INTRODUCTION
Overview
Climate change and the depletion of natural resources have become critical issues globally and in Vietnam, particularly in recent years The impacts of climate change, including increased natural disasters, pose significant threats to socio-economic development (Thang et al., 2010) Concurrently, Vietnam's rapid yet unsustainable economic growth has resulted in the deterioration of natural resources and heightened environmental pollution, particularly affecting air quality (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2018).
The rise in greenhouse gas concentrations is a prominent indicator of climate change, directly linked to socio-economic development and reflecting global economic and social dynamics (Thang et al., 2010) These emissions are significant contributors to air pollution, with Hanoi experiencing severe air quality issues from 2013 to 2019 Throughout this period, PM2.5 dust levels consistently exceeded national standards and were significantly higher than WHO recommendations Notably, the annual average dust concentration peaked at 55.9 μg/m³ in 2013, improved to 49.2 μg/m³ and 45.1 μg/m³ in the following years, before rising again to 50.5 μg/m³ in 2016, and then declining from 2017 to 2019 The detrimental effects of air pollution in Hanoi are stark, contributing to approximately 60,000 annual deaths in Vietnam and 7 million worldwide, indicating a greater risk of mortality than diseases like malaria and cancer (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2018).
Research indicates a strong connection between climate change (CC) and air pollution, with climate change directly affecting air quality in various regions Rising temperatures associated with climate change contribute to increased ground-level ozone, posing challenges for meeting ozone standards in the future Additionally, emissions of pollutants like particulate matter (PM) can influence the climate, leading to either warming or cooling effects.
Current research on the relationship between climate change (CC) and air pollutants remains uncertain, but efforts are ongoing to clarify these complexities This article, titled "Air Pollution Issues in Hanoi – Current Status and Solutions for Air Quality Management in the Context of Climate Change," aims to identify the primary causes of air pollution, explore the interactions between climate change and air quality, and propose effective strategies for managing air quality amidst the challenges posed by climate change.
Research objectives
This research aims to identify effective measures for addressing air pollution within the framework of current climate change, a critical issue impacting human health, social dynamics, the economy, and the environment Specifically, the study seeks to answer three key questions related to this pressing challenge.
- What is the specific current status of air quality and its managerial condition in Hanoi?
- How air pollution and CC interact with each other?
- What can be done in reality to deal with air pollution in the context of CC?
Concerning those questions profoundly, 5 key activities were conducted to address three research questions:
(1) to collect the data of Hanoi’s socio-economic development status;
(2) to collect the data of and air pollution condition in Hanoi (including data on
PM2.5 concentrations, air quality index);
(3) to analyze the current air pollution situation in Hanoi;
(4) to collect the condition of CC management in Hanoi and the correlation between CC and air pollution;
(5) to propose solutions to handle air pollution in the context of CC.
Structure of the thesis
The thesis is organized into 6 chapters as below:
Chapter 3: Theoretical basis and practical experience in air pollution and management in the context of climate change
Practical air pollution management measures
The linkage between air pollution and climate change
Chapter 4: Current situation of air pollution in Hanoi
Causes of air pollution in Hanoi
Effects caused by air pollution in Hanoi
Current air pollution management tools
Chapter 5: Proposed Air pollution measures
Practical air pollution management measures around the world
Proposed air pollution management measure in the context of adapting to climate change
METHODOLOGY
Framework of the study
Figure 2.1 outlines the stages of the research, which primarily focuses on management aspects, emphasizing the necessity of adequate input data The thesis relies on two key data sources: the socio-economic conditions of Hanoi and monitoring data from local stations, essential for assessing the current air quality issues This analysis will incorporate existing air pollution management strategies and recent climate change policies in Hanoi Based on the findings, a range of potential solutions will be proposed to improve air quality and adapt to climate change in the region.
Study area
Hanoi, the capital of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is situated in the heart of the fertile Red River Delta This vibrant city has evolved into a significant political, economic, and cultural hub since the early days of Vietnam's history.
Figure 2.1: Location map of Hanoi
Hanoi, situated in the northwest of the Red River Delta, spans from 20°53' to 21°23' north latitude and 105°44' to 106°02' east longitude It borders Thai Nguyen and Vinh Phuc to the north, Ha Nam and Hoa Binh to the south, and Bac Giang, Bac Ninh, and Hung Yen to the east, with Hoa Binh and Phu Tho to the west Located 120 km from the port city of Hai Phong and 87 km from Nam Dinh, Hanoi forms one of the three main poles of the Red River Delta Following its administrative expansion in August 2008, the city now covers an area of 3,324.92 km², predominantly situated on the right bank of the Red River.
Hanoi's terrain features a gradual decline from north to south and from west to east, with an average altitude ranging from 5 to 20 meters above sea level The city is characterized by hills primarily located in the northern and western regions, while three-quarters of its natural area consists of a delta formed by alluvial sediment along the right bank of the Da River and both sides of the Red River Within the urban area, low hill mounds, such as Dong Da Mound and Nung Mountain, are prevalent Notably, Hanoi has four extreme geographic points that define its landscape.
- The Northern side is Bac Son commune, Soc Son district;
- The Western side is Thuan My commune, Ba Vi district;
- The Southern side is Huong Son commune, My Duc district;
- The Eastern side is Le Chi Commune, Gia Lam district
Hanoi experiences a tropical monsoon climate, characterized by cold winters from November to March, which can occasionally bring frost and minimal rainfall In contrast, the summer months from April to October are marked by high temperatures, frequent thunderstorms, and cyclones.
Annual precipitation in the lowlands typically varies between 1,500 and 2,100 mm, while the high mountain region of Ba Vi receives between 1,600 and 2,600 mm Most of this rainfall occurs during the summer months, with approximately 80-90% of the total annual precipitation falling within a six-month period (Hanoi People’s Committee, 2012).
Table 2.1: Climate characteristics of Hanoi
Source #1: Vietnam Institute for Building Science and Technology
Source #2: Pogoda.ru.net, (Record the highest temperature in May 1926, lowest January
Hanoi experiences an average winter temperature of 16.4°C, with lows reaching 2.7°C, and summer averages around 29.2°C, peaking at 42.8°C The city's average annual temperature is 23.6°C, accompanied by annual rainfall between 1,800mm and 2,000mm Notably, May 1926 recorded a scorching 42.8°C, while January 1955 saw a drop to 2.7°C due to La Niña In June 2017, a heatwave influenced by El Niño pushed temperatures to 42.5°C, marking a historical high, with actual temperatures in urban areas potentially reaching up to 50°C Tragically, two fatalities occurred during this heatwave, highlighting the alarming trend of increasing temperatures Projections for 2100 suggest longer summers with temperatures soaring to 48°C, feeling even hotter at 55-58°C Interestingly, Ba Vi recorded snow in Hanoi on January 24, 2016, with temperatures around 0°C.
