INTRODUCTION
Overview
Climate change and the depletion of natural resources have become critical issues globally and in Vietnam The increasing severity of climate-related disasters poses significant threats to socio-economic development (Thang et al., 2010) Concurrently, Vietnam's rapid yet unsustainable economic growth in recent years has resulted in the deterioration of natural resources and heightened environmental pollution, particularly affecting air quality (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2018).
The increase in greenhouse gas concentrations is a prominent feature of climate change, directly linked to socio-economic development and reflecting global economic and social conditions (Thang et al., 2010) These emissions are significant contributors to air pollution, with Hanoi experiencing severe pollution from 2013 to 2019 During this period, PM2.5 dust concentrations consistently exceeded national standards and WHO recommendations In 2013, the annual average dust concentration peaked at 55.9 μg/m³, improving to 49.2 μg/m³ and 45.1 μg/m³ in the subsequent years, before rising again in 2016 to 50.5 μg/m³, followed by a decline from 2017 to 2019 Air pollution has dire consequences for public health in Hanoi, contributing to approximately 60,000 deaths annually in Vietnam and 7 million globally, indicating a greater mortality risk than malaria, cancer, and traffic accidents (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2018).
Research indicates a strong connection between climate change (CC) and air pollution, with climate changes directly affecting air quality in specific areas Rising temperatures associated with CC lead to increased ground-level ozone in various regions, posing future challenges for meeting ozone standards Conversely, pollutant emissions, such as particulate matter (PM), can influence the climate by either warming or cooling the atmosphere.
Research on the relationship between climate change (CC) and air pollutants is still evolving, but efforts are being made to clarify these uncertainties This article focuses on "Air Pollution Issues in Hanoi – Current Status and Solutions for Air Quality Management in the Context of Climate Change." It aims to identify the primary causes of air pollution, explore the interactions between climate change and air quality, and propose effective strategies for managing air quality in light of climate change challenges.
Research objectives
This research aims to identify effective measures for addressing air pollution within the framework of current climate change, a critical issue impacting human health, social dynamics, the economy, and the environment Specifically, the study seeks to answer three key questions related to this urgent challenge.
- What is the specific current status of air quality and its managerial condition in Hanoi?
- How air pollution and CC interact with each other?
- What can be done in reality to deal with air pollution in the context of CC?
Concerning those questions profoundly, 5 key activities were conducted to address three research questions:
(1) to collect the data of Hanoi’s socio-economic development status;
(2) to collect the data of and air pollution condition in Hanoi (including data on
PM2.5 concentrations, air quality index);
(3) to analyze the current air pollution situation in Hanoi; h
(4) to collect the condition of CC management in Hanoi and the correlation between CC and air pollution;
(5) to propose solutions to handle air pollution in the context of CC.
Structure of the thesis
The thesis is organized into 6 chapters as below:
Chapter 3: Theoretical basis and practical experience in air pollution and management in the context of climate change
Practical air pollution management measures
The linkage between air pollution and climate change
Chapter 4: Current situation of air pollution in Hanoi
Causes of air pollution in Hanoi h
Effects caused by air pollution in Hanoi
Current air pollution management tools
Chapter 5: Proposed Air pollution measures
Practical air pollution management measures around the world
Proposed air pollution management measure in the context of adapting to climate change
METHODOLOGY
Framework of the study
The research outlined in Figure 2.1 highlights the critical stages of the study, emphasizing the importance of sufficient input data for effective management The thesis relies on two primary data sources: the socio-economic conditions of Hanoi and monitoring data from local stations, which are essential for assessing the current air quality issues in the city This analysis will incorporate existing air pollution management strategies and evaluate the impacts of climate change and relevant policies in Hanoi Based on the analysis results, a set of actionable solutions will be proposed to improve air quality and adapt to climate change challenges in the region.
Study area
Hanoi, the capital of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is situated in the heart of the fertile Red River Delta This vibrant city has emerged as a significant political, economic, and cultural hub since the early days of Vietnam's history.
Figure 2.1: Location map of Hanoi
Hanoi, situated in the northwest of the Red River Delta, spans from 20°53' to 21°23' north latitude and 105°44' to 106°02' east longitude It borders Thai Nguyen and Vinh Phuc to the north, Ha Nam and Hoa Binh to the south, and Bac Giang, Bac Ninh, and Hung Yen to the east, while Hoa Binh and Phu Tho lie to the west The city is 120 km from Hai Phong port and 87 km from Nam Dinh city, forming a crucial triangle within the Red River Delta Following its administrative expansion in August 2008, Hanoi covers an area of 3,324.92 km², predominantly situated on the right bank of the Red River.
Hanoi's terrain features a gradual decline from north to south and west to east, with an average elevation of 5 to 20 meters above sea level The city is characterized by hills primarily located in the northern and western regions Approximately three-quarters of Hanoi's natural landscape consists of delta areas formed by alluvial sediment, situated on the right bank of the Da River and along both sides of the Red River and other waterways Within the urban landscape, low hill mounds, such as Dong Da mound and Nung Mountain, are prominent Additionally, Hanoi is defined by its four extreme points.
- The Northern side is Bac Son commune, Soc Son district;
- The Western side is Thuan My commune, Ba Vi district;
- The Southern side is Huong Son commune, My Duc district;
- The Eastern side is Le Chi Commune, Gia Lam district
Hanoi experiences a monsoon tropical climate, characterized by cold winters from November to March, which can occasionally bring frost and minimal rainfall In contrast, the summer months, spanning from April to October, are marked by high temperatures and frequent thunderstorms, along with the possibility of cyclones.
Annual precipitation in the lowlands typically ranges from 1,500 to 2,100 mm, while high mountain Ba Vi receives between 1,600 and 2,600 mm Most rainfall occurs during the summer months, with 80-90% of the total annual precipitation falling within this six-month period (Hanoi People’s Committee, 2012).
Table 2.1: Climate characteristics of Hanoi
Source #1: Vietnam Institute for Building Science and Technology
Source #2: Pogoda.ru.net, (Record the highest temperature in May 1926, lowest January
Hanoi experiences an average winter temperature of 16.4°C, dropping to a low of 2.7°C, while summer averages around 29.2°C, with a record high of 42.8°C The city sees an annual average temperature of 23.6°C and receives between 1,800mm to 2,000mm of rainfall each year Notably, in May 1926, temperatures soared to 42.8°C, and in January 1955, they plummeted to 2.7°C due to La Niña effects A severe heatwave in early June 2017, influenced by El Niño, recorded temperatures up to 42.5°C, resulting in two fatalities Urban heat effects and high humidity can push actual temperatures to nearly 50°C Projections for 2100 indicate longer summers with temperatures reaching 48°C, felt as high as 55-58°C Snow was recorded in Ba Vi on January 24, 2016, with temperatures around 0°C.
The Red River is the primary river flowing through Hanoi, originating in Ba Vi district and exiting the city near Phu Xuyen, before continuing to Nam Dinh, a city historically linked to Thang Long since the Tran Dynasty Additionally, the Da River forms the boundary between Hanoi and Phu Tho and connects with the Red River in northern Ba Vi district Hanoi is also home to several other rivers, including the The River, Duong River, Cau River, and Ca Lo River, as well as smaller rivers like the To Lich River that flow within the city.
Hanoi, a unique city known for its numerous lakes that reflect its ancient rivers, features West Lake as the largest, spanning approximately 500 hectares and significantly contributing to the urban landscape, surrounded by hotels and villas Hoan Kiem Lake, situated in the bustling historic center, holds a special significance for the city Other notable lakes in the inner city include Truc Bach, Tuyen Quang, and Thu Le, while larger lakes such as Kim Lien, Lien Dam, Ngai Son - Dong Mo, Suoi Hai, Meo Gu, Xuan Khanh, Tuy Lai, and Quan Son enrich Hanoi's scenic beauty.
Hanoi, the largest centrally-owned city in Vietnam following the merger with Ha Tay province, is the second-most populous locality in the country, with a population of approximately 8,053,663 as of April 1, 2019, trailing only Ho Chi Minh City.
Table 2.2: Average population and population density of Hanoi
Hanoi faces significant challenges due to rapid population growth, with an annual increase of approximately 160,000 residents, equivalent to the size of a large district This surge is driven by both natural growth and migration, leading to a swift rise in the urban population.
Between 1999 and 2019, urbanization in the city accelerated, with population density in districts like Dong Da, Thanh Xuan, Hai Ba Trung, and Cau Giay reaching 37,347 people/km², 32,291 people/km², 29,589 people/km², and 23,745 people/km², respectively Newly established districts, including Hoang Mai, Nam Tu Liem, Bac Tu Liem, and Ha Dong, are also experiencing significant population growth, rivaling central districts However, there is a notable disparity in population distribution, with Thanh Tri and Hoai Duc having densities of 4,343 people/km² and 3,096 people/km², respectively, which are 4-6 times higher than less populated areas like Ba Vi (687 people/km²) and My Duc (884 people/km²).
