PILOT’S HANDBOOK of Aeronautical Knowledge

Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge FAA-H-8083-25 PILOT’S HANDBOOK of Aeronautical Knowledge 2003 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page i ii Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page ii iii PREFACE The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This hand- book introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they progress in their pilot train- ing. Except for the Code of Federal Regulations pertinent to civil aviation, most of the knowledge areas applicable to pilot certification are presented. This handbook is useful to beginning pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certificates. Occasionally, the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). It is essential for persons using this handbook to also become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). The AIM is available online at http://www.faa.gov/atpubs. The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and subject matter knowledge codes for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained from the Flight Standards Service Web site at http://av-info.faa.gov. This handbook supersedes Advisory Circular (AC) 61-23C, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, dated 1997. This publication may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC 20402-9325, or from http://bookstore.gpo.gov. This handbook is also available for download from the Flight Standards Service Web site at http://av-info.faa.gov. This handbook is published by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125. Comments regarding this hand- book should be sent in e-mail form to AFS630comments@faa.gov. AC 00-2, Advisory Circular Checklist, transmits the current status of FAA advisory circulars and other flight information and publications. This checklist is available via the Internet at http://www.faa.gov/aba/html_policies/ac00_2.html. Front Matter.qxd 11/19/03 7:53 AM Page iii iv Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page iv v Chapter 1—Aircraft Structure Major Components 1-1 Fuselage 1-2 Wings 1-3 Empennage 1-4 Landing Gear 1-4 The Powerplant 1-5 Chapter 2—Principles of Flight Structure of the Atmosphere 2-1 Atmospheric Pressure 2-2 Effects of Pressure on Density 2-2 Effect of Temperature on Density 2-2 Effect of Humidity on Density 2-2 Newton’s Laws of Motion and Force 2-2 Magnus Effect 2-3 Bernoulli’s Principle of Pressure 2-3 Airfoil Design 2-4 Low Pressure Above 2-5 High Pressure Below 2-6 Pressure Distribution 2-6 Chapter 3—Aerodynamics of Flight Forces Acting on the Airplane 3-1 Thrust 3-2 Drag 3-3 Weight 3-5 Lift 3-6 Wingtip Vortices 3-6 Ground Effect 3-7 Axes of an Airplane 3-8 Moments and Moment Arm 3-9 Design Characteristics 3-9 Basic Concepts of Stability 3-10 Static Stability 3-10 Dynamic Stability 3-11 Longitudinal Stability (Pitching) 3-11 Lateral Stability (Rolling) 3-14 Vertical Stability (Yawing) 3-15 Free Directional Oscillations (Dutch Roll) 3-16 Spiral Instability 3-16 Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers 3-17 Forces in Turns 3-17 Forces in Climbs 3-19 Forces in Descents 3-19 Stalls 3-20 Basic Propeller Principles 3-21 Torque and P Factor 3-23 Torque Reaction 3-23 Corkscrew Effect 3-24 Gyroscopic Action 3-24 Asymmetric Loading (P Factor) 3-25 Load Factors 3-26 Load Factors in Airplane Design 3-26 Load Factors in Steep Turns 3-27 Load Factors and Stalling Speeds 3-28 Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers 3-29 VG Diagram 3-30 Weight and Balance 3-31 Effects of Weight on Flight Performance 3-32 Effect of Weight on Airplane Structure 3-32 Effects of Weight on Stability and Controllability 3-33 Effect of Load Distribution 3-33 High Speed Flight 3-35 Supersonic vs. Subsonic Flow 3-35 Speed Ranges 3-35 Mach Number vs. Airspeed 