The Red River is the primary river flowing through Hanoi, originating in Ba Vi district and exiting the city near Phu Xuyen, before continuing to Nam Dinh, historically linked to Thang Long since the Tran Dynasty Additionally, the Da River serves as a boundary between Hanoi and Phu Tho, connecting with the Red River in Ba Vi district Hanoi is also home to several other rivers, including the The River, Duong River, Cau River, and Ca Lo River, along with smaller rivers like the To Lich River that flow within the city.
Hanoi is a unique city known for its numerous lakes, which are remnants of ancient rivers Among these, West Lake stands out as the largest, covering approximately 500 hectares and significantly contributing to the urban landscape, surrounded by hotels and villas Hoan Kiem Lake, situated in the bustling historic center, holds a special significance for the city Other notable lakes in the inner city include Truc Bach, Tuyen Quang, and Thu Le Additionally, Hanoi is home to several large lakes such as Kim Lien, Lien Dam, Ngai Son - Dong Mo, Suoi Hai, Meo Gu, Xuan Khanh, Tuy Lai, and Quan Son, enhancing its natural beauty and charm.
Hanoi, the largest centrally-owned city in Vietnam following the merger with Ha Tay province, is the second-most populous locality in the country, boasting a population of approximately 8,053,663 residents as of April 1, 2019, trailing only Ho Chi Minh City.
Table 2.2: Average population and population density of Hanoi
Hanoi faces significant challenges due to rapid population growth, with an annual increase of approximately 160,000 residents, equivalent to the size of a large district This surge is largely attributed to both natural population growth and migration, leading to a swift rise in the urban population.
Between 1999 and 2019, urbanization in the city surged, with population density increasing from 36.8% to 49.2% The districts of Dong Da, Thanh Xuan, Hai Ba Trung, and Cau Giay exhibit the highest population densities, with figures of 37,347 people/km², 32,291 people/km², 29,589 people/km², and 23,745 people/km², respectively Newly established districts like Hoang Mai, Nam Tu Liem, Bac Tu Liem, and Ha Dong have also reached significant population densities comparable to central areas However, there is a notable disparity in population distribution, as Thanh Tri and Hoai Duc have densities of 4,343 people/km² and 3,096 people/km², respectively, which are 4-6 times greater than less populated districts like Ba Vi (687 people/km²) and My Duc (884 people/km²).
Between 2009 and 2019, the population increased by 1.66 million, with over 1.3 million of that growth occurring in the inner city, primarily due to immigration The average annual growth rate rose to 2.22%, surpassing the 0.13% growth rate from 1999 to 2009 Hanoi is grappling with the challenge of managing its population size, as 32 wards and communes have immigrant populations exceeding 30%, particularly in highly urbanized areas like Cau Giay, Thanh Xuan, Ha Dong, Nam Tu Liem, and Bac Tu Liem While newly developed urban areas aim to accommodate these migrants, they also contribute to severe traffic congestion and various environmental and urban management issues.
In 2019, Hanoi ranked as the second administrative unit in Vietnam for Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP), achieving a total of VND 971,700 billion (approximately US$41.85 billion) and a per capita GRDP of VND 120.6 million (around US$5,200) The city's GRDP growth rate was recorded at 7.62%, with a notable shift in the economic structure: the service sector contributed 64.02%, industrial and construction sectors accounted for 22.69%, and the agricultural, forestry, and fisheries sectors made up 1.99% Additionally, product taxes minus subsidies represented 11.3% of the GRDP, indicating a positive trend in economic diversification.
In 2020, the city's economic growth was significantly impacted by the Covid-19 pandemic, as reported by the General Statistics Office During the first half of the year, total production saw a modest increase of 3.39%, compared to a 7.12% rise in the same period the previous year The industrial production index rose by 3.07%, down from 7.4% in the prior year, while the total flow of goods and service revenue increased by 4.6%, a decline from 10% Additionally, the number of tourists plummeted by 65.4%, reaching only 4.93% growth, compared to a 9% increase in the same period of the previous year.
The city has effectively and swiftly implemented epidemic prevention measures to safeguard the health of its residents Thanks to the concerted efforts of the entire political and health systems, 118 Covid-19 cases were successfully cured in the first half of 2020, with no community infections reported since then As the city embraces a "new normal," it is committed to achieving the "dual goal" of disease prevention while fostering recovery and stability in the remaining months of the year.
Methods of study
This article utilizes secondary data to analyze the air pollution status in Hanoi, focusing on key metrics such as PM2.5 dust concentration, the air quality index, and the incidence of health cases associated with air pollution.
The data for this article is sourced from the Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station, the air quality monitoring station at the US Embassy in Hanoi, AirNow, the Vietnam Environment Administration, and various related reports and articles.
2.3.2 The method of data collection
- Inheritance method: summarizing and analyzing data, materials, and information related to air pollution in Hanoi:
+ The concentration of air particulate matter, the concentration of greenhouse gases, including Sulfur dioxide, Nitrogen oxide, Carbon dioxide, and Trioxide; + Air pollution causing agents;
+ Affection of air pollution on the environment and people
- Methods of collecting information: collecting information from the Air Pollution curriculum, collecting data on activities that cause air pollution and parameters of air pollution, related articles, and reports
- Comparative method: used to analyze the status of air pollution in years, the evolution of particulate concentration in the period of 2013-2019, and conclude the trend over time
- Data processing method using tools such as Microsoft Excel, SPSS to calculate and tabulate results.
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL BASIS AND PRACTICAL
Air pollution
Air is the essential gas that surrounds us, playing a crucial role in the health of humans and all living organisms on Earth The quality of air significantly impacts human health and ecosystems, with fresh air—characterized by low impurity levels—offering numerous benefits Research indicates that fresh air can alleviate allergies and asthma, enhance lung function, boost the immune system, and lower the risk of high blood pressure Additionally, it promotes better sleep, improves mood, and increases productivity (Huyen, 2019) Unfortunately, air pollution is a growing concern that threatens these benefits.
Air pollution encompasses any solid, liquid, or gaseous substances released into the atmosphere that, in significant concentrations, can harm human health, hinder the growth of animals and plants, damage materials, and degrade environmental aesthetics It is categorized into two main types: particulate matter pollution and hazardous gas pollution, as outlined in the "Air Pollution" curriculum (Thang, 2007b).
