© 1999 by CRC Press LLC Risk Assessment and Indoor Air Quality Edited by Elizabeth L. Anderson and Roy E. Albert © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Risk assessment and indoor air quality / edited by Elizabeth L. Anderson and Roy E. Albert. p. cm. (Indoor air research series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-323-9 (alk. paper) 1. Health risk assessment. 2. Indoor air pollution Health aspects. 3. Ventilation Health aspects. 4. Air quality Evaluation. 5. Environmental risk assessment. I. Anderson, Elizabeth L., Ph.D. II. Albert, Roy E. III. Series. RA566.27.R573 1998 613′.5 dc21 98-26281 CIP This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. 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Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-323-9 Library of Congress Card Number 98-26281 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Series Preface The field of indoor air science is of growing interest and concern given that modern society spends the better part of each day indoors. Since the indoor air environment is a major, continual exposure medium for occupants, it is important to study what is present and if and how it affects the health and comfort of occupants. Volumes in this Indoor Air Research Series are intended to provide state-of-the- art information on many areas germane to indoor air science including chemical and biological sources, exposure assessment, dosimetry, engineering controls, and per- ception of indoor air quality. In each volume, authors known for their expertise on the topic will present comprehensive and critical accounts of our current understand- ing in the area. It is hoped that the series will advance knowledge and broaden interest among the scientific community at large in the indoor air science field. Max Eisenberg, Ph.D. Series Editor © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Preface Indoor air pollution was rarely identified as an environmental concern prior to the early 1970s. Since that time, however, both real and perceived indoor air prob- lems have increased almost continuously. One reason is that buildings were tightened and air exchanges reduced to conserve energy. Another is that federal efforts began to control outdoor air pollutants, many of which also are indoor air pollutants. Finally, scientific techniques and methods began to be developed that provided better opportunities for quantifying the contaminants and their likely effects. One of the most important emerging tools is the science of risk assessment. This book was commissioned by the Center for Indoor Air Research as a state- of-the-art review of the science of risk assessment and its application in understand- ing and remediating indoor air quality concerns. While the science of risk assessment and its uses for indoor air quality are well characterized and in growing use, both topics are rapidly evolving due to scientific, regulatory, political, and public con- cerns. Thus, this book was written to characterize the subjects, but at the same time to provide the necessary reference resources for more in-depth, future investigation. At the same time, it was written for use by readers with a wide range of educational and professional qualifications. It is the hope of the authors that the book will serve as a useful reference tool for advances and innovative solutions in these fields. Elizabeth L. Anderson, Ph.D. Roy E. Albert, M.D. Editors © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Max Eisenberg and Dr. Lynn Kosak- Channing of the Center for Indoor Air Research for their support, insights, and patience during the preparation of this book. © 1999 by CRC Press LLC The Editors Elizabeth L. Anderson, Ph.D., is President and CEO of Sciences International, Inc. in Alexandria, Virginia and has over 20 years experience in risk assessment. At the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), she established and directed the central risk assessment program for ten years. She founded the Carcin- ogen Assessment Group and later was Director of the Office of Health and Envi- ronmental Assessment (OHEA) in the Office of Research and Development, with a staff of over 140 and an annual budget exceeding $14 million. The primary functions of OHEA were to provide leadership to establish EPA-wide guidelines for risk assessment, to conduct risk assessments on the health effects of toxic chemicals, and to oversee the risk assessment program for all of EPA’s regulatory programs. Since leaving EPA, Dr. Anderson has been engaged in managing governmental and private sector health and environmental consulting activities. She is an interna- tionally recognized expert and lecturer and has published numerous journal articles in the areas of risk assessment and carcinogenicity. She was the recipient of the EPA Gold Medal for Exceptional Service and the Distinguished Service Award from the Society for Risk Analysis. She is a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the New York Academy of Sciences. Her professional activities relating to risk assessment include the following: Board of Scientific Counselors, Committee to Review the National Health and Envi- ronmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997. Peer Review Committee, Exploratory Research Program, Environmental Physics, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997. Peer Review Committee, Exploratory Research Program, Environmental Chemistry, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997 (reappointed for 1998). Department of Defense Peer Review