3-36 Boundary Layer 3-36 Shock Waves 3-37 Sweepback 3-38 Mach Buffet Boundaries 3-39 Flight Controls 3-40 Chapter 4—Flight Controls Primary Flight Controls 4-1 Ailerons 4-1 Adverse Yaw 4-2 Differential Ailerons 4-2 Frise-Type Ailerons 4-2 Coupled Ailerons and Rudder 4-3 Elevator 4-3 T-Tail 4-3 Stabilator 4-4 Canard 4-5 Rudder 4-5 V-Tail 4-6 Secondary Flight Controls 4-6 Flaps 4-6 Leading Edge Devices 4-7 Spoilers 4-7 Trim Systems 4-8 Trim Tabs 4-8 Balance Tabs 4-8 Antiservo Tabs 4-8 Ground Adjustable Tabs 4-9 Adjustable Stabilizer 4-9 Chapter 5—Aircraft Systems Powerplant 5-1 Reciprocating Engines 5-1 Propeller 5-2 CONTENTS Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page v vi Fixed-Pitch Propeller 5-3 Adjustable-Pitch Propeller 5-4 Induction Systems 5-5 Carburetor Systems 5-5 Mixture Control 5-5 Carburetor Icing 5-6 Carburetor Heat 5-7 Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge 5-8 Outside Air Temperature Gauge 5-8 Fuel Injection Systems 5-8 Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers 5-9 Superchargers 5-9 Turbosuperchargers 5-10 System Operation 5-10 High Altitude Performance 5-11 Ignition System 5-11 Combustion 5-12 Fuel Systems 5-13 Fuel Pumps 5-14 Fuel Primer 5-14 Fuel Tanks 5-14 Fuel Gauges 5-14 Fuel Selectors 5-14 Fuel Strainers, Sumps, and Drains 5-14 Fuel Grades 5-15 Fuel Contamination 5-15 Refueling Procedures 5-16 Starting System 5-16 Oil Systems 5-16 Engine Cooling Systems 5-18 Exhaust Systems 5-19 Electrical System 5-19 Hydraulic Systems 5-22 Landing Gear 5-22 Tricycle Landing Gear Airplanes 5-22 Tailwheel Landing Gear Airplanes 5-23 Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear 5-23 Brakes 5-23 Autopilot 5-23 Pressurized Airplanes 5-24 Oxygen Systems 5-26 Masks 5-27 Diluter Demand Oxygen Systems 5-27 Pressure Demand Oxygen Systems 5-27 Continuous Flow Oxygen System 5-27 Servicing of Oxygen Systems 5-28 Ice Control Systems 5-28 Airfoil Ice Control 5-28 Windscreen Ice Control 5-29 Propeller Ice Control 5-29 Other Ice Control Systems 5-29 Turbine Engines 5-29 Types of Turbine Engines 5-30 Turbojet 5-30 Turboprop 5-30 Turbofan 5-30 Turboshaft 5-31 Performance Comparison 5-31 Turbine Engine Instruments 5-31 Engine Pressure Ratio 5-32 Exhaust Gas Temperature 5-32 Torquemeter 5-32 N1 Indicator 5-32 N2 Indicator 5-32 Turbine Engine Operational Considerations 5-32 Engine Temperature Limitations 5-32 Thrust Variations 5-32 Foreign Object Damage 5-32 Turbine Engine Hot/Hung Start 5-33 Compressor Stalls 5-33 Flameout 5-33 Chapter 6—Flight Instruments Pitot-Static Flight Instruments 6-1 Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines 6-1 Static Pressure Chamber and Lines 6-1 Altimeter 6-2 Principle of Operation 6-2 Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature 6-2 Setting the Altimeter 6-3 Altimeter Operation 6-4 Types of Altitude 6-4 Indicated Altitude 6-4 True Altitude 6-4 Absolute Altitude 6-4 Pressure Altitude 6-4 Density Altitude 6-5 Vertical Speed Indicator 6-5 Principle of Operation 6-5 Airspeed Indicator 6-6 Indicated Airspeed 6-6 Calibrated Airspeed 6-6 True Airspeed 6-6 Groundspeed 6-6 Airspeed Indicator Markings 6-6 Other Airspeed Limitations 6-7 Blockage of the Pitot-Static System 6-8 Blocked Pitot System 6-8 Blocked Static System 6-8 Gyroscopic Flight Instruments 6-9 Gyroscopic Principles 6-9 Rigidity in Space 6-9 Precession 6-9 Sources of Power 6-10 Turn Indicators 6-10 Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page vi vii Turn-and-Slip Indicator 6-11 Turn Coordinator 6-11 Inclinometer 6-11 The Attitude Indicator 6-12 Heading Indicator 6-12 Magnetic Compass 6-14 Compass Errors 6-15 Variation 6-15 Compass Deviation 6-16 Magnetic Dip 6-16 Using the Magnetic Compass 6-16 Acceleration/Deceleration Errors 6-16 Turning Errors 6-16 Vertical Card Compass 6-17 Outside Air Temperature Gauge 6-17 Chapter 