PM, or particulate matter, refers to a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets present in the air, as defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2020) This pollution includes visible particles like dust and soot, as well as microscopic particles that require an electron microscope for detection It encompasses total suspended particulate (TSP) and inhalable particles, which typically have diameters that vary significantly.
10 micrometers and smaller (PM10), and fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers and smaller (PM2.5)
Figure 3.1: Particulate size of PM 10 and PM2.5
Hazardous gas pollution in urban areas primarily stems from the combustion of fuels like gasoline and oil in vehicle engines, leading to the release of harmful gases such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and ozone (O3).
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is produced from the combustion of coal and other sulfur-rich fuels, with its concentration, along with nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and carbon monoxide (CO), increasing in high-traffic areas These pollutants are classified as greenhouse gases (GHGs), which absorb and emit radiant energy in the thermal infrared range, contributing to the greenhouse effect The main greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere include water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3) (IPCC, 2008).
Air pollution is a blend of solids, liquids, gases The causes of air pollution are divided into two groups: natural causes and anthropogenic causes
Natural sources of pollution include wind-blown dust from areas with minimal vegetation, gases produced by living organisms—such as carbon dioxide from human respiration, methane from cattle digestion, and oxygen from plant photosynthesis Additionally, natural pollution arises from smoke generated by the combustion of various materials and volcanic eruptions, which release polluted gases into the atmosphere (Thang, 2007a).
Volcanic eruptions are among the most devastating natural disasters, severely impacting air quality and posing risks to nearby structures In December 2020, the Etna volcano in Italy erupted for a week, releasing massive ash clouds that reached heights of 4,600 meters and spreading pollution across Southern Italy and Eastern Europe This resulted in significantly degraded air quality, with Air Quality Index (AQI) levels ranging from 100 to 200 in affected areas.
Forest fires are a significant contributor to dust and greenhouse gas emissions, severely damaging vegetation In Australia, bushfires from late September 2019 to January 2020 burned over 4 million hectares, leading to hazardous air quality in cities like Sydney On January 2, Canberra recorded alarming PM2.5 levels exceeding 200 μg/m³, while Sydney experienced its worst air quality in December 2019, with PM2.5 levels nearing 400 μg/m³, posing serious health risks to the population The smoke from these fires traveled thousands of miles, reaching New Zealand and transforming its skies into an eerie orange hue.
Temperature inversion significantly contributes to air pollution in large cities by preventing the mixing of atmospheric layers This phenomenon occurs when the upper layer of the atmosphere is warmer than the lower layer, leading to the accumulation of pollutants and increased concentrations that negatively impact both the environment and human health A recent study conducted in Hanoi revealed a 40 to 48% difference in PM2.5 levels on days with temperature inversions compared to those without, particularly during the cold season (Tham, 2018).
Transportation is a significant contributor to pollution in many developing countries, accounting for the majority of emissions, including harmful gases like SO2, NO2, CO, and particulate matter (TSP, PM10, PM2.5) According to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016), traffic activities are responsible for 70% of polluting smog Vehicle emissions are influenced by factors such as the quality of the vehicle's machinery, fuel type, driving speed, and traffic conditions, including density, congestion, and infrastructure.
Industrial activities significantly contribute to air pollution, with smoke and dust from factories being major culprits These emissions not only degrade air quality but also contaminate water and food sources The dust produced by factories contains high levels of harmful substances, exacerbating environmental and public health issues.
High concentrations of pollutants such as CO2, CO, SO2, NOx, and unburned organic matter (like soy coal and dust) pose significant health risks to local populations If these emissions are not effectively managed, they can lead to serious environmental issues, including acid rain, which causes extensive harm to both human health and agricultural crops.
The construction industry significantly contributes to air pollution through activities such as site clearance, the use of diesel-powered machinery, and the destruction and burning of solid materials These processes release substantial amounts of dust and particulate matter, including PM10 and PM2.5, along with sulfur dioxide (SO2), into the environment, leading to a deterioration of air quality The clearance activities introduce large quantities of dirt and cement dust, further exacerbating the pollution levels in the surrounding air.
PM10 constitutes a significant portion of air pollutants, primarily resulting from the destruction and combustion of materials that release toxic gases like SO2, NOx, and CO into the environment Additionally, increased construction activities lead to a rise in vehicle traffic, which contributes to air pollution through the dispersion of sandy soil from trucks and dust generated on roads undergoing repairs.
Waste collection and treatment significantly contribute to air pollution, primarily due to gas emissions from burning straw and other waste At garbage collection sites, sanitation workers incinerate large volumes of waste to manage overflowing landfills, resulting in harmful emissions and unpleasant odors for nearby residents Additionally, the improper mixing of chemical waste with regular garbage exacerbates pollution, as burning these materials leads to soil contamination instead of decomposition.
Practical air pollution management groups of measures
According to the Economics and Environmental Management curriculum
Laws and policies, often referred to as legal tools, encompass a variety of documents including international and national laws, ordinances, decrees, regulations, and environmental standards These legal instruments also include environmental permits, as well as plans and strategies that guide environmental policies at national, economic sector, and local levels.
Legal tools play a crucial role in pollution control, particularly through effective environmental laws aimed at managing air pollution Given that the environment is a unified system without boundaries, global cooperation is essential for reducing air pollution Positive legislative actions taken by national assemblies worldwide contribute significantly to this effort Since the 1970s, numerous countries have enacted laws to improve air quality and safeguard public health, highlighting the importance of international collaboration in addressing air pollution challenges.
International environmental law encompasses the principles and regulations that guide interactions between nations and international organizations, aiming to prevent and mitigate environmental damage both within national borders and in areas beyond national jurisdiction.
The National Environment Law encompasses legal principles that regulate interactions between various entities concerning the use and impact on environmental elements It employs a range of regulatory methods aimed at effectively safeguarding the human environment Additionally, it incorporates various legal frameworks and strategies that guide, implement, and delineate the processes for environmental protection and planning.
According to the "Economics and Environmental Management" curriculum,
Economic tools, or market-based instruments, are policy mechanisms designed to modify the costs and operational interests of individuals and organizations These tools aim to encourage environmentally beneficial behaviors among economic agents.
The natural resources tax serves as a crucial source of revenue for the State Budget, targeting enterprises that utilize natural resources in their production processes Its primary objectives include curbing the excessive demand for resource usage, minimizing resource wastage during extraction and utilization, and generating funds for the budget while aligning the interests of the population with sustainable resource management.
