical and biological sources, secondly as natural and anthropogenic sources, further on climate change relevant or not. The physical pollution of the atmosphere is a consequence energy input like sound and heat energy. The most relevant physical pollution sources are the direct thermal pollution, natural or anthropogenic. The local climate is changed by heat 1 Air Quality2 (caloric input) generated by industry, household, agricultural and transportation and the air from the lower atmosphere will have an increased local temperature. The indirect thermal pollution is a consequence of greenhouse effect and takes place in the troposphere and is linked to chemical anthropogenic pollution and its evolution in reference to the greenhouse gases. The chemical pollution of the atmosphere is a consequence of the chemical compounds input, over the natural air constituents and is of natural and artificial origin. However, the natural chemical pollution sources like volcanoes eruption, natural decomposition of organic substances or fire (naturally occurred) are not of major concern as they are part of natural environment equilibrium. However, the anthropogenic chemical pollution is of major concern as their sources are increasing in number and concentration with the increase of global human population and our continuously increase of energy demand. The anthropogenic chemical pollution has no borders and no matter where the pollutants are released into the atmosphere will have an impact over global environment. The most relevant sources are the incineration of fossil fuels to produce energy (heat and electricity), major industrial processes (like metallurgy industry or cement/construction industry) and transportation. We will classify the anthropogenic chemical pollution sources into two major groups: stationary and mobile sources. In the chapter one will bring to attention main stationary and mobile sources of anthropogenic chemical pollution, on their causes and formation and not at least on measures to reduce their emissions. The main possibilities to reduce pollution level by correct and active measures, from which most are related to economy and balanced efficient energy use, are also presented. The four major groups of gaseous air pollutants by historical importance, concentration, and overall effects on plants and animals (including people), are sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), oxides of nitrogen (NOx: NO, NO 2 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and ozone (O 3 ). Sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide (NO) are primary pollutants – they are emitted directly from sources. We shall start by looking at the main sources of these and other primary gases, and also consider some of the methods of control that can be used to reduce emissions and concentrations when required. The most important groups of anthropogenic air pollution sources are defined by industrial processed, residential heating systems, transportation (terrestrial, naval and aerial) and agricultural systems. The majority of the pollutants are the direct result of the combustion process in large power plants and piston engines so that the first steps to reduce the pollutants concentration from atmosphere is to control and reduce the emissions from those source groups. In this chapter we will deal mainly with the pollutants generated from combustion processes in large boilers and piston engines, as a result of the combustion process of fossil fuels. In the ideal case the combustion process is complete (perfect) and the exhaust gazes are formed only from CO 2 and H 2 O. To achieve the complete combustion is necessary to obtain a combustion air-fuel ratio (different for each type of combustion chamber) constant into the whole combustion chamber and this is not possible due to limitations is the construction of the combustion chamber. In figure 1 a short and simplified relation between fuel, combustion, combustion products (pollutants) and air quality is given. Fig. 1. Sources and products of anthropogenic pollution. The fossil fuels, solid, liquid or gaseous, are mainly formed by carbon and hydrogen in various ratios. During the combustion of this fuels the carbon and hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. Due to incomplete combustion or other substances included in fuels, like nitrogen, sulphur, organic compounds, heavy metals and other compounds, besides CO 2 and H 2 O other chemical compounds will be formed, [...]