7—Flight Manuals and Other Documents Airplane Flight Manuals 7-1 Preliminary Pages 7-1 General (Section 1) 7-2 Limitations (Section 2) 7-2 Airspeed 7-2 Powerplant 7-2 Weight and Loading Distribution 7-2 Flight Limits 7-3 Placards 7-3 Emergency Procedures (Section 3) 7-3 Normal Procedures (Section 4) 7-3 Performance (Section 5) 7-3 Weight and Balance/Equipment List (Section 6) 7-3 Systems Description (Section 7) 7-4 Handling, Service, and Maintenance (Section 8) 7-4 Supplements (Section 9) 7-4 Safety Tips (Section 10) 7-5 Aircraft Documents 7-5 Certificate of Aircraft Registration 7-5 Airworthiness Certificate 7-6 Aircraft Maintenance 7-7 Aircraft Inspections 7-7 Annual Inspection 7-7 100-Hour Inspection 7-7 Other Inspection Programs 7-8 Altimeter System Inspection 7-8 Transponder Inspection 7-8 Preflight Inspections 7-8 Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL) and Operations with Inoperative Equipment 7-8 Preventive Maintenance 7-9 Repairs and Alterations 7-9 Special Flight Permits 7-9 Airworthiness Directives 7-10 Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities 7-11 Chapter 8—Weight and Balance Weight Control 8-1 Effects of Weight 8-1 Weight Changes 8-2 Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity 8-2 Effects of Adverse Balance 8-2 Management of Weight and Balance Control 8-3 Terms and Definitions 8-3 Basic Principles of Weight and Balance Computations 8-4 Weight and Balance Restrictions 8-6 Determining Loaded Weight and Center of Gravity 8-6 Computational Method 8-6 Graph Method 8-6 Table Method 8-8 Computations with a Negative Arm 8-8 Computations with Zero Fuel Weight 8-9 Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight 8-9 Weight Shifting 8-9 Weight Addition or Removal 8-10 Chapter 9—Aircraft Performance Importance of Performance Data 9-1 Structure of the Atmosphere 9-1 Atmospheric Pressure 9-1 Pressure Altitude 9-2 Density Altitude 9-3 Effects of Pressure on Density 9-4 Effects of Temperature on Density 9-4 Effect of Humidity (Moisture) on Density 9-4 Performance 9-4 Straight-and-Level Flight 9-5 Climb Performance 9-6 Range Performance 9-8 Ground Effect 9-10 Region of Reversed Command 9-12 Runway Surface and Gradient 9-13 Water on the Runway and Dynamic Hydroplaning 9-14 Takeoff and Landing Performance 9-15 Takeoff Performance 9-15 Landing Performance 9-17 Performance Speeds 9-18 Performance Charts 9-19 Interpolation 9-20 Density Altitude Charts 9-20 Takeoff Charts 9-22 Climb and Cruise Charts 9-23 Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page vii viii Crosswind and Headwind Component Chart 9-28 Landing Charts 9-29 Stall Speed Performance Charts 9-30 Transport Category Airplane Performance 9-31 Major Differences in Transport Category versus Non-Transport Category Performance Requirements 9-31 Performance Requirements 9-31 Runway Requirements 9-32 Balanced Field Length 9-32 Climb Requirements 9-34 First Segment 9-35 Second Segment 9-35 Third or Acceleration Segment 9-35 Forth or Final Segment 9-35 Second Segment Climb Limitations 9-35 Air Carrier Obstacle Clearance Requirements 9-36 Summary of Takeoff Requirements 9-36 Landing Performance 9-37 Planning the Landing 9-37 Landing Requirements 9-37 Approach Climb Requirements 9-37 Landing Runway Required 9-37 Summary of Landing Requirements 9-38 Examples of Performance Charts 9-39 Chapter 10—Weather Theory Nature of the Atmosphere 10-1 Oxygen and the Human Body 10-2 Significance of Atmospheric Pressure 10-3 Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure 10-3 Effect of Altitude on Atmospheric Pressure 10-4 Effect of Altitude on Flight 10-4 Effect of Differences in Air Density 10-5 Wind 10-5 The Cause of Atmosphere Circulation 10-5 Wind Patterns 10-6 Convective Currents 10-7 Effect of Obstructions on Wind 10-8 Low-Level Wind Shear 10-9 Wind and Pressure Representation on