The environment fee serves as an economic mechanism that incorporates environmental costs into product pricing based on the "polluter must pay" principle These environmental taxes and fees aim to incentivize the reduction of pollutants and enhance government revenue In numerous countries, the funds generated from these taxes contribute to the General Budget, while the proceeds from environmental fees are specifically allocated for environmental protection initiatives, including waste management, wastewater treatment, pollution remediation, and assistance for those affected by pollution.
The deposit-refund system plays a crucial role in environmental protection by requiring consumers to pay an additional deposit when purchasing products that could harm the environment This initiative ensures that consumers are committed to returning the product or its remnants to designated waste collectors or recycling centers for safe disposal, reuse, or recycling When consumers comply with this system, they are eligible to receive their deposit back from the collection organizations, promoting responsible consumption and waste management.
Environmental escrow serves as a financial mechanism designed to mitigate pollution and environmental harm caused by economic activities Functioning similarly to a deposit-refund system, it mandates that businesses and production facilities deposit a specified amount of money or valuable assets with banks or credit institutions prior to initiating investment activities This deposit ensures their commitment to implementing effective measures aimed at reducing pollution and preventing environmental degradation.
Technical tools for environmental management are essential for state control and supervision of environmental quality, including the monitoring of pollutant formation and distribution These tools encompass environmental assessments, audits, monitoring systems, and waste treatment processes such as recycling and reuse By utilizing these tools, organizations can effectively protect the environment, enabling authorities to obtain accurate data on current environmental conditions and trends This information is crucial for implementing appropriate measures to mitigate negative environmental impacts.
The main ancillary tools include environmental modelling and communication
Air quality modeling is a crucial mathematical tool that illustrates the causal relationships between pollutant emissions, meteorological conditions, and air pollutant concentrations It plays a significant role in scientific research by assessing the relative contributions of various processes involved in air pollution This modeling is the sole method for quantifying the relationship between emissions and air quality, incorporating data from both past and future scenarios to evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation strategies Consequently, air pollution models are essential for scientific inquiry and effective environmental management.
Environmental communication serves as a vital two-way interaction that fosters collaboration among individuals regarding natural resources and the environment This process significantly influences community members' perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors, ultimately motivating them to engage in environmental protection initiatives.
Climate change
3.3.1 Definition and causes of climate change
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change (CC) as changes in global atmospheric composition caused directly or indirectly by human activities, which contribute to natural climate variations observable over long periods (United Nations, 1992) This definition emphasizes that human actions are a significant factor in the climate change phenomenon we are experiencing today.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change (CC) as a significant alteration in the climate system, identifiable through statistical tests This change is characterized by shifts in the mean and variability of climate properties and typically lasts for decades or longer.
Climate change (CC) arises from both natural internal processes and external factors, including solar cycle variations, volcanic eruptions, and ongoing human-induced alterations to the atmosphere and land use (IPCC, 2014) This phenomenon has occurred throughout history and continues to affect our planet today and into the future However, the specific causes of climate change remain inadequately defined.
Climate change (CC) has emerged as a significant topic of interest in Vietnam, especially following its legalization in the Hydrometeorology Law enacted on November 23, 2015 According to Article 3, clause 3 of this law, climate change is defined as "a change of climate over a long period due to the impact of natural conditions and human activities," driven by factors such as global warming, rising sea levels, and an increase in extreme hydro-meteorological events.
2015) This concept is relatively similar to the two above CC is happening due to both natural and human causes It is represented by changing components of the climate
Climate change refers to alterations in atmospheric radiation driven by various factors, including fluctuations in solar radiation, shifts in Earth's orbit, volcanic eruptions, tectonic plate movements, oceanic changes, and variations in greenhouse gas concentrations It can result from both natural processes and human activities.
Scientists widely agree that human activities are the primary drivers of climate change (CC) The IPCC (2014) reports that greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxides have surged to unprecedented levels over the past 800,000 years due to economic development and population growth Addressing this issue is crucial for minimizing global warming and adapting to the impacts of climate change.
- Carbon dioxide (CO2): enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and other biological materials, and also as a result of certain chemical
Methane (CH4) is a potent greenhouse gas released during the extraction and transportation of fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil Additionally, agricultural activities, particularly livestock farming, contribute significantly to methane emissions Organic waste decomposition in municipal solid waste landfills further exacerbates the release of this harmful gas, highlighting the need for effective waste management and sustainable agricultural practices.
- N2O: is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste, as well as during treatment of wastewater
Fluorinated gases, including hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride, are potent synthetic greenhouse gases released during various industrial processes These gases are often utilized as alternatives to ozone-depleting substances found in the stratosphere, such as chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons.
3.3.2 The context of climate change in Vietnam
As regards the Vietnam scenarios for CC and SLR, the climate in Vietnam has relatively changed recently They are expressed through the following manifestations and trends:
From 1958 to 2014, the annual average temperature across the country rose by approximately 0.62°C, with a notable increase of about 0.42°C occurring between 1985 and 2014 On average, temperatures have risen by 0.10°C each decade, with inland areas experiencing more significant increases than coastal and island regions The highest temperatures are recorded in winter, while spring sees the lowest The Central Highlands has experienced the most considerable temperature rise, whereas the South Central Coast shows the least increase (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2016).
Figure 3.2: Changes of yearly average temperature ( o C) (1958-2014)
Figure 3.3: Changes in yearly precipitation (%) (1958-2014)
Source: (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2016)
From 1958 to 2014, the annual average precipitation in the country has shown a slight overall increase, particularly during the winter and spring months, while autumn months experienced a decrease However, over the past 60 years, the Northern regions have seen a decline in annual precipitation, with the Northern Delta experiencing the most significant drop of 12.5% Similarly, the Southern regions have also faced reductions, with the South Central Coast witnessing the largest decrease of 19.8%.
• Extreme events related to temperature and precipitation
In most regions of the country, the highest daily (Tx) and lowest daily (Tm) temperatures tend to increase significantly, with the highest increase in the period
Between 1961 and 2014, the global temperature has risen by approximately 1°C per decade, leading to an increase in the number of hot days (Tx ≥35 °C), particularly in the Northeast, North Delta, and Central Highlands, which experience an additional 2-3 hot days per decade Conversely, some areas have seen a decrease in hot days Rainfall patterns have also shifted, with extreme rains decreasing in the Northwest, Northeast, and Northern Delta regions, while most other climatic zones are experiencing an increase Additionally, unseasonal and unusually heavy rains are becoming more frequent across various regions.