From 2009 to 2019, the population increased by 1.66 million, with over 1.3 million of that growth occurring in the inner city, primarily due to immigration The average growth rate during this period was 2.22% per year, a significant rise from the 0.13% rate observed between 1999 and 2009 Hanoi is now challenged with managing a sustainable population size, as 32 wards and communes have over 30% of their residents as immigrants, particularly in rapidly urbanizing areas like Cau Giay, Thanh Xuan, Ha Dong, Nam Tu Liem, and Bac Tu Liem While newly developed urban areas aim to accommodate this influx, they contribute to traffic congestion and various environmental and urban management issues, especially during peak commuting hours.
In 2019, Hanoi ranked as the second administrative unit in Vietnam for gross regional domestic product (GRDP), achieving a total of VND 971,700 billion (approximately US$41.85 billion) and a per capita GRDP of VND 120.6 million (around US$5,200) The city's GRDP growth rate was recorded at 7.62%, with a notable shift in the economic structure: the service sector contributed 64.02%, industrial and construction sectors accounted for 22.69%, while agriculture, forestry, and fisheries made up 1.99% Additionally, product taxes minus subsidies represented 11.3% of the GRDP.
In 2020, the city's economic growth faced a significant slowdown due to the Covid-19 pandemic, with the General Statistics Office reporting a 3.39% increase in total production during the first half of the year, compared to 7.12% in the same period the previous year The industrial production index rose by 3.07%, down from 7.4%, while total goods and service revenue grew by 4.6%, a decrease from 10% Additionally, the total number of tourists plummeted by 65.4%, reaching only 4.93%, in stark contrast to a 9% increase in the same timeframe the prior year.
The city's epidemic prevention measures have been implemented swiftly and effectively, prioritizing the health of its residents Thanks to the collective efforts of the political and health systems, 118 Covid-19 cases were successfully treated in the first half of 2020, with no community transmissions reported since The city is now embracing a "new normal" while focusing on the "dual goal" of disease prevention and recovery as the year progresses.
Methods of study
This article utilizes secondary data to analyze air pollution in Hanoi, focusing on key metrics such as PM2.5 dust concentration, the air quality index, and the incidence of health-related cases linked to air pollution.
The data for this article is sourced from the Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station, the air quality monitoring station at the US Embassy in Hanoi, AirNow, the Vietnam Environment Administration, and various related reports and articles.
2.3.2 The method of data collection
- Inheritance method: summarizing and analyzing data, materials, and information related to air pollution in Hanoi: h
+ The concentration of air particulate matter, the concentration of greenhouse gases, including Sulfur dioxide, Nitrogen oxide, Carbon dioxide, and Trioxide; + Air pollution causing agents;
+ Affection of air pollution on the environment and people
- Methods of collecting information: collecting information from the Air Pollution curriculum, collecting data on activities that cause air pollution and parameters of air pollution, related articles, and reports
- Comparative method: used to analyze the status of air pollution in years, the evolution of particulate concentration in the period of 2013-2019, and conclude the trend over time
- Data processing method using tools such as Microsoft Excel, SPSS to calculate and tabulate results h
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL BASIS AND PRACTICAL
Air pollution
Air is the vital gas that surrounds us, significantly impacting human health and the planet's ecosystems Fresh air, characterized by low impurity levels, offers numerous benefits, including reduced allergies and asthma, enhanced lung function, improved immune response, and a lower risk of high blood pressure Additionally, clean air promotes better sleep, boosts mood, and increases productivity (Huyen, 2019) Unfortunately, air pollution is a growing concern that threatens these advantages.
Air pollution encompasses any solid, liquid, or gas released into the atmosphere in concentrations that negatively impact human health, hinder the growth of animals and plants, damage materials, and degrade environmental aesthetics It is primarily classified into two categories: particulate matter pollution and hazardous gas pollution (Thang, 2007b).
Particulate matter (PM), also known as particle pollution, refers to a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets present in the air, as defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2020) This pollution includes visible particles like dust, dirt, soot, and smoke, as well as microscopic particles that require an electron microscope for detection Particle pollution encompasses total suspended particulate (TSP) and inhalable particles, which typically have varying diameters.
10 micrometers and smaller (PM10), and fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers and smaller (PM2.5) h
Figure 3.1: Particulate size of PM 10 and PM2.5
Hazardous gas pollution in urban areas primarily consists of Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and Ozone (O3), which mainly originate from the combustion of fuels such as gasoline and oil in vehicle engines.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is produced from the combustion of coal and other sulfur-rich fuels, with its concentration, along with nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and carbon monoxide (CO), increasing in high-traffic areas These pollutants are classified as greenhouse gases (GHGs), which absorb and emit radiant energy in the thermal infrared range, contributing to the greenhouse effect The main greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere include water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3) (IPCC, 2008).
Air pollution is a blend of solids, liquids, gases The causes of air pollution are divided into two groups: natural causes and anthropogenic causes
Natural sources of pollution encompass various elements, including wind-driven dust from areas with minimal vegetation, gases produced by living organisms—such as carbon dioxide from human respiration, methane from cattle digestion, and oxygen from plants during photosynthesis Additionally, smoke from burning materials and volcanic eruptions, along with the release of harmful gases, contribute significantly to this environmental issue (Thang, 2007a).
Volcanic eruptions are among the most devastating natural disasters, significantly impacting air quality and posing threats to nearby structures In December 2020, the Etna volcano erupted for a week, producing massive ash clouds that reached heights of 4,600 meters, affecting southern Italy and spreading pollution as far as Eastern Europe This event resulted in severely degraded air quality, with AQI levels ranging from 100 to 200 in the affected regions.
Forest fires are significant contributors to dust and greenhouse gas emissions, causing extensive damage to vegetation Between late September 2019 and January 2020, bushfires in Australia consumed over 4 million hectares, leading to severe air pollution in cities like Sydney On January 2, Canberra experienced record-breaking air quality issues, with PM2.5 levels exceeding 200 μg/m³ In December 2019, Sydney recorded its worst air quality ever, with PM2.5 levels approaching 400 μg/m³, classified as hazardous by WHO standards, posing health risks to the entire population The smoke from these fires traveled thousands of miles, affecting air quality in New Zealand and turning its skies orange (Guo et al., 2021).
Temperature inversion is a significant contributor to air pollution in major cities, occurring when the upper atmospheric layer is warmer than the lower layer This phenomenon prevents atmospheric mixing, leading to the accumulation of pollutants and increased concentrations that negatively impact both the environment and human health A recent study in Hanoi revealed a 40 to 48% variation in PM2.5 levels on days with temperature inversions compared to those without, highlighting the serious implications of this issue, especially during the cold season (Tham, 2018).
Transportation is a significant contributor to pollution in developing countries, accounting for the highest emissions of toxic gases like SO2, NO2, CO, and particulate matter (TSP, PM10, PM2.5) The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment reported in 2016 that 70% of polluting smog originates from traffic activities Vehicle emissions are influenced by factors such as the quality of the vehicle's machinery, fuel quality, operating speed, driver behavior, traffic density, congestion, and infrastructure conditions.
Industrial activities significantly contribute to air pollution, with smoke and dust from factories being the primary sources This pollution not only affects the air quality but also contaminates water and food sources, posing a serious environmental threat The dust emitted by factories contains harmful substances that exacerbate these issues.
High concentrations of pollutants such as CO2, CO, SO2, NOx, and unburned organic matter (like soy coal and dust) pose significant health risks to local populations If these emissions are not properly managed, they can lead to serious consequences, including the occurrence of acid rain, which severely damages both human health and agricultural crops.
The construction industry significantly contributes to air pollution through activities such as site clearance and the use of diesel-powered machinery These processes release substantial amounts of dust and particulate matter, including PM10 and PM2.5, into the atmosphere, along with harmful substances like sulfur dioxide (SO2) The disturbance from clearance operations introduces dirt and cement dust into the air, further degrading air quality.
PM10 particles are the primary contributors to air pollution, largely resulting from the destruction and combustion of materials that release toxic gases like SO2, NOx, and CO into the environment Additionally, the rise in construction activities leads to an increase in vehicle traffic, which transports materials and contributes to dust from trucks and road repairs, further exacerbating air quality issues.
Waste collection and treatment significantly contribute to air pollution, primarily due to gas emissions from burning straw and other waste At collection sites, sanitation workers incinerate large quantities of garbage to alleviate the burden on overfilled landfills, leading to harmful emissions and unpleasant odors for nearby residents Additionally, the improper mixing of chemical waste with regular garbage exacerbates pollution, as burning these materials prevents decomposition and results in further soil contamination.
Practical air pollution management groups of measures
According to the Economics and Environmental Management curriculum
Laws and policies, often referred to as legal tools, encompass a range of documents including international and national laws, ordinances, decrees, regulations, environmental standards, and permits These legal instruments are essential for guiding environmental plans and strategies across national, economic, and local scales.