... sources of PM10, 2006 (EEA, 2008) 16 Air Quality Fig 13 USA emission sources of PM10, 2005 (US EPA, 2009) In figure 14 the sources and diameter of representative particle matter fractions, thoracic (PM10), Respirable (PM4.0) and total suspended particles (TSP) are synthesized Fig 14 Type of particles and their sources (TSI, 2 010 ) Anthropogenic air pollution sources 17 Into the combustion process particles... H2SO4 can be up to 15 % SO3 H 2O H 2 SO4 21) Figure 11 is an illustrated view of some atmospheric reactions for SO2 and the historical evolutions of SO2 emissions into air Fig 11 SO2 atmospheric reaction and historical emissions (Popescu, 2009) Anthropogenic air pollution sources 15 5 Particulate matter Particulate matter is a collective term used to describe small solid and liquid particles that are... low air- fuel ratios 10 Air Quality CH N 2 HCN N 8) C N 2 CN N 9) CN H 2 HCN H 10 ) CN H 2O HCN OH 11 ) HCN (CN ) O NO R 12 ) where R is an organic residue Fig 7 Dependency between formed NO and combustion temperature and air- fuel ration (λ) 3.3 Fuel NO mechanism The fuel NOx mechanism is also a flame based one but is more complex then prompt and thermal NOx mechanisms and partially... roadways Secondary particles are formed in the atmosphere as a result of chemical processes involving gases, aerosol particles, and moisture In figure 12 the contribution of key categories to EU-27 emissions of particle matter, PM10 fraction, are presented for year 2006 (EEA, 2008) and in figure 13 the sources of particle matter, PM10 fraction, by sector, for USA in 2005 (US-EPA, 2005) Fig 12 EU-27 emission... unburned Large size particles (from 1 to 20 μm) are formed by mineral inclusions agglomeration on burned soot During the soot fragmentation up to 5 large ash particles are formed, with a diameter from 10 to 20 μm and a large number of particles with a diameter of 1 to 3 μm Particles with a diameter lower then 0 .1 μm will form mainly due to vaporization and re-condensation of a part of the mineral components... NO2 occurs partially in flue gases exhaust channels and in atmosphere, most important reactions are: 2 NO O2 2 NO2 14 ) 12 Air Quality NO O3 NO2 O2 15 ) Another important reaction is the one that oxidize NO2 into nitric acid HNO3 in gaseous phase, because is a major contributor to acid rain by its diffusion in water droplets NO2 OH M HNO3 M 16 ) where M is a passive reaction partner 4... compared to the level of emissions reported in 19 90 Since 19 90, SOX emissions have increased in only two Member States: Romania ( 21. 9 %) and Greece (11 .9 %) Inspection of the time-series trends for some Member States shows some step changes in emission reductions have occurred since 19 90 For example, emissions of SO2 in Slovenia fell considerably in 20 01 and again in 2005 due to the introduction of... thru the reaction: CH 3 SH 3O2 SO2 CO2 2 H 2O 17 ) During the incomplete combustion with lack of oxygen elementary sulphur and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) can form, at high temperatures 14 Air Quality CH 3 SH 0.5O2 H 2 S HCHO 18 ) 2 H 2 S O2 2 H 2O 2 S 19 ) Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) can occur during the combustion process of low quality coals like lignite or into the piston engines exhaust... conditions of up to 14 00 to 16 00 ºC appreciatively 1 % of mineral components will vaporize in Na, As, Fe, SiO and Mg vapors This vapors will then diffuse (nucleation) into combustion chamber extremities where oxygen content is higher and will form a large number of very fine particle with a diameter of maximum 1 μm All those particles will be then transported in atmosphere by exhaust gases Figure 15 is a schematic... be formed, 4 Air Quality compounds that are dangerous both to humans and environment if their concentrations in ambient air exceeds supportability limits Equation 1 shows the products of complete combustions of an ideal fuel formed only from carbon and hydrogen m m C n H m n O2 nCO2 H 2 O 4 2 1) From an ecological point of view we can distinguish between several types of air pollutants, . model equations 16 9 Vamsidhar V Poosarala, Ashok Kumar and Akhil Kadiyala Contents VI Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Modeling of. chapter 10 . Various air quality data collection methods and associated analyses are discussed in chapters 11 to 13 of this book. Chapter 11 will be helpful for those who are involved in analyzing air. formed in areas with very low air- fuel ratios. Air Quality1 0 NHCNNCH 2 8) NCNNC 2 9) HHCNHCN 2 10 ) OHHCNOHCN 2 11 ) RNOOCNHCN )( 12 ) where R is an organic