Between 1959 and 2015, the frequency of cyclones and tropical depressions affecting Vietnam's East Sea showed minimal change However, recent years have seen a slight increase in the occurrence of strong cyclones (Category 12 and above), with the cyclone season extending later into the year Additionally, cyclone pathways are shifting southward, resulting in more storms impacting the southern regions of the country These trends indicate unusual developments in the behavior and effects of cyclones and tropical depressions on Vietnam in recent years.
According to monitoring data, sea level at most locations along the coastal line
Figure 3.4: Changes in tropical cyclones
Figure 3.5: Changes in tropical cyclone developments with wind speeds of level 12 or higher in the
According to the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016), sea level rise rates in various locations vary significantly, with the highest increase recorded at 1.33 mm/year on Bach Long Vi Conversely, some areas, such as Co To and Hon Ngu, are experiencing a decline in sea levels, measuring decreases of 1.39 mm/year and 5.77 mm/year, respectively.
Figure 3.6: Trends of sea-level rise changes
Satellite data indicates that Vietnam's coastal sea levels are rising at an average rate of approximately 3.5 mm per year, with the South Central Coast experiencing the highest increase at 5.6 mm per year, while the Gulf of Tonkin's coastal area sees the lowest rise at 2.5 mm per year, according to the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016).
3.3.3 Climate change scenarios for Vietnam
Recent years have seen significant changes in Vietnam's climate, as outlined in the CC scenario by the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016) These changes are evident through various manifestations and trends that highlight the ongoing environmental shifts in the region.
Temperatures in all regions of Vietnam tend to increase compared to the base period (1986-2005), with the largest increase being in the North
Figure 3.7: Scenario on annual average temperature change
Figure 3.8: Scenario on annual precipitation change
CURRENT SITUATION OF AIR POLLUTION IN HANOI
Causes of air pollution in Hanoi
Transportation is the leading cause of air pollution, significantly contributing to total emissions with key pollutants including sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (TSP, PM10, PM2.5) Factors influencing these emissions include vehicle machinery, fuel quality, operating speed, driver behavior, traffic volume, congestion, and road infrastructure, as highlighted by the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016, 2018).
As of the first quarter of 2019, Hanoi's vehicle count reached 6,649,596, comprising 739,731 cars, 5,561,436 motorbikes (86%), and 148,429 electric scooters (Hanoi Statistical Office, 2019) Motorbikes represent the largest source of emissions in the city, with the number of vehicles growing by approximately 15% annually, translating to around 27,000 new units each month To accommodate this surge in transportation demand, Hanoi would need to allocate about 23% of its city area for traffic; however, the actual figure is only one third of that requirement This discrepancy contributes to daily congestion, resulting in significant economic losses and deteriorating air quality in the city.
Hanoi's public transport primarily relies on buses, which, despite improvements in quality and quantity, still fail to satisfy the travel demands of residents Many buses are outdated and do not adhere to emission standards, contributing significantly to air pollution Additionally, the bus routes are often overcrowded, and the overall service quality does not align with the needs of commuters Compounding these issues is a general lack of awareness among the public regarding traffic regulations, leading to further congestion on the roads.
Transportation activities not only contribute to air pollution but also deteriorate inner city roads, which are often narrow, poorly planned, and insufficient for residents' travel needs In Hanoi, major roads are frequently under repair and construction, exacerbating the concentration of particulate matter in the air Additionally, the increased traffic from trucks carrying construction materials generates more dust, further worsening air quality and contributing to pollution levels.
Industrial zones in Hanoi are significant contributors to emissions, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels in over 100 operational clusters within the city The majority of enterprises in Hanoi are small to medium-sized and lack adequate systems for treating harmful emissions before release, often relying on outdated technology that predominantly uses fossil fuels Many businesses continue to utilize coal and oil as their primary energy sources because of their low costs, despite a growing shift towards clean energy alternatives The main pollutants emitted include nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and total suspended particles (TSP) Additionally, suburban industrial areas in nearby provinces exacerbate the situation by contributing polluted particles to Hanoi's air, worsening the city's air quality.
As urbanization accelerates in Hanoi, construction activities are becoming increasingly dense, particularly in new residential areas and infrastructure projects This surge in construction leads to significant dust and particulate matter from the transportation of materials and waste Despite regulations such as Circular 05/2015/TT-BXD, which mandates environmental hygiene measures at construction sites, including vehicle washing before departing and road cleaning, dust levels continue to rise, adversely impacting residents and traffic conditions.
The construction industry significantly contributes to air pollution through various activities, including site clearance, the operation of diesel-powered machinery, and the destruction and burning of solid materials These processes release substantial amounts of dust and harmful particles, particularly PM10 and PM2.5, into the atmosphere Site clearance introduces a high volume of cement dust and particulate matter, while diesel vehicles emit pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) Additionally, the burning of materials releases toxic gases, further deteriorating air quality.
In Hanoi, prolonged construction projects, such as the Cat Linh-Ha Dong railway and the completed Truong Chinh route, contribute to persistent dust pollution, adversely impacting both road users and local residents.
4.1.4 Living activities and waste treatment
Air pollution in Hanoi is significantly influenced by activities such as cooking with coal stoves, improper waste disposal, and emissions from craft villages While many households have transitioned to cleaner cooking methods like gas, induction, and electric stoves, coal stoves remain prevalent, particularly among small families To mitigate the adverse effects of coal stoves on both the environment and public health, Hanoi has implemented a policy to phase out honeycomb charcoal stoves by 2020, with Hoan Kiem district leading the initiative The Hanoi Department of Natural Resources and Environment has raised awareness through pamphlets, highlighting the severe impact of coal stoves, stating that using one is equivalent to smoking 40 cigarettes.
Hanoi, with a population exceeding 8 million, generates approximately 6,500 tons of domestic waste daily Despite having 17 waste treatment plants, many remain unimplemented or lack community consent, often ceasing operations due to the unpleasant odors and air pollution they create The waste management process, from collection to disposal, releases harmful gases, particularly methane from decomposing organic matter Additionally, the transportation of waste contributes to dust and pollution, exacerbated by congested, deteriorating roads and scattered refuse Incineration and burial of waste, which primarily consists of paper, wood, rubber, nylon, cloth, and plastic, further emit harmful gases such as SO2, NOx, CO, CO2, HCl, and ash, posing significant environmental challenges.
4.1.5 Other sources from sub-urban areas
The surrounding regions of Hanoi are experiencing significant industrial growth, drawing substantial foreign investment and establishing numerous export processing zones, including Bac Ninh, Hung Yen, Hai Duong, and Quang Ninh While factories in these areas generate a considerable amount of toxic gases and particulate matter, the pollutants can still reach Hanoi due to wind dispersion, posing environmental challenges for the capital city.