Committee, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP), 1997. Chaired Peer Review Committee, Risk assessment guidelines for combustion sources, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996. Peer Review Committee, Center for Risk Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996. External Advisory Board, Center for Risk Management of Engineering Systems, University of Virginia, 1987–present. Editorial Board for the journal Human and Ecological Risk Assessment; appointed 1994–present. New York Power Commission Advisory Panel to recommend research programs to evaluate risk associated with electric and magnetic fields, 1990. Risk Assessment Review Panel for the State of New Jersey; appointed 1988. Panel of experts evaluating risk analysis activities of four federal agencies, General Accounting Office, for House Committee on Science and Technology, February 1986. © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Charter Member, Society for Risk Analysis (member of steering committee to establish society, 1980); member of editorial board, Risk Analysis; elected council member, 1981; president, 1984–1985. Subcommittee on Risk Analysis, Health and Environmental Research Advisory Com- mittee, Department of Energy, 1985. EPA Representative to the National Cancer Advisory Board, 1982–1985. Interagency Risk Management Council, cabinet council committee; chairman, com- mittee to develop guidelines for assessing reproductive risk. International Program for Chemical Safety (IPCS) Committee Editorial Staff, princi- ples for evaluating health risks to progeny associated with exposure to chemicals during pregnancy, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1984. Interagency Regulatory Liaison Group, Work Group on Risk Assessment. (Work group published the article “Scientific Bases for Identification of Potential Carcinogens and Estimation of Risks,” JNCI 63:242, 1979); Chairman of the work group, 1980. Risk Analysis Liaison Committee, National Academy of Sciences/National Science Foundation (under P.L. 96–44). National Academy of Sciences/Food and Drug Administration, Advisory Committee on institutional means for assessment of risk to public health (under H.R. 7591). Roy E. Albert, M.D. specializes in research related to the quantitative aspects of chemical and radiation carcinogenesis. Dr. Albert has served as a consultant to various governmental and state committees, including: Surgeon’s General Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health; Air Pollution Advisory Committee (New York City Department of Health); Ad Hoc Committee on Environmental Health Research — Panel on Hazardous Trace Substances for the Office of Science and Technology, Executive Office of the President; Motor Vehicle Nitrogen Oxide Standard Commit- tee; and Committee on Water Treatment Chemicals for the National Research Council. Dr. Albert is currently Professor of Environmental Health and Chairman of the Department of Environmental Health and the Kettering Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati Medical Center. Dr. Albert was the principle author of EPA’s first carcinogen risk assessment guidelines and subsequently served for ten years as Chair- man of the Carcinogen Assessment Group at the Environmental Protection Agency. Dr. Albert received a Distinguished Contribution Award (Society for Risk Anal- ysis, 1984). His professional affiliations include: American Association for the Advancement of Science American Association for Cancer Research American College of Toxicology New York Academy of Sciences Radiation Research Society for Epidemiological Research Society for Occupational and Environmental Health © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Contributors Roy E. Albert, M.D. Professor and Chairman Department of Environmental Health Kettering Laboratory (ML 56) University of Cincinnati Medical Center 3223 Eden Avenue Cincinnati, OH 45267-0056 Elizabeth L. Anderson, Ph.D. President and CEO Sciences International, Inc. Suite 500 1800 Diagonal Road Alexandria, VA 22314 Nicholas J. Gudka. M.S. Program Manager Sciences International, Inc. Suite 500 1800 Diagonal Road Alexandria, VA 22314 John J. Liccione, Ph.D. Project Manager Sciences International, Inc. Suite 500 1800 Diagonal Road Alexandria, VA 22314 Robert M. Little Analyst Sciences International, Inc. Suite 500 1800 Diagonal Road Alexandria, VA 22314 Suresh H. Moolgavkar, M.D., Ph.D. Director, Moolgavkar Consulting Group Sciences International, Inc. 9005 NE 21st Place Bellevue, WA 98004 David R. Patrick, P.E. Vice President Sciences International, Inc. Suite 500 1800 Diagonal Road Alexandria, VA 22314 Steave H. Su, M.P.H. Senior Associate Sciences International, Inc. Suite 500 1800 Diagonal Road Alexandria, VA 22314 Lance A. Wallace 11568 Woodhollow Court Reston, VA 20191 Affiliated with: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 © 1999 by CRC Press LLC Table of Contents Series Preface Preface Chapter 1 Introduction to Risk Assessment Elizabeth L. Anderson and David R. Patrick Chapter 2 The Elements of Human Health Risk Assessment Elizabeth L. Anderson and David R. Patrick Chapter 3 Hazard Identification of Indoor Air Pollutants John J. Liccione Chapter 4 Dose-Response Assessment — Quantitative Methods for the Investigation of Dose–Response Relationships Suresh H. Moolgavkar Chapter 5 Exposure Characterization David R. Patrick Chapter 6 Risk Characterization Roy E. Albert Chapter 7 Characterization of Uncertainty Steave H. Su, Robert M. Little, and Nicholas J. Gudka Chapter 8 Measurement of Indoor Air Contaminants Lance A. Wallace Chapter 9 Application of Risk Assessment David R. Patrick Chapter 10 Future Directions in Risk Assessment David R. Patrick © 1999 by CRC Press LLC List of Tables 1.1 Indoor Air Pollutants, Sources, and Health Effects 3.1 Information Used in Hazard Identification 5.1 Subpopulations with Potentially Increased Responsiveness to Indoor Air Pollutants 7.1 Major Sources of Uncertainty in Risk Assessment 7.2 Scenario, Parameter, and Model Uncertainty (Type B Uncertainty) 8.1 Weighted Arithmetic Mean Overnight Personal Exposures (Indoor Air) Compared to Outdoor Air Concentrations: New Jersey, All Three Seasons (µg/m 3 ) 8.2 Weighted Estimates of Air and Breath Concentrations of 19 Prevalent Compounds 9.1 Estimate of the Current Scientific Confidence in Information Important to the Particulate Matter NAAQS Decision [...]