Legal tools play a crucial role in pollution control, particularly through effective environmental laws aimed at managing air pollution As the environment operates as a unified system without boundaries, global cooperation is essential for reducing air pollution Positive legislative actions taken by any country contribute significantly to the collective effort of controlling air quality Since the 1970s, numerous nations have enacted laws to improve air quality and safeguard public health, highlighting the importance of international collaboration in addressing air pollution challenges.
International environmental law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate interactions between nations and international organizations, aimed at preventing and addressing environmental damage both within national borders and in areas beyond individual country jurisdictions.
The National Environment Law encompasses legal principles that regulate interactions among various entities concerning the use and impact of environmental elements It employs a range of adjustment methods aimed at effectively safeguarding the human environment Additionally, it integrates various legal frameworks and strategies to guide, implement, and delineate the protection and planning of the environment.
According to the "Economics and Environmental Management" curriculum,
Economic tools, or market-based tools, are essential policy instruments designed to modify the costs and operational interests of individuals and organizations By doing so, they aim to steer the behavior of economic agents toward more environmentally beneficial practices.
The natural resources tax is a crucial component of the State Budget, levied on enterprises that utilize natural resources in their production processes Its primary objectives include curbing the excessive demand for these resources, minimizing losses during their extraction and utilization, and generating revenue for the government while aligning the interests of the population with sustainable resource use.
The environment fee serves as an economic mechanism that incorporates environmental costs into product pricing based on the "polluter pays" principle Its primary objectives are to incentivize pollution reduction and to boost government revenue In numerous countries, the funds generated from environmental taxes contribute to the General Budget, while the proceeds from environmental fees are specifically allocated for environmental protection initiatives, including waste management, wastewater treatment, pollution remediation, and support for those affected by pollution.
The deposit-refund system promotes environmental protection by requiring consumers to pay an additional deposit when purchasing products that may harm the environment This system ensures that consumers return the product or its remnants to designated waste collectors for recycling, reuse, or safe disposal after use When consumers comply with this process, they receive a refund of their deposit from the collection organizations, encouraging responsible waste management and sustainability.
Environmental escrow serves as an economic mechanism designed to mitigate the potential pollution and environmental damage caused by various economic activities Functioning similarly to a deposit-refund system, this approach mandates that enterprises and production facilities deposit a specified amount of money, or valuable assets such as precious metals or securities, into banks or credit institutions prior to initiating any investment activities This financial commitment ensures that businesses adhere to measures aimed at reducing pollution and preventing environmental degradation.
Technical tools for environmental management are essential for state control and oversight of environmental quality and pollutant distribution These tools encompass environmental assessments, audits, monitoring systems, and waste treatment methods, including recycling and reuse They serve as vital instruments for organizations committed to environmental protection By utilizing these technical tools, authorities can obtain comprehensive and accurate data on environmental conditions, enabling them to implement effective measures to mitigate negative environmental impacts.
The main ancillary tools include environmental modelling and communication
Air quality modeling serves as a crucial mathematical tool that elucidates the causal relationships among pollutant emissions, meteorological conditions, and air pollutant concentrations These models are essential in scientific research, allowing for the assessment of the relative impact of various processes involved in air pollution By quantifying the relationship between emissions and concentrations, air pollution modeling enables the evaluation of past and future scenarios, thereby determining the effectiveness of mitigation strategies Consequently, air pollution models are indispensable for both scientific inquiry and environmental management.
Environmental communication is a dynamic two-way interaction that allows individuals to collaboratively share and create knowledge about natural resources and the environment This process significantly influences community members' perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors, ultimately motivating them to engage in activities that promote environmental protection.
Climate change
3.3.1 Definition and causes of climate change
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change (CC) as a phenomenon directly or indirectly resulting from human activities that alter the global atmospheric composition, contributing to long-term natural climate variations (United Nations, 1992) This definition emphasizes the significant role of human actions in driving current climate change.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change (CC) as a significant alteration in climate conditions, identifiable through statistical tests This change is characterized by variations in the mean and variability of climate properties and typically lasts for decades or more.
Climate change (CC) can result from natural internal processes or external factors, including solar cycle variations, volcanic eruptions, and ongoing human-induced alterations in atmospheric composition and land use (IPCC, 2014) This phenomenon has occurred throughout history and continues to unfold today and into the future However, the specific causes of climate change have not been clearly defined.
Climate change (CC) has emerged as a significant topic of public interest in Vietnam, particularly following its recognition in the Hydrometeorology Law enacted on November 23, 2015 According to Article 3, clause 3 of the law, CC is defined as a long-term alteration in climate resulting from both natural conditions and human activities Key factors contributing to this phenomenon include global warming, rising sea levels, and an increase in extreme hydro-meteorological events.
2015) This concept is relatively similar to the two above CC is happening due to both natural and human causes It is represented by changing components of the climate h
Climate change refers to alterations in atmospheric radiation driven by various factors, including shifts in solar radiation, Earth's orbital changes, volcanic activity, tectonic movements, oceanic variations, and fluctuations in greenhouse gas levels It can result from both natural processes and human activities.
Scientists widely agree that human activities are the primary driver of current climate change (CC) The IPCC (2014) reports that greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxides, have surged to unprecedented levels over the past 800,000 years due to economic development and population growth Addressing this issue is crucial for mitigating global warming and adapting to climate change.
- Carbon dioxide (CO2): enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and other biological materials, and also as a result of certain chemical
Methane (CH4) is released during the extraction and transportation of coal, natural gas, and oil Additionally, methane emissions arise from agricultural activities, particularly livestock, as well as from the decomposition of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills.
- N2O: is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste, as well as during treatment of wastewater
Fluorinated gases, including hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride, are potent synthetic greenhouse gases released through various industrial processes These gases often serve as alternatives to ozone-depleting substances like chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons, highlighting their role in environmental concerns.
3.3.2 The context of climate change in Vietnam
As regards the Vietnam scenarios for CC and SLR, the climate in Vietnam has relatively changed recently They are expressed through the following manifestations and trends: h
From 1958 to 2014, the annual average temperature across the country rose by approximately 0.62°C, with a notable increase of about 0.42°C occurring between 1985 and 2014 This trend translates to an average temperature rise of around 0.10°C per decade Coastal and island regions experience less frequent temperature increases compared to inland areas, with winter recording the highest temperatures and spring the lowest The Central Highlands shows the most significant temperature rise, while the South Central Coast exhibits the least change (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2016).
Figure 3.2: Changes of yearly average temperature ( o C) (1958-2014)
Figure 3.3: Changes in yearly precipitation (%) (1958-2014)
Source: (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2016)
From 1958 to 2014, the annual average precipitation across the country showed a slight increase, particularly during the winter and spring months, while autumn months experienced a decline Over the past 60 years, the Northern regions faced a decrease in annual precipitation, ranging from 5.8% to 12.5%, with the Northern Delta seeing the most significant drop of 12.5% Similarly, the Southern regions also experienced a decline, with reductions between 6.9% and 19.8%, and the South Central Coast recorded the highest decrease at 19.8%.
• Extreme events related to temperature and precipitation
In most regions of the country, the highest daily (Tx) and lowest daily (Tm) temperatures tend to increase significantly, with the highest increase in the period h
From 1961 to 2014, the average temperature has risen by 1°C per decade, leading to an increase in the number of hot days (Tx ≥ 35°C) by 2-3 days per decade, particularly in the Northeast, North Delta, and Central Highlands However, some areas experience a decrease in hot days Additionally, extreme rainfall patterns vary across climatic zones, with a decline noted in the Northwest, Northeast, and Northern Delta regions, while other regions see an increase There is also a rising frequency of unseasonal and unusually heavy rainfall events.
Between 1959 and 2015, the frequency of cyclones and tropical depressions affecting Vietnam's East Sea showed minimal change; however, there has been a slight increase in the occurrence of strong cyclones (Category 12 and above) in recent years The cyclone season now extends later into the year, and the pathways of these storms are shifting southward, resulting in more cyclones impacting southern regions of the country Recent developments indicate unusual patterns in the activities and effects of cyclones and tropical depressions on Vietnam.
According to monitoring data, sea level at most locations along the coastal line
Figure 3.4: Changes in tropical cyclones
Figure 3.5: Changes in tropical cyclone developments with wind speeds of level 12 or higher in the
According to the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016), sea level rise varies across different regions, with the highest increase recorded at 1.33 mm/year in Bach Long Vi Conversely, certain areas like Co To and Hon Ngu are experiencing a decline in sea levels, measuring decreases of 1.39 mm/year and 5.77 mm/year, respectively.
Figure 3.6: Trends of sea-level rise changes
Satellite data reveals that Vietnam's coastal sea levels are rising at an average rate of 3.5 mm per year, with the South Central Coast experiencing the highest increase at 5.6 mm per year, while the Gulf of Tonkin coastal area sees the smallest rise at 2.5 mm per year (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2016).