An analysis by the Green Innovation Development Centre (GreenID) reveals that particle pollution in Hanoi is more severe than in Jakarta, Indonesia, based on air monitoring data from the US embassy The situation is exacerbated by the country's plans to construct additional coal-fired power plants, which are significant contributors to pollution Currently, there are 20 coal-fired thermal power plants operating in northern Hanoi, and despite their distance from the city, PM2.5 fine particles can travel long distances, impacting air quality Additionally, agricultural practices, such as the burning of straw during harvest seasons, contribute substantial ash to the atmosphere, further deteriorating the city's air quality.
Air pollution condition in Hanoi
Hanoi's air pollution has reached critical levels in recent years, primarily due to emissions from approximately 6.7 million vehicles and over 100 industrial zones, contributing around 80,000 tons of smoke and dust, along with 46,000 tons of CO2 annually Monitoring data reveals concerning levels of pollutants, including PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, CO2, CO, and TSP, highlighting the urgent need for effective measures to combat this environmental crisis.
Particle pollution is a significant environmental issue in Hanoi, particularly at major intersections during peak traffic hours, specifically from 7 to 9 AM and 5 to 7 PM The concentration of fine particles tends to rise during the dry season, especially in the last months of the year, when both weather conditions and increased traffic contribute to poor air quality Over the past six years, Hanoi has consistently experienced dust pollution, with dust concentration levels surpassing the national standard QCVN 05: 2013 (25 μg/m³) and the World Health Organization's recommendation (10 μg/m³).
Figure 0.1: PM 10 and PM 2.5 monthly average concentration in Hanoi 2018
Source: Based on data collected from Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station and Airnow
Dust pollution in Hanoi is analyzed by two particulate indexes PM2.5 and PM10 The evolution of the concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 in Hanoi in the period 2010-
In 2018, the average annual concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 in Hanoi ranged from 46.2 to 100.8 μg/m³ and 35.5 to 59.4 μg/m³, respectively, showing an upward trend towards the end of the year due to the typically dry and less rainy weather during those months As illustrated in Figure 0.1, PM10 and PM2.5 levels were at their lowest in July and peaked in December Notably, PM2.5 poses a greater health risk than PM10, as it can penetrate deeper into the human body and enter the bloodstream, while PM10 is limited to the lungs.
High traffic volumes contribute to various emissions, including CO, NO2, SO2, and O3, making heavily trafficked areas the most polluted However, the concentration levels of these pollutants in Hanoi remain within the limits set by QCVN 05: 2013, as reported by the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment in 2018.
Recent changes in air quality in Hanoi are closely linked to weather variations, with winter temperatures typically exceeding those of summer This phenomenon arises from the distinct climatic characteristics of each season Air quality is significantly affected by meteorological factors such as wind, temperature, humidity, precipitation, and sunlight During winter, lower temperatures, reduced sunlight, and increased rainfall, combined with the northeast monsoon, contribute to the movement of pollutants from the North, impacting overall air quality.
During periods of heat inversion, the typical atmospheric temperature gradient is reversed, creating a barrier that traps airborne pollutants and prevents their dispersion This leads to increased pollution concentration in specific areas In summer, although high temperatures and frequent rainfall can wash away or disperse pollutants, the combination of heat and humidity allows some contaminants to dissolve in the air, resulting in lower pollution levels compared to winter.
4.2.1 Air pollution caused by PM 2.5
The industrial revolution has ushered in the 4.0 era, characterized by a strong focus on sustainable development and the establishment of a green economy Countries like the USA, Korea, and Germany are leveraging advanced technologies to promote environmental sustainability and reduce emissions As the global movement for environmental protection gains momentum, highlighted by the theme of Air Pollution during World Environment Day 2019, Vietnam is also taking significant steps This is evident in the analysis of air quality trends, specifically the PM2.5 levels, from 2012 to 2019.
Figure 0.2: Averaged PM 2.5 concentration from 2012 to 2018
Between 2012 and 2018, PM2.5 concentrations consistently exceeded the QCVN 05:2013 standards, with a notable improvement in air quality observed in 2014 and 2015 compared to 2013 However, a significant spike occurred in 2016, reaching PM2.5 levels of 50.5 μg/m³ Despite this increase, air quality showed continued improvement in subsequent years A comprehensive analysis of PM2.5 pollution in Hanoi during this timeframe is illustrated through a chart depicting monthly average PM2.5 concentrations from 2013 to 2019, utilizing data from AirNow and the Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station.
Figure 0.3: Monthly average PM 2.5 concentration in the period 2013-2019
Source: Calculations from PM 2.5 concentration data in Hanoi provided by AirNow
The air quality in Hanoi has shown overall improvement, with 2013 marking the year of the worst air quality, as indicated by consistently high average monthly PM2.5 concentrations However, in the latter months of 2019, there was a significant spike in PM2.5 levels compared to the same period in the previous year This increase is particularly notable during the Tet holiday months, while concentrations typically decrease in June, July, and August The rise in pollution during the end of the year is attributed to dry weather, reduced rainfall, and increased traffic.
As of December 2019, the average PM2.5 concentration in Hanoi for the first 11 months was approximately 30.4 μg/m³, despite December typically being a month of increased PM2.5 levels Historical data indicates a trend of rising PM2.5 concentrations in December over the past four years, with figures of 51 μg/m³ in 2015, 50 μg/m³ in 2016, 48 μg/m³ in 2017, and 26 μg/m³ in 2018 However, if this trend continues, the average PM2.5 concentration in December 2019 is projected to be lower than previous years, with estimates ranging from 50 μg/m³ to a peak of 102 μg/m³ Ultimately, the overall average for 2019 is expected to be between 32 μg/m³ and 36.3 μg/m³, marking a decrease compared to the levels recorded from 2013 to 2018.
Table 0.1: Monthly average PM 2.5 concentration from 2013 to 2019
Source: Calculations based on monitoring data at Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station and U.S Embassy monitoring station
Through the analysis of the air pollution situation in Hanoi in the period 2013-
2019, we can see positive signs when the PM2.5 concentration continues to decrease in recent years However, there are still many difficulties in improving air pollution in
Hanoi and the situation of air pollution is also increasingly unpredictable and dangerous to human health than ever before
4.2.2 Air pollution caused by PM 10
According to the national technical regulations on ambient air quality, PM10 has an average 24-hour due value of 150 μg/m 3 and an average of 50 μg/m 3 per year
Figure 0.4: Annual average PM 10 concentration in Hanoi from 2013 to 2018
Source: Fluctuations over time of PM 10 dust, Environmental Journal
Throughout the observed period, PM10 concentrations in Hanoi have shown a general decline; however, they frequently exceeded the limits set by QCVN 05:2013 Notably, only in 2017 did PM10 levels fall within the permissible threshold, measuring 47 μg/m³.