... Riverside — 24-hour PM10 concentration 8.3 Comparison of unweighted 99th percentile concentrations of 11 prevalent chemicals in overnight outdoor air and overnight personal air in New Jersey (Fall 19 81) © 19 99 by CRC Press LLC CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Risk Assessment Elizabeth L Anderson and David R Patrick CONTENTS I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX Overview What Is Risk Assessment? Indoor Air Risk Assessments... Important Indoor Air and Risk Assessment Definitions The Origins of Environmental Risk Assessment A Environmental Risk Assessment Prior to 19 70 B The Use of Risk Assessment in the U.S for Regulating Air Pollutants 1 Early EPA Regulatory Efforts 2 The 19 90 Clean Air Act Amendments 3 Current Activities C Risk Assessment in the European Community and the United Kingdom The Risk Assessment Process Current Indoor. .. Current Indoor Air Risk Assessment Activities Comparison of Indoor Air Risks and Other Environmental Risks Legislative and Regulatory Initiatives Addressing Indoor Air and Risk Assessment A U.S Federal 1 National Environmental Policy Act (42 USC 43 21) 2 U.S Environmental Protection Agency 3 U.S Occupational Safety and Health Administration 4 U.S Department of Energy 5 U.S Department of Health and Human... both in assessing risks and in understanding the meaning of risk assessments Notwithstanding, because of the closed environment nature of indoor air exposures, a building-oriented strategy appeared to be prudent regardless of the actual estimated risks The 19 89 EPA Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality focused its risk assessment discussion on carcinogens It outlined the risk assessment process... the risk assessment process and describes its origins both scientifically and legislatively; Chapters 3 through 6 provide detailed discussions of the four principal components of a risk assessment; Chapter 7 discusses the uncertainties associated with risk assessment; Chapter 8 describes basic methods for measuring indoor air contaminants; Chapter 9 presents a case study of the application of risk assessment. .. reader with responsibilities or concerns about indoor air quality in identifying important air quality and health issues and in conducting analyses sufficient to facilitate responsible decision-making It also is written for the reader who is technically experienced although not necessarily in the science of risk assessment III INDOOR AIR RISK ASSESSMENTS The term indoor environment, as used here, encompasses... assessment to a typical indoor air problem; and Chapter 10 identifies future risk assessment directions and needs © 19 99 by CRC Press LLC II WHAT IS RISK ASSESSMENT? Risk is generally defined as the potential for an unwanted negative consequence or event As used in this book, risk is limited to unwanted adverse human health effects resulting from exposures in the indoor environment Risk should be distinguished... based on estimated population risks The EPA’s 19 89 report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality concluded that indoor air pollution represents one of the most important environmental problems based on population risks” (EPA 19 89) While these risks are generally less than many occupational health and safety risks in mining and industrial environments, and some ecological and welfare losses for some environmental... Pollutants 1 Early EPA Regulatory Efforts The EPA initially concentrated on establishing concentration standards for exposures to air and water pollutants and on publishing control technology guidance The work on air pollution was required by the passage of the 19 70 Clean Air Act Amendments (PL 9 1- 6 04, December 31, 19 70) Two types of air pollutants were identified by Congress for regulation under the 19 70... interim procedures and guidelines for assessing risk associated with exposure to suspected carcinogens in 19 76 ( 41 FR 214 02, May 25, 19 76) and the proposal of an air cancer policy in late 19 79 (44 FR 58642, October 10 , 19 79) The interim carcinogen procedures and guidelines for suspected carcinogens set forth a framework for scientifically determining the weight of evidence and magnitude of risk associated . the science of risk assessment and its application in understand- ing and remediating indoor air quality concerns. While the science of risk assessment and its uses for indoor air quality are well. Current Indoor Air Risk Assessment Activities VIII. Comparison of Indoor Air Risks and Other Environmental Risks IX. Legislative and Regulatory Initiatives Addressing Indoor Air and Risk Assessment A Data Risk assessment and indoor air quality / edited by Elizabeth L. Anderson and Roy E. Albert. p. cm. (Indoor air research series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1- 5 667 0-3 2 3-9