3.3.3 Climate change scenarios for Vietnam
Recent years have seen significant climate changes in Vietnam, as outlined in the CC scenario by the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016) Key manifestations and trends highlight the urgent need for adaptation and mitigation strategies to address these environmental shifts.
Temperatures in all regions of Vietnam tend to increase compared to the base period (1986-2005), with the largest increase being in the North h
Figure 3.7: Scenario on annual average temperature change
Figure 3.8: Scenario on annual precipitation change
CURRENT SITUATION OF AIR POLLUTION IN HANOI
Causes of air pollution in Hanoi
Transportation is the leading contributor to air pollution, with emissions from vehicles being the primary source of harmful exhaust gases such as SO2, NO2, CO, and particulate matter (TSP, PM10, PM2.5) Factors influencing these emissions include vehicle machinery, fuel quality, operating speed, driver behavior, traffic volume, congestion, and road infrastructure, as reported by the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016, 2018).
As of Q1 2019, Hanoi reported a total of 6,649,596 vehicles, comprising 739,731 cars and 5,561,436 motorbikes, which account for 86% of the total, along with 148,429 electric scooters (Hanoi Statistical Office, 2019) Motorbikes are identified as the primary source of emissions in the city The vehicle count is increasing by approximately 15% annually, translating to around 27,000 new vehicles each month To accommodate this growing demand for transportation, Hanoi needs to allocate about 23% of its land area for traffic; however, it currently only utilizes one-third of that requirement This discrepancy contributes to severe daily congestion, resulting in significant economic losses and deteriorating air quality in Hanoi.
Hanoi's public transport system primarily relies on buses, which, despite improvements in quality and quantity, still fall short of meeting the travel demands of residents The aging buses contribute significantly to air pollution, as they do not comply with current emission standards Additionally, the bus routes are often congested, and the overall service quality fails to satisfy the commuting needs of the population Low traffic awareness among citizens further exacerbates traffic congestion in the city.
Transportation activities not only contribute to air pollution but also deteriorate inner city roads, which are often narrow and poorly planned, failing to accommodate residents' travel needs In Hanoi, ongoing repairs and construction on major roads exacerbate the concentration of particulate matter in the air Additionally, the increased traffic from trucks carrying construction materials generates more dust, further worsening air quality and contributing to pollution.
Industrial zones in Hanoi primarily contribute to emissions through the burning of fossil fuels from over 100 operational industrial clusters in the inner city Most enterprises in the region are very small or medium-sized and lack effective systems for treating harmful emissions before they are released into the environment Additionally, outdated technology predominates, with many businesses relying on coal and oil as their main energy sources due to their low cost, despite a growing shift towards clean energy alternatives The primary pollutants emitted include nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and total suspended particles (TSP) Furthermore, suburban industrial areas in nearby provinces, influenced by meteorological factors, also contribute significantly to air pollution in Hanoi, exacerbating the city's already serious air quality issues.
As urbanization intensifies in Hanoi, construction activities are becoming increasingly dense, particularly in new residential areas, bridges, and roads, leading to significant dust and debris from material transportation Despite the implementation of Circular 05/2015/TT-BXD, which mandates environmental hygiene measures at construction sites, and regulations requiring vehicle washing before leaving sites, dust and particulate matter continue to rise, adversely affecting local residents and traffic conditions.
The construction industry significantly contributes to air pollution through various activities, including site clearance, the operation of diesel-powered machinery, and the destruction and burning of solid materials These processes release substantial amounts of dust and particulate matter, particularly PM10 and PM2.5, into the atmosphere Site clearance introduces high levels of particles and cement dust, while diesel vehicles primarily emit harmful pollutants such as SO2, NOx, and CO, with PM10 being the most prevalent.
In Hanoi, prolonged construction projects, such as the Cat Linh-Ha Dong railway and the completed Truong Chinh route, contribute to persistent dust pollution, negatively impacting both road users and local residents.
4.1.4 Living activities and waste treatment
Air pollution in Hanoi is primarily caused by coal stoves, domestic waste, and activities from craft villages While many households have transitioned to gas stoves, induction cookers, and electric options, a significant number still rely on coal stoves, particularly smaller families To mitigate the environmental and health impacts of coal stoves, Hanoi implemented a policy to phase out honeycomb charcoal stoves by 2020, with Hoan Kiem district leading the initiative Informative pamphlets from the Hanoi Department of Natural Resources and Environment highlighted the severity of coal stove pollution, stating that using one honeycomb charcoal stove is equivalent to smoking 40 cigarettes.
Hanoi, home to over 8 million residents, generates approximately 6,500 tons of domestic waste daily Despite having 17 waste treatment facilities, many remain unimplemented or lack community approval, leading to operational challenges These waste disposal sites contribute to significant air pollution and unpleasant odors, adversely affecting local residents The waste management process emits harmful gases, beginning with methane released during garbage collection, primarily from decomposing organic materials Additionally, transportation of waste generates dust and contributes to road congestion and further odor issues The burial and incineration of waste, which often includes paper, wood, rubber, nylon, cloth, and plastic, release harmful pollutants such as SO2, NOx, CO, CO2, HCl, and ash into the atmosphere.
4.1.5 Other sources from sub-urban areas
The surrounding regions of Hanoi, including Bac Ninh, Hung Yen, Hai Duong, and Quang Ninh, are experiencing significant industrial growth, drawing substantial foreign investment and establishing numerous export processing zones However, the factories in these areas release considerable amounts of toxic gases and particulate matter, which, despite the distance, can be carried to Hanoi by the wind, contributing to air pollution in the capital.
An analysis by the Green Innovation Development Centre (GreenID) reveals that particle pollution in Hanoi is worse than in Jakarta, Indonesia, based on air monitoring data from the US embassy The situation is exacerbated by plans to build additional coal-fired power plants, which are significant contributors to pollution Currently, there are 20 coal-fired thermal power plants operating in Northern Hanoi, and despite their distance from the city, PM2.5 fine particles can travel great distances Additionally, agricultural practices, such as the burning of straw, release substantial ash that further deteriorates the city's air quality.
Air pollution condition in Hanoi
Hanoi's air pollution has reached alarming levels in recent years, driven by emissions from approximately 6.7 million vehicles and over 100 industrial zones, contributing around 80,000 tons of smoke and dust and 46,000 tons of CO2 annually Monitoring data reveals concerning levels of pollutants, including PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, CO2, CO, and TSP, highlighting the urgent need for effective air quality management in the city.
Particle pollution is a significant environmental issue in Hanoi, particularly at major intersections during peak traffic hours, notably from 7 to 9 A.M and 5 to 7 P.M The concentration of dust tends to rise during the dry season, especially in the last months of the year, when both weather conditions and increased traffic contribute to deteriorating air quality Over the past six years, Hanoi has consistently experienced dust pollution, with particle concentrations exceeding the Vietnamese standard (QCVN 05: 2013) of 25 μg/m³ and the WHO recommendation of 10 μg/m³.
Figure 0.1: PM 10 and PM 2.5 monthly average concentration in Hanoi 2018
Source: Based on data collected from Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station and Airnow
Dust pollution in Hanoi is analyzed by two particulate indexes PM2.5 and PM10 The evolution of the concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 in Hanoi in the period 2010-
In 2018, the average annual concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 in Hanoi ranged from 46.2 to 100.8 μg/m³ and 35.5 to 59.4 μg/m³, respectively, showing an increasing trend towards the end of the year due to typically dry weather and less rainfall Data indicates that PM10 and PM2.5 levels were lowest in July and peaked in December Notably, PM2.5 poses a greater health risk than PM10, as it can penetrate deeper into the human body and enter the bloodstream, while PM10 is limited to the lungs.
High traffic volumes contribute to various emissions, including CO, NO2, SO2, and O3, leading to increased pollution in urban areas In Hanoi, the concentration of these pollutants remains within the permissible limits set by QCVN 05: 2013, as reported by the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment in 2018.
Recent changes in air quality in Hanoi are closely linked to weather variations, with winter temperatures typically higher than those in summer This phenomenon arises from the distinct climatic characteristics of each season Air quality is significantly affected by meteorological factors, including wind, temperature, humidity, precipitation, and sunlight In winter, the combination of lower temperatures, reduced sunlight, and rainfall, along with the influence of the northeast monsoon, facilitates the movement of pollutants from the North.
During periods of heat inversion, the typical atmospheric temperature gradient is reversed, creating a barrier that traps airborne pollutants and prevents their dispersion This leads to increased concentrations of contaminants in the air In summer, although high temperatures and frequent rainfall can wash away or disperse pollutants, the dissolved pollutants in the warm air can still contribute to lower pollution levels compared to winter.