Recent analyses indicate that the annual concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 dust in Hanoi surpass the limits set by QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT Observational data reveals that from 2013 to 2018, PM2.5 levels exceeded permissible limits by 10.31% in 2017 and reached a peak of 51.25% in 2013 In contrast, the exceedance rate for PM10 concentrations was significantly lower, with a maximum of only 9.19% in 2013, and even lower figures recorded in 2016.
4.2.3 Air pollution caused by hazardous gases
Air pollution levels in Hanoi, attributed to gases such as SO2, NO2, CO, and O3, remain within permissible limits set by QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT, indicating that the atmosphere is not significantly polluted by hazardous gases Emissions primarily stem from motor vehicles, with high traffic areas experiencing the highest pollution concentrations The "National Environmental Status Report 2016" confirms that CO, NO2, and SO2 levels in Hanoi's air are compliant with regulations, although NO2 concentrations are on the rise CO levels peak during rush hours, with data from the Nguyen Van Cu Monitoring Station in 2015 showing a maximum daily CO concentration of over 3,500μg/m³ between 8-9 am Additionally, the average annual SO2 concentration at the same station increased from under 10 μg/m³ in 2012 to 30 μg/m³ in 2015, before decreasing to approximately 22 μg/m³ in 2016.
The concentration of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in Hanoi remains within standard limits, but has shown a recent upward trend, particularly in high-traffic areas such as the crossroads of The Department and the Pham Van Dong region Notably, NO2 levels spike during peak hours, specifically from 7-9 AM and 5-7 PM Similarly, carbon monoxide (CO) levels in Hanoi also rise during these busy traffic periods.
The concentration of SO2 remains within the limits set by QCVN 05:2013, although it may exceed normal levels at times, particularly near facilities that burn coal or sulfur-containing oil Despite these occasional spikes, the average annual SO2 levels continue to meet established standards.
Figure 0.5: Annual average SO 2 concentration development at Nguyen Van
Effects caused by air pollution in Hanoi
4.3.1 Effects of air pollution on humans
Human health is significantly impacted by environmental changes, particularly air quality Despite improvements in Hanoi's atmosphere, the incidence of air pollution-related diseases continues to rise Residents of Hanoi are increasingly vulnerable to respiratory issues, pneumonia, and more severe conditions like lung cancer Prolonged exposure to air pollution heightens these risks, especially for sensitive groups such as children, pregnant women, and the elderly Studies indicate that air pollution can lead to higher miscarriage rates and an increased likelihood of birth defects in infants when mothers are exposed to polluted environments during pregnancy.
PM2.5 particulates are the most harmful air pollutants for human health, as individuals inhale approximately 10,000 liters of air daily High concentrations of PM2.5 in the atmosphere significantly increase the risk of related diseases, as evidenced by numerous global studies highlighting the dangers of exposure to these fine particulates.
PM2.5 particulate increases the risk of illness and death For example, exposure to
PM2.5 increases the risk of asthma, lung disease, chronic obstruction, pneumonia, respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and lung cancer (Uysal and Schapira, 2003; Ghio and Huang, 2004)
Environmental studies indicate that by 2035, air pollution-related deaths in Hanoi could potentially double, significantly impacting children in major cities like Beijing, Jakarta, and Hanoi Specifically, air pollution heightens the risk of respiratory infections by 40% and asthma by 20% Additionally, adults face a 25-30% increased risk of lung cancer and a doubled risk of stroke due to poor air quality.
4.3.2 Effects of air pollution on socio-economic development
The World Bank has highlighted the significant economic burdens resulting from air pollution, estimating that the associated costs are substantial These costs stem from various factors, including loss of income due to work stoppages for medical treatment, reduced crop productivity, and the expenses related to pollution treatment and control Additionally, the displacement of individuals from polluted areas contributes to these financial burdens, which are collectively referred to as pollution costs Secondary impacts of air pollution lead to a range of socio-economic issues, with estimated income losses reaching up to 20% (World Bank, 2018).
As of the first quarter of 2019, Hanoi's population exceeds 8 million, with each resident incurring an average daily cost of over 1,500 VND (approximately 0.07 USD) for respiratory treatments linked to air pollution This results in a staggering annual expenditure of around 4.38 trillion VND (about 18.25 million USD) on medical care related to air quality issues.
According to Mr Le Viet Phu, an economist at Fulbright University Vietnam, air pollution in the country leads to significant economic losses, with premature deaths costing approximately 5-7% of Vietnam's GDP, which translates to an estimated 11.4-15.9 billion USD.
Air pollution in Hanoi casts a persistent gray hue over the city, diminishing its scenic beauty and negatively impacting tourism and leisure activities Despite these challenges, Hanoi remains a prime destination for travelers, drawing visitors with its rich culture and history.
Hanoi attracts approximately 15,000 visitors annually, as reported by the Hanoi Statistical Office in 2019 Despite a steady increase in tourist numbers over the years, many visitors express concerns about the city's pollution levels If the air quality in Hanoi does not improve, it could significantly impact the city's tourism industry.
4.3.3 Effects of air pollution-related to climate change
Climate change (CC) is primarily driven by human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil, which release greenhouse gases This process significantly contributes to air pollution and leads to a rapid rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) levels, making these gases major contributors to environmental degradation and the greenhouse effect.
CC Currently every year, Hanoi has to receive about 46,000 tons of CO2 from different emission sources, making the CC situation increasingly serious
Air pollution causes CC and the direct consequence of this phenomenon is that the temperature in Hanoi has continuously increased over the years The summer of
In 2019, Hanoi experienced unprecedented heat, recording its highest temperatures in a century, with outdoor readings soaring between 45 to 50°C for consecutive days This relentless heat, characterized by prolonged waves, significantly impacted public health and outdoor workers Additionally, the soaring temperatures heightened the demand for air conditioners, leading to an increase in harmful gas emissions and exacerbating air pollution in the city.
Current air pollution management tools
In 2008, Vietnam marked a significant milestone in its climate change response by integrating political commitment into the development of new policies and strategies through the National Target Program to Respond to Climate Change This pivotal year initiated a comprehensive approach to decision-making that prioritizes climate change considerations, particularly highlighting the importance of pollution control solutions in major cities.
The Vietnam Environmental Protection Law 2014 establishes comprehensive regulations for air environment protection, including specific provisions for urban areas This law addresses high air pollution activities prevalent in industries such as transportation, construction, and manufacturing Notably, Section 4, titled "Protection of the Air Environment," in Chapter VI outlines three critical articles that enhance the framework for safeguarding urban air quality (The National Assembly of Vietnam, 2014).
- Article 62: General provisions on the protection of the air environment;
This law focuses on the evaluation and approval process for projects prior to construction, but it lacks specific sanctions for violations While it mandates that organizations and enterprises implement mitigation and treatment measures to address any negative impacts on air quality post-construction, it fails to outline management measures or penalties for non-compliance with these regulations.
Chapter IX, Section 5 focuses on waste management, specifically addressing the management and control of dust, exhaust gas, noise, vibration, light, and radiation Article 102 outlines the responsibilities of organizations and individuals involved in production and business activities, mandating that they must treat excessive dust emissions to comply with regulations Additionally, vehicles and equipment that produce dust are required to be equipped with dust filters and shielding to minimize emissions.
Decree No 38/2015/NĐ-CP governs industrial emission management in Vietnam, addressing major sources of exhaust gas including traffic, industry, construction, residential areas, agriculture, craft villages, burial, and substrate treatment The Vietnam Environmental Protection Law 2014 and this decree outline the control and handling of dust and emissions However, the enforcement of these regulations faces significant challenges, as traffic emissions from older registered vehicles remain unmonitored, and emissions from craft villages and industrial clusters are not yet controlled Consequently, environmental pollution from these activities persists.
• The National Action Plan for Air Quality Management - Decision No
In 2016, the Prime Minister approved Decision 985/QĐ-TTg, establishing the "National Action Plan for Air Quality Management to 2020, Vision to 2025." This plan emphasizes the need for management agencies to prioritize dust control during construction and the transportation of materials and waste It calls for investment in advanced technologies and production processes to minimize emissions from industrial facilities Additionally, it mandates the construction and operation of gas treatment systems to prevent air pollution, alongside strict adherence to emission standards for new vehicles The initiative also aims to enhance national capabilities for greenhouse gas control, supporting Vietnam's commitment to reducing GHG emissions, while increasing the number of automatic air quality monitoring stations in urban areas.
2015 following the national environmental monitoring network plan Monitoring air pollutant parameters regularly according to environmental technical regulations and parameters VOCs, HC ” (Prime Minister of Viet Nam, 2016)
In Vietnam, there is currently no dedicated legal framework specifically addressing air quality management However, recognizing the significance of this issue, the Prime Minister has implemented various regulations and standards aimed at improving the surrounding atmosphere.
- National technical regulation on ambient air quality, QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT This regulation specifies the concentration of substances in the air, replacing the QCVN 05: 2009/BTNMT;
- QCVN 06:2009/BTNMT regulates several toxic substances in the surrounding air, replacing the TCVN 5938:2005;
- QCVN 26:2010/BTNMT regulates the noise, replacing the TCVN 5949: 1998;
The national action plan for air quality management, approved through a decision aimed at addressing pollution by 2020 with a vision extending to 2025, encompasses three key articles These articles focus on controlling emissions sources, assessing the current pollution levels of PM10 and PM2.5 particulates in urban areas, and enhancing national capabilities for greenhouse gas management This initiative supports Vietnam's commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions while improving the monitoring of ambient air quality.
Besides, many environmental technical regulations on emissions regulated in
- QCVN 51: 2013/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions of steel production;
- QCVN 02:2008/BTNMT: National technical regulation on the waste gas from medical solid waste incinerators;
- QCVN 19:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions for dust and inorganic substances;
- QCVN 20:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions with a number of organic substances;
- QCVN 21:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions of chemical fertilizer production;
- QCVN 22:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial thermal power emissions;
- QCVN 23:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions of cement production
Vietnam adheres to both domestic regulations and international conventions aimed at air environment protection, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement.
4.4.1.1 Vietnam participates in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Vietnam has been an active participant in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) since 1994 and joined the Kyoto Protocol in 2002 as a non-Annex I member The country has diligently implemented the commitments of both the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol On June 8, 2015, Vietnam ratified the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, reinforcing its commitment to establishing a global legal framework for controlling and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during the second commitment period (2013-2020) and striving to limit global temperature rise to no more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels by the century's end.
To support the implementation of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, the Government of Vietnam has developed several key documents, including the Prime Minister's Directive for organizing these efforts, the Plan for the Kyoto Protocol's implementation, and the National Target Program for Climate Change response Additionally, Vietnam has established a National Strategy on Climate Change, a National Green Growth Strategy, and an action plan for climate change from 2012 to 2020, alongside a scheme for managing greenhouse gas emissions and carbon credit business activities in the global market A primary focus of these initiatives is the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
Vietnam implemented national GHG inventory for the base years 1994, 2000,
Between 2010 and 2018, Vietnam actively participated in the UNFCCC by developing and submitting key national announcements, including TBQG1 (2003), TBQG2 (2010), and TBQG3 (2018) The country also provided Biennial Update Reports (BUR1 in 2014 and BUR2 in 2017) and outlined its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) in 2015, alongside the development of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) to address greenhouse gas emissions.
The Government of Vietnam's organizational framework for implementing the UNFCCC involves three key entities: the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, the Standing Committee of the National Committee on Climate Change, and the Steering Committee of the UNFCCC Additional ministries contribute by providing essential information, data, and recommendations in collaboration with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Under the guidance of the Steering Committee, the Department of Climate Change compiles reports from various working groups, GHG inventories, and mitigation activities, while also coordinating with domestic and international research institutions, universities, and consulting organizations Relevant departments and institutes then submit their findings to the Steering Committee for further action.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment is set to present the Advisory Council of the National Committee on Climate Change, culminating in the submission of the BUR for government approval in Vietnam.
Figure 0.6: Organization chart of Vietnam implementing the UNFCCC
4.4.1.2 Vietnam participates in the Paris Agreement on climate change
In December 2015, the Paris Agreement on Climate Change was approved at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21), establishing binding responsibilities for all parties to address climate change Vietnam signed the agreement on April 22, 2016, and formally approved it through Government Resolution No.93/NQ-CP on October 31, 2016, subsequently submitting its approval to the United Nations on November 3, 2016 To implement the Paris Agreement, the Prime Minister approved a comprehensive plan through Decision No.2053/QĐ-TTg on October 28, 2016, which outlines 68 key tasks to be executed between 2020 and 2030, aiming to fulfill Vietnam's commitments made at COP21.