4.2.1 Air pollution caused by PM 2.5
The industrial revolution has ushered in a new era focused on sustainable development and the establishment of a green economy, particularly in developed nations like the USA, Korea, and Germany, which are leveraging advanced technologies to reduce emissions As the global movement for environmental protection intensifies, highlighted by World Environment Day 2019's theme of Air Pollution, Vietnam is also making strides in this direction This is evidenced by the significant changes in air quality, as measured by PM2.5 levels, from 2012 to 2019.
Figure 0.2: Averaged PM 2.5 concentration from 2012 to 2018 h
Between 2012 and 2018, PM2.5 concentrations consistently exceeded the QCVN 05:2013 standards, indicating significant air quality issues Following the implementation of new regulations, air quality improved in 2014 and 2015 compared to 2013; however, there was a notable spike in PM2.5 levels in 2016, reaching 50.5 μg/m³ Despite this increase, air quality continued to show improvement in subsequent years An analysis of PM2.5 pollution in Hanoi during this timeframe, utilizing data from AirNow and the Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station, reveals a chart detailing the monthly average PM2.5 concentrations from 2013 to 2019.
Figure 0.3: Monthly average PM 2.5 concentration in the period 2013-2019
Source: Calculations from PM 2.5 concentration data in Hanoi provided by AirNow
The air quality in Hanoi has shown overall improvement, with 2013 recording the worst average monthly PM2.5 concentrations compared to other years However, in the latter months of 2019, there was a significant spike in PM2.5 levels compared to the previous year This increase is particularly pronounced during the Tet holiday months, followed by a decrease in June, July, and August The rise in pollution during this period is attributed to the dry weather, reduced rainfall, and heavy traffic typical of the year's end.
As of December 2019, the average PM2.5 concentration in Hanoi for the first 11 months was approximately 30.4 μg/m³, marking a significant decrease compared to previous years Historically, December typically sees a rise in PM2.5 levels, with previous averages recorded at 51 μg/m³ in 2015, 50 μg/m³ in 2016, 48 μg/m³ in 2017, and 26 μg/m³ in 2018 If this trend continues, the average PM2.5 concentration for December 2019 is projected to be between 50 μg/m³ and 102 μg/m³, resulting in an overall average for the year of 32 μg/m³ to 36.3 μg/m³, which is lower than the levels recorded from 2013 to 2018.
Table 0.1: Monthly average PM 2.5 concentration from 2013 to 2019
Source: Calculations based on monitoring data at Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station and U.S Embassy monitoring station
Through the analysis of the air pollution situation in Hanoi in the period 2013-
2019, we can see positive signs when the PM2.5 concentration continues to decrease in recent years However, there are still many difficulties in improving air pollution in h
Hanoi and the situation of air pollution is also increasingly unpredictable and dangerous to human health than ever before
4.2.2 Air pollution caused by PM 10
According to the national technical regulations on ambient air quality, PM10 has an average 24-hour due value of 150 μg/m 3 and an average of 50 μg/m 3 per year
Figure 0.4: Annual average PM 10 concentration in Hanoi from 2013 to 2018
Source: Fluctuations over time of PM 10 dust, Environmental Journal
Throughout the observed period, PM10 concentrations in Hanoi have shown a general decline; however, they frequently surpassed the limits set by QCVN 05:2013 Notably, in 2017, PM10 levels fell within the permissible threshold, measuring 47 μg/m³.
The analysis reveals that annual concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 dust in Hanoi surpass the limits set by QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT Observational data indicates that from 2013 to 2018, PM2.5 levels exceeded permissible limits by 10.31% in 2017 and 51.25% in 2013 In contrast, the exceedance rate for PM10 was significantly lower, peaking at approximately 9.19% in 2013, with even lower figures reported in 2016.
4.2.3 Air pollution caused by hazardous gases
Air pollution in Hanoi, primarily from SO2, NO2, CO, and O3 gases, remains within the permissible limits set by QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT, indicating that hazardous gas levels are not a significant concern The major contributors to these emissions are motor vehicles, with high traffic areas experiencing the highest pollution concentrations According to the "National Environmental Status Report 2016," CO, NO2, and SO2 levels in Hanoi's air are compliant with QCVN 05:2013, although NO2 concentrations are on the rise CO levels typically peak during rush hours; for instance, data from the Nguyen Van Cu Monitoring Station in 2015 recorded CO concentrations exceeding 3,500μg/m³ between 8-9 am Additionally, the average annual SO2 concentration at the same station showed an increasing trend from under 10 μg/m³ in 2012 to 30 μg/m³ in 2015, before decreasing to approximately 22 μg/m³ in 2016.
In recent periods, the concentration of NO2 in Hanoi remains within standard limits, yet it shows a tendency to rise, particularly in high-traffic areas like The Department crossroads and the Pham Van Dong and Truong Chinh regions Notably, NO2 levels spike during peak hours, specifically from 7-9 am and 5-7 pm Similarly, CO levels in Hanoi also experience increases during these busy traffic times.
The concentration of SO2 remains within the limits set by QCVN 05:2013, although it may exceed normal levels at times, particularly near coal and oil-burning enterprises Despite occasional spikes, the annual average still meets established standards.
Figure 0.5: Annual average SO 2 concentration development at Nguyen Van h
Effects caused by air pollution in Hanoi
4.3.1 Effects of air pollution on humans
Environmental changes, particularly air quality, significantly impact human health, with Hanoi experiencing a rise in air pollution-related diseases despite some improvements in its atmosphere Residents of Hanoi are increasingly vulnerable to respiratory illnesses, pneumonia, and severe conditions like lung cancer, especially those who have lived and worked in the city for extended periods The most at-risk groups include children, pregnant women, and the elderly Research indicates that air pollution can lead to higher miscarriage rates and an increased likelihood of birth defects in infants when mothers are exposed to polluted environments during pregnancy.
PM2.5 particulates are the most harmful air pollutants affecting human health Since individuals inhale approximately 10,000 liters of air daily, high concentrations of PM2.5 increase the risk of associated diseases Numerous global studies have demonstrated the health risks linked to exposure to these fine particulates.
PM2.5 particulate increases the risk of illness and death For example, exposure to
PM2.5 increases the risk of asthma, lung disease, chronic obstruction, pneumonia, respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and lung cancer (Uysal and Schapira, 2003; Ghio and Huang, 2004)
Environmental studies indicate that by 2035, air pollution-related deaths in Hanoi could potentially double Children in major cities like Beijing, Jakarta, and Hanoi are particularly vulnerable, facing a 40% increased risk of death from respiratory infections and a 20% higher risk of asthma For adults, the risk of lung cancer rises by 25-30%, while the likelihood of stroke is doubled.
4.3.2 Effects of air pollution on socio-economic development
The World Bank has highlighted the significant economic burdens of air pollution, estimating that the associated costs are substantial These costs arise from various factors, including loss of income due to work stoppages for medical treatment, decreased crop productivity, and the displacement of communities from polluted areas Additionally, expenses related to pollution treatment and control contribute to these financial burdens, which collectively are termed pollution costs The majority of these losses stem from secondary impacts, resulting in a range of socio-economic challenges, with estimated income losses reaching up to 20% (World Bank, 2018).
As of the end of the first quarter of 2019, Hanoi's population exceeds 8 million people According to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, each resident spends over 1,500 VND (approximately 0.07 USD) daily on respiratory treatments linked to air pollution This results in a staggering annual expenditure of around 4.38 trillion VND (about 18.25 million USD) on medical care for the city's inhabitants.
According to Mr Le Viet Phu, an economist at Fulbright University Vietnam, air pollution in the country leads to significant economic losses, estimated at 5-7% of Vietnam's GDP, which translates to approximately 11.4-15.9 billion USD annually.
Air pollution in Hanoi shrouds the city in a persistent gray haze, detracting from its natural beauty and negatively impacting the experience for tourists This environmental issue not only diminishes the landscape but also hampers tourism and leisure activities, making it crucial for the city to address air quality concerns to maintain its status as an attractive destination.
Hanoi attracts around 15,000 visitors annually, according to the Hanoi Statistical Office (2019) Despite a steady increase in tourist numbers, many visitors express concerns about the city's pollution levels If the air quality in Hanoi is not addressed, it could significantly impact the city's tourism industry.
4.3.3 Effects of air pollution-related to climate change
Climate change (CC) is primarily driven by human activities, particularly the combustion of fossil fuels like coal and oil, which release greenhouse gases This process significantly contributes to air pollution, with a notable rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) levels due to transportation activities These gases are major contributors to environmental pollution and are the leading causes of the greenhouse effect.
CC Currently every year, Hanoi has to receive about 46,000 tons of CO2 from different emission sources, making the CC situation increasingly serious h
Air pollution causes CC and the direct consequence of this phenomenon is that the temperature in Hanoi has continuously increased over the years The summer of
In 2019, Hanoi experienced record-breaking heat, with temperatures soaring to an unprecedented 45 to 50°C, marking the highest levels in the past century This extreme heat persisted for consecutive days, leading to a significant rise in health risks for individuals, particularly those working outdoors Additionally, the soaring temperatures resulted in an increased demand for air conditioners, contributing to higher emissions of harmful gases and exacerbating air pollution in the city.
Current air pollution management tools
In 2008, Vietnam marked a significant milestone in its approach to climate change by integrating political commitments into the National Target Program to Respond to Climate Change This integration emphasizes the importance of developing new policies and strategies that address climate-related issues, particularly focusing on pollution control solutions in major cities.
The Vietnam Environmental Protection Law 2014 establishes comprehensive regulations for air environment protection, including specific measures for urban areas This law addresses industries with significant air pollution, such as transportation, construction, and manufacturing Notably, Section 4 of Chapter VI outlines three key articles dedicated to safeguarding the air environment, reinforcing the country's commitment to improving urban air quality.
- Article 62: General provisions on the protection of the air environment;
The law primarily outlines the evaluation and approval process for projects prior to construction, but it lacks specific sanctions for violations While it mandates that organizations and enterprises implement mitigation and treatment measures to address air quality impacts post-construction, it does not provide management measures or penalties for non-compliance with these regulations.
Chapter IX, Section 5 of the waste management regulations addresses the management and control of environmental pollutants, including dust and gas emissions Article 102 specifically mandates that organizations and individuals involved in production and business must manage excessive dust emissions to comply with established regulations Additionally, it requires that vehicles and equipment emitting dust be equipped with protective measures and dust filters to minimize environmental impact.
Decree No 38/2015/NĐ-CP outlines the management of industrial emissions in Vietnam, identifying key sources of exhaust gases such as traffic, industry, construction, agriculture, and waste treatment While the Vietnam Environmental Protection Law 2014 and Decree No 38/2015/NĐ-CP set regulations for controlling dust and emissions, challenges remain in their implementation Notably, emissions from registered vehicles and craft villages are not being adequately monitored or controlled, leading to ongoing environmental pollution from these sectors.
• The National Action Plan for Air Quality Management - Decision No
In 2016, the Prime Minister approved the "National Action Plan for Air Quality Management to 2020, Vision to 2025," outlined in Decision 985 a/QĐ-TTg This plan emphasizes the need for effective dust control during construction and transportation of materials, as well as the investment in advanced technologies and production processes to minimize emissions in industrial facilities It mandates the installation and operation of gas treatment systems to prevent air pollution and requires compliance with emission standards for new vehicles Additionally, the plan aims to enhance national capacities for greenhouse gas (GHG) control, supporting Vietnam's commitment to GHG emissions reduction To improve air quality monitoring, the initiative calls for an increase in the number of automatic continuous air monitoring stations in urban areas.
2015 following the national environmental monitoring network plan Monitoring air pollutant parameters regularly according to environmental technical regulations and parameters VOCs, HC ” (Prime Minister of Viet Nam, 2016)
In Vietnam, there is no specific legal framework governing air quality management; however, the Prime Minister has recognized its significance and issued various regulations and standards to address the surrounding atmosphere.
- National technical regulation on ambient air quality, QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT This regulation specifies the concentration of substances in the air, replacing the QCVN 05: 2009/BTNMT;
- QCVN 06:2009/BTNMT regulates several toxic substances in the surrounding air, replacing the TCVN 5938:2005;
- QCVN 26:2010/BTNMT regulates the noise, replacing the TCVN 5949: 1998;
The national action plan for air quality management, approved for 2020 with a vision extending to 2025, focuses on three key areas: controlling emission sources, assessing the current pollution levels of PM10 and PM2.5 particulates in urban settings, and enhancing national capabilities for greenhouse gas management This initiative aims to fulfill Vietnam's commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions while improving the monitoring of ambient air quality.
Besides, many environmental technical regulations on emissions regulated in h
- QCVN 51: 2013/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions of steel production;
- QCVN 02:2008/BTNMT: National technical regulation on the waste gas from medical solid waste incinerators;
- QCVN 19:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions for dust and inorganic substances;
- QCVN 20:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions with a number of organic substances;
- QCVN 21:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions of chemical fertilizer production;
- QCVN 22:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial thermal power emissions;
- QCVN 23:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions of cement production
Vietnam adheres to both domestic regulations and international agreements aimed at air environment protection, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement.
4.4.1.1 Vietnam participates in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Vietnam has been an active participant in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) since 1994 and joined the Kyoto Protocol in 2002 as a non-Annex I member The country has diligently implemented the initiatives outlined by both the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol On June 8, 2015, Vietnam ratified the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, reinforcing its commitment to establishing a global legal framework for controlling and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during the second commitment period (2013-2020) and striving to limit global temperature rise to below 2°C by the end of this century compared to pre-industrial levels.
To support the implementation of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, the Government of Vietnam has introduced several key documents, including the Prime Minister's Directive on the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol, a plan for implementing the Kyoto Protocol, and the National Target Program for Climate Change response Additionally, the National Strategy on Climate Change and the National Green Growth Strategy outline Vietnam's commitment to addressing climate issues The National Action Plan on Climate Change for 2012-2020 and the Scheme for managing GHG emissions and carbon credit activities further emphasize the country's focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions as a central goal.
Vietnam implemented national GHG inventory for the base years 1994, 2000,
Between 2010 and 2018, Vietnam actively engaged with the UNFCCC by developing and submitting key national announcements, including TBQG1 (2003), TBQG2 (2010), and TBQG3 (2018) The country also provided Biennial Update Reports (BUR1 in 2014 and BUR2 in 2017) and articulated its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) in 2015, alongside the development of National Conditions for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation (NAMA) Actions.
The Government of Vietnam's organizational structure for implementing the UNFCCC involves three key entities: the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, the Standing Committee of the National Committee on Climate Change, and the Steering Committee of the UNFCCC Additional ministries contribute by providing essential data, information, and recommendations in collaboration with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Under the guidance of the Steering Committee, the Department of Climate Change compiles reports from various working groups and national contexts, including GHG inventories and mitigation activities, with support from domestic and international research institutions and universities Relevant departments and institutes then submit their findings to the Steering Committee for further action.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment will present the Advisory Council of the National Committee on Climate Change, ultimately submitting it to the Government of Vietnam for approval of the BUR.
Figure 0.6: Organization chart of Vietnam implementing the UNFCCC
4.4.1.2 Vietnam participates in the Paris Agreement on climate change
In December 2015, the Paris Agreement on Climate Change was approved by all Parties at the 21st Conference of the UNFCCC, marking a historic commitment to address climate change Vietnam signed the agreement on April 22, 2016, and formally approved it through Government Resolution No.93/NQ-CP on October 31, 2016, with the approval document submitted to the United Nations on November 3, 2016 To facilitate the implementation of the Paris Agreement, the Prime Minister endorsed a comprehensive plan via Decision No.2053/QĐ-TTg on October 28, 2016, which outlines 68 key tasks to be executed between 2020 and 2030, ensuring Vietnam meets its commitments made at COP21.
PROPOSED AIR POLLUTION MEASURES
Practical air pollution management measures around the world
Beijing has launched its first aggressive air pollution campaign since 1998, despite having air environmental protection measures in place since the 1970s The focus must be on finding effective and sustainable solutions to improve air quality Over the past two decades, Beijing has tackled various challenges, resulting in significant improvements in air quality The city's response to climate change has provided valuable lessons and a refined roadmap for other cities to emulate in their own air pollution control efforts.
Beijing's air quality improvement strategy is structured in two phases Phase 1, spanning from 1998 to 2013, focused on addressing pollution primarily caused by coal burning and motor vehicles, with major pollutants exceeding national standards During this period, significant infrastructure enhancements and energy control measures were implemented, resulting in a reduction of CO emissions from 135 μg/m³ to 48 μg/m³ and SO2 from 120 μg/m³ to below 10 μg/m³ by 2013 Phase 2, initiated in 2013 and concluding in 2017, was guided by the "Clean Air Action Plan 2013 – 2017," which is recognized as a comprehensive pollution control initiative that achieved notable successes in reducing air pollution levels.
Beijing's notable external achievements stem from strategic investments of time, resources, and efforts across various sectors The significant improvement in air quality is primarily attributed to effective management of coal-fired boilers and a shift towards cleaner raw materials, alongside industrial restructuring This initiative has led to a remarkable reduction in air pollutants, with SO2 levels dropping by 83% from over 40 μg/m³ to below 10 μg/m³, and NO levels decreasing by 43%, highlighting the city's commitment to improving environmental conditions.
Beijing's air pollution management system has significantly enhanced the effectiveness of its environmental campaign, reflecting two decades of dedicated development and refinement Key features of this system include comprehensive monitoring, strict regulations, and innovative technologies aimed at reducing air quality issues.
- Have complete enforcement and enforcement mechanism
- There are detailed monitoring and monitoring centres
- There are strict regulations on environmental management
Beijing's air pollution management system includes the following legal documents:
- The "Law on Air Pollution Prevention and Control" (first enacted in 1987) was amended in 2015 and came into effect on January 1, 2016
Beijing Municipality's "Air Pollution Prevention and Control" ordinance, established in 2014, reflects 15 years of valuable lessons and experiences in environmental management This regulation signifies a pivotal shift in air pollution control strategies, transitioning from end-of-pipe treatment methods to a more proactive approach centered on process control.
- The national system of technical regulations on air pollutants
- The Law on Environmental Protection Tax was promulgated on December 25,
The Law on Environmental Protection Tax, enacted in 2016 and effective from January 1, 2018, replaces the outdated tax system that had been in place since 1979 This law focuses on various environmental factors, including emissions, wastewater, waste, and noise, with specific regulations pertaining to emissions.
44 types of substances causing air pollution, calculated according to the volume of discharge into the environment
The recently enacted environmental protection tax law in China demonstrates the government's stringent approach to pollution control, regulating 44 types of air pollutants, including SO2, NOx, fog, and Pb compounds The tax rate ranges from 1.2 to 12 yuan, with payments made either monthly or quarterly Revenue generated from this tax will contribute to the state budget, funding initiatives aimed at enhancing air quality and supporting economic development.
In addition to a stringent air pollution management system, a comprehensive framework of economic incentive policies has been established This framework aims to mitigate air pollution by regulating gas emissions from coal combustion, industrial operations, and traffic activities It is enforced through a variety of appealing subsidy packages, support programs, and incentives designed to encourage compliance and promote cleaner practices.
Economic support measures aim to decrease coal reliance and promote clean energy adoption, assist vehicle owners in transitioning to eco-friendly vehicles, and enhance dust management systems for diesel vehicles Additionally, numerous support packages are available for high-polluting manufacturing enterprises to explore strategies for emission reduction.
In 2007, Beijing initiated economic incentives for industrial enterprise management, implementing closed subsidies for businesses with high water and energy consumption and significant pollution emissions By 2013, these incentives evolved to include two distinct types of subsidies: one for environmentally friendly technology transformation and another for increasing closure subsidies aimed at polluting enterprises.
In 2010, Beijing launched an economic incentive program to promote electric vehicles, offering various subsidies that included financial support for purchasing electric vehicles, assistance with leasing and charging electric buses, and funding for electric street cleaning facilities Additionally, the program provided subsidies for passenger and powered vehicles, as well as incentives for individuals who bought other electric vehicles and battery-powered models.
By 2015, Beijing continued to adjust subsidies for individuals buying electric passenger cars
To enhance air quality in Beijing, the government has implemented measures to phase out vehicles with outdated engines, initially introduced in 2006 By 2011, subsidies for the early removal of these vehicles were increased, with further enhancements made in 2014 Additionally, China has promoted new energy usage since 2008, offering economic incentives for solar energy initiatives, and expanded support for heat pump construction projects in 2012.
Besides that, measure included in the economic incentive tool is mass coal control with the first subsidy for procurement of thermal power equipment in 2009 In
In 2015, the city government implemented subsidies to encourage families to purchase wall gas furnace equipment, aiming to decrease CO2 emissions from coal burning Following this, in 2014, Beijing enhanced subsidies for upgrading coal-fired boilers in suburban areas By 2016, the focus shifted to providing subsidies for low nitrogen emission equipment, and by 2017, the initiative expanded to include subsidies for the improvement of gasoline-fired boilers.
Revenues from Environmental Protection taxes were spent on economic incentives, so financial investment in Beijing's air pollution control soared in 2013-
2017, from 3.6 billion NDT in 2013 to 17 billion NDT in 2017 This is also the phase of the application of Beijing's Clean Air Action Plan 2013-2017
Beijing has established a robust automated air monitoring system as part of its "Clean Air Action Plan," complementing its legal and economic frameworks The initial system, launched in 1980, featured eight monitoring stations focused on key pollutants like SO2, CO, NO2, and TSP Over the years, the network expanded to 35 stations, incorporating additional pollutants such as PM10, PM2.5, and O3 to enhance air quality tracking.
Beijing has implemented an "Emergency Response System for Serious Pollution" that works alongside its air quality monitoring system This initiative ensures that residents are informed at least one day in advance through mass media channels when serious pollution events are anticipated.
Proposed air pollution management measure in the context of adapting to climate
An analysis of air pollution management in Hanoi and globally has led to the proposal of targeted measures addressing key issues.
Vehicle emissions from cars and motorbikes are a primary contributor to air pollution in large cities Increased traffic flow directly correlates with deteriorating air quality An analysis of air quality in major urban areas during the COVID-19 pandemic's social isolation period reveals the significant impact of reduced vehicle traffic In Hanoi, for instance, traffic volume saw a dramatic decline starting April 1st, leading to noticeable improvements in air quality.
From January 1 to April 10, 2020, air quality in Hanoi showed an overall improvement compared to previous years Between March 22 and April 7, the hourly Air Quality Index (AQI) at Hanoi's monitoring stations indicated that air quality was predominantly good to moderate However, on April 8 and 9, a noticeable decline in air quality was observed, with levels reaching bad and very bad classifications This deterioration coincided with a significant increase in traffic within the inner city, highlighting the impact of vehicle emissions on air pollution To mitigate air pollution, it is essential to enhance traffic management, focusing on controlling vehicle numbers and reducing emissions.
5.2.1.1 Applying taxes and charges for vehicles in the city
Hanoi is considering implementing a fee similar to London's T-Charge to address the high number of outdated vehicles, including motorbikes and cars, still operating in the city This fee would provide flexibility for car owners, allowing them to choose between upgrading to new vehicles or continuing to use their old ones while incurring daily charges This approach promotes gradual behavioral change rather than outright bans on older vehicles, making it a more practical solution Additionally, the effectiveness of this initiative could be enhanced by partnering with businesses to offer car purchase support packages, akin to the offerings from Vingroup for their VinFast cars.
The implementation of vehicle tariffs in the city will commence with the introduction of traffic emission regulations, as outlined in the amended draft law on environmental protection, specifically in Clause 3, Article 92 This clause mandates that the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment is responsible for creating environmental technical regulations on vehicle emissions Meanwhile, the Ministry of Transport will oversee inspections through registry agencies The development of these regulations will align with Euro standards, as per Decision No 49/2011/QD-TTg, which sets forth a roadmap for applying emission standards to newly manufactured, assembled, and imported vehicles According to Article 3 of this decision, emission standards levels 3, 4, and 5 will correspond to Euro 3 standards established by the European Economic Commission or the European Union directives for motor vehicles.
Starting January 1, 2022, all two-wheeled motorbikes manufactured, assembled, or imported must adhere to emission standard level 3, which has been in effect since January 1, 2017 Consequently, new environmental technical regulations concerning vehicle emissions will be implemented, aligning with the Euro 5 standard for cars and the Euro 3 standard for motorcycles.
Table 0.1: Euro 3 and Euro 5 emission limits
Standard For gasoline engines For diesel engines
PM – 0.005 g/km (direct injection only)
As new regulations come into effect, vehicle inspections will be mandatory, and non-compliant vehicles will incur charges at toll points before entering the inner city This fee will apply from 7 a.m to 6 p.m on weekdays Comprehensive surveys are necessary to establish appropriate fee rates aligned with the country's economic conditions, with London currently charging $18 per day Proposed fees for the new regulations range from VND 50,000 to VND 100,000 daily.
5.2.1.2 Development of public transport systems
The enhancement of public transport systems is crucial for cities to reduce smog emissions from personal vehicles like cars and motorbikes Currently, Hanoi's public transport primarily consists of bus services, with a high-altitude railway system set to commence operations in 2021.
The Cat Linh – Ha Dong urban railway project commenced safety assessments on December 12, 2020, as it prepares for commercial operation in the following year To encourage public usage and facilitate a shift in commuting habits, it is essential to integrate the existing bus system with the railway, enhancing passenger convenience The implementation of the railway will significantly influence the commuting patterns of Hanoi residents, aligning with the city's pollution control goals The city government should discontinue bus routes that overlap with the railway and introduce new routes to better serve commuters Additionally, strategically placed bus stops will minimize the distance to train stations Implementing an e-ticketing system that integrates with both the urban railway and existing bus services, particularly the rapid bus system, will further enhance convenience for passengers.
The bus system in Hanoi, while longstanding, suffers from outdated vehicles and limited quality To enhance the bus service and attract more riders, the introduction of electric buses is essential These eco-friendly vehicles produce no harmful emissions and operate quietly, significantly reducing environmental pollution The Hanoi government must establish mechanisms and incentives for collaboration with Vingroup to expedite the procurement and pilot implementation of electric buses This initiative aligns with both central government guidelines and Vingroup's development projects In December 2019, Vingroup proposed a clean energy bus operation scheme to the Hanoi People's Committee, aiming to promote public transport and reduce the reliance on private vehicle ownership, encouraging more residents to opt for walking, cycling, and bus travel.
Implementing technology in bus transport management is a groundbreaking solution with the potential to integrate with the overland rail system The transport industry should expand the smart e-bus card project to major bus routes, especially those serving universities with high passenger traffic This cashless payment system, which eliminates the need for a student card, aims to enhance user convenience As passengers adapt to this system, the city can reduce the number of extra vehicles, leading to improved service quality, increased bus ridership, and a reduction in traffic congestion and accidents Pilot routes, such as 05 and 39, may test this innovative approach.
Routes 61, 12, 18, and 23 connect key educational institutions in Hanoi, including the Academy of Policy and Development, the University of Natural Resources and Environment, and the Banking Academy Additionally, routes 26, 28, and 31 serve the Academy of Finance and Hanoi Polytechnic University, facilitating access to these vital academic centers.
Industrial activity remains a significant contributor to air pollution in Vietnam, prompting recent regulatory changes aimed at better managing emissions from industrial production These emissions are a primary source of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and climate change (CC) impacts To establish an effective air pollution control system, it is crucial to implement stronger measures for regulating production facilities, particularly in and around Hanoi The Hanoi government can adopt strategies that have proven successful in other countries to enhance air quality and mitigate pollution.
5.2.2.1 Use of integrated licenses for industrial parks
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment has proposed a revised draft Law on Environmental Protection that aims to streamline wastewater discharge permits by integrating them into a single environmental permit This new license will encompass the licensing of wastewater discharge into irrigation systems, replacing seven existing environmental licensing procedures This reform is designed to simplify administrative processes and enhance unified environmental management, ultimately facilitating compliance for businesses with their environmental protection obligations With the implementation of this environmental license, state agencies will have the authority to determine the feasibility of new production facilities based on established standards, as well as oversee the operations and closures of enterprises, ensuring that industrial activities do not adversely affect the environment.
The proposal aims to integrate industrial emission discharge permits into environmental permits, streamlining the regulatory process for project owners listed as major traffic emission sources under Decree No 38/2015/ND-CP Currently, these owners must register their industrial emissions unless they are involved in co-treatment activities or meet environmental protection standards for waste treatment Registration occurs when the facility officially operates or plans to alter its emissions To expedite the integration of discharge permits into a unified environmental permit, it is essential to consider licensing rights during the appraisal and approval of the environmental impact assessment report The process culminates when the facility begins operations, with emissions scale and data verified against the environmental impact assessment and actual operational data.
CONCLUSION
Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs) of the MCCD Results of the Master’s thesis
Mastering interdisciplinary knowledge and methodologies is essential for effectively assessing and addressing climate change (CC) challenges This expertise is crucial for implementing mitigation and adaptation strategies that promote sustainable development at global, national, and local levels.
This thesis explores the critical relationship between air pollution and climate change, highlighting the primary causes of air pollution while considering the implications of climate change The author proposes practical solutions to mitigate these environmental challenges, emphasizing the importance of addressing air quality to combat climate change effectively.
PLO2 emphasizes the importance of systematic thinking and the essential knowledge of science, technology, innovation, and governance in addressing climate change (CC) for development It involves the ability to identify, analyze, assess, and forecast issues related to climate change effectively.
CCR; predicting the developing trend of CC science
The research identifies a significant knowledge gap in Vietnam between efforts to reduce air pollution and responses to climate change, highlighting their lack of interconnection An analysis of Hanoi's air quality and climate change trends reveals the need for integrated approaches Consequently, the use of modeling tools for managing air pollution and climate change emerges as a crucial strategy for addressing these pressing environmental issues.
PLO3: Applying knowledge to solve the problems in CC and CCR: planning and approaching the works in the field of CC; proposing
The thesis approached the problem in dealing with air pollution by the approach of responding to climate change Management of air h
The Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs) of the MCCD emphasize the significance of interdisciplinary and international collaboration in addressing challenges related to science, technology, policy, and finance for climate change resilience (CCR) and development By adopting a "no border" approach, the Master's thesis solutions aim to enhance efficiency through cooperative efforts across regions and disciplines.
PLO4 emphasizes the importance of collaboration with individuals, agencies, and organizations both domestically and internationally to effectively address climate change issues It highlights the significance of communication in work and projects related to climate change, as well as the need for organizing, managing, and administering advanced career development in this field.
In terms of collecting data, I have strong cooperation with the Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and Environment and their network
PLO5: Accumulating soft skills to self-directed and adapt to competitive working environment such as English proficiency (at level 4/6 according to English competencies Framework for
In Vietnam, it is essential to possess Japanese communication skills, effective time management abilities, and proficiency in basic computer skills Additionally, the capacity for independent research and development, along with creative technology utilization in both academic and professional settings, is crucial for success.
Studying and working at the same time give me chances to enhance my skills of time management, self-discipline, self-determination, and independent researching
Besides using English in communication and writing reports, thesis; knowing a little Japanese will make a friendly environment between student and other Japanese professors
PLO6: Having social/community’s responsibility and professional The thesis results show the relationship between air pollution and h
The Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs) of the MCCD emphasize the importance of ethical conduct in scientific research, adaptability to multicultural environments, and fostering harmony among stakeholders Graduates are expected to demonstrate strong social morality by assisting vulnerable populations affected by climate change, adhering to legal standards, maintaining workplace discipline, and promoting a positive lifestyle A commitment to a career focused on climate change response is crucial for sustainable development Additionally, air pollution impacts all sectors of society and exacerbates climate change by increasing pollutant concentrations, highlighting the need for research and solutions that reflect social responsibility.
Figure 2.1 outlines the various stages of the research, which primarily focuses on management aspects, emphasizing the necessity of adequate input data The study relies on two key data sources: the socio-economic situation of Hanoi and monitoring data from local stations, essential for analyzing the city's current air quality issues This analysis will be complemented by an evaluation of existing air pollution management strategies and recent climate change policies in Hanoi Based on the findings, a set of potential solutions will be proposed to address and improve air pollution in the city while adapting to climate change.
Figure 2.1: Framework of the research 2.2 Study area
Hanoi, the capital of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is situated in the heart of the fertile Red River Delta This historic city has evolved into a vital political, economic, and cultural hub since the early days of Vietnam's history.
Figure 2.1: Location map of Hanoi
Hanoi, situated northwest of the Red River Delta, lies between latitudes 20°53' to 21°23' N and longitudes 105°44' to 106°02' E It shares borders with Thai Nguyen and Vinh Phuc to the north, Ha Nam and Hoa Binh to the south, Bac Giang, Bac Ninh, and Hung Yen to the east, and Hoa Binh and Phu Tho to the west The city is 120 km from Hai Phong and 87 km from Nam Dinh, forming a key triangle in the Red River Delta Following its administrative expansion in August 2008, Hanoi covers an area of 3,324.92 km², primarily located along the right bank of the Red River.
Hanoi's terrain features a gradual elevation decline from north to south and west to east, with an average altitude ranging from 5 to 20 meters above sea level The city is characterized by hills primarily located in the northern and western regions, while three-quarters of its natural area consists of delta land formed by alluvial sediment along the right bank of the Da River and both sides of the Red River Within the urban area, notable low hill mounds include Dong Da Mound and Nung Mountain Additionally, Hanoi is defined by its four extreme points, highlighting its geographical diversity.
- The Northern side is Bac Son commune, Soc Son district;
- The Western side is Thuan My commune, Ba Vi district;
- The Southern side is Huong Son commune, My Duc district;
- The Eastern side is Le Chi Commune, Gia Lam district
Hanoi experiences a monsoon tropical climate, characterized by cold winters from November to March, which can occasionally bring frost and minimal rainfall In contrast, the summer months, lasting from April to October, are marked by high temperatures and frequent thunderstorms and cyclones.
Annual precipitation in the lowlands typically ranges from 1,500 to 2,100mm, while in the high mountain region of Ba Vi, it varies from 1,600 to 2,600mm Most rainfall occurs during the summer months, with these six months contributing to 80-90% of the total annual precipitation (Hanoi People’s Committee, 2012).
Table 2.1: Climate characteristics of Hanoi
Source #1: Vietnam Institute for Building Science and Technology
Source #2: Pogoda.ru.net, (Record the highest temperature in May 1926, lowest January
Hanoi experiences an average winter temperature of 16.4°C, with lows reaching 2.7°C, while summer averages around 29.2°C, peaking at a record 42.8°C The city has an annual temperature average of 23.6°C and receives between 1,800mm to 2,000mm of rainfall each year Notably, in May 1926, temperatures hit 42.8°C, and in January 1955, they plummeted to 2.7°C due to La Niña A significant heatwave in early June 2017, influenced by El Niño, saw temperatures soar to 42.5°C, marking a historical high Urban effects and high humidity often push actual temperatures to around 50°C, resulting in fatalities during heatwaves Projections for 2100 indicate that summers will extend longer, with temperatures potentially reaching 48°C and a perceived heat of 55-58°C Additionally, Ba Vi witnessed snowfall on January 24, 2016, with temperatures dropping to around 0°C.