Surface Weather Maps 10-11 Atmospheric Stability 10-12 Inversion 10-13 Moisture and Temperature 10-13 Relative Humidity 10-13 Temperature/Dewpoint Relationship 10-13 Methods By Which Air Reaches the Saturation Point 10-14 Dew and Frost 10-14 Fog 10-14 Clouds 10-15 Ceiling 10-17 Visibility 10-18 Precipitation 10-18 Air Masses 10-18 Fronts 10-18 Warm Front 10-19 Flight Toward an Approaching Warm Front 10-20 Cold Front 10-20 Fast-Moving Cold Front 10-21 Flight Toward an Approaching Cold Front 10-21 Comparison of Cold and Warm Fronts 10-21 Wind Shifts 10-21 Stationary Front 10-22 Occluded Front 10-22 Chapter 11—Weather Reports, Forecasts, and Charts Observations 11-1 Surface Aviation Weather Observations 11-1 Upper Air Observations 11-1 Radar Observations 11-2 Service Outlets 11-2 FAA Flight Service Station 11-2 Transcribed Information Briefing Service (TIBS) 11-2 Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS) 11-2 En Route Flight Advisory Service 11-2 Hazardous In-Flight Weather Advisory (HIWAS) 11-3 Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) 11-3 Weather Briefings 11-3 Standard Briefing 11-3 Abbreviated Briefing 11-4 Outlook Briefing 11-4 Aviation Weather Reports 11-4 Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) 11-4 Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) 11-7 Radar Weather Reports (SD) 11-8 Aviation Forecasts 11-9 Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts 11-9 Area Forecasts 11-10 In-Flight Weather Advisories 11-12 Airman’s Meteorological Information (AIRMET) 11-12 Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page viii ix Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET) 11-12 Convective Significant Meteorological Information (WST) 11-12 Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FD) 11-13 Weather Charts 11-14 Surface Analysis Chart 11-14 Weather Depiction Chart 11-15 Radar Summary Chart 11-16 Significant Weather Prognostic Charts 11-18 Chapter 12—Airport Operations Types of Airports 12-1 Controlled Airport 12-1 Uncontrolled Airport 12-1 Sources for Airport Data 12-1 Aeronautical Charts 12-1 Airport/Facility Directory 12-1 Notices to Airmen 12-3 Airport Markings and Signs 12-3 Runway Markings 12-3 Taxiway Markings 12-3 Other Markings 12-3 Airport Signs 12-3 Airport Lighting 12-5 Airport Beacon 12-5 Approach Light Systems 12-6 Visual Glideslope Indicators 12-6 Visual Approach Slope Indicator 12-6 Other Glidepath Systems 12-6 Runway Lighting 12-6 Runway End Identifier Lights 12-6 Runway Edge Lights 12-7 In-Runway Lighting 12-7 Control of Airport Lighting 12-7 Taxiway Lights 12-8 Obstruction Lights 12-8 Wind Direction Indicators 12-8 Radio Communications 12-8 Radio License 12-8 Radio Equipment 12-8 Lost Communication Procedures 12-9 Air Traffic Control Services 12-10 Primary Radar 12-10 Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System 12-11 Transponder 12-11 Radar Traffic Information Service 12-11 Wake Turbulence 12-12 Vortex Generation 12-13 Vortex Strength 12-13 Vortex Behavior 12-13 Vortex Avoidance Procedures 12-13 Collision Avoidance 12-14 Clearing Procedures 12-14 Runway Incursion Avoidance 12-14 Chapter 13—Airspace Controlled Airspace 13-1 Class A Airspace 13-1 Class B Airspace 13-1 Class C Airspace 13-1 Class D Airspace 13-3 Class E Airspace 13-3 Uncontrolled Airspace 13-3 Class G Airspace 13-3 Special Use Airspace 13-3 Prohibited Areas 13-3 Restricted Areas 13-3 Warning Areas 13-4 Military Operation Areas 13-4 Alert Areas 13-4 Controlled Firing Areas 13-4 Other Airspace Areas 13-4 Airport Advisory Areas 13-4 Military Training Routes 13-4 Temporary Flight Restrictions 13-4 Parachute Jump Areas 13-4 Published VFR Routes 13-4 Terminal Radar Service Areas 13-5 National Security Areas 13-5 Chapter 14—Navigation Aeronautical Charts 14-1 Sectional Charts 14-1 Visual Flight Rule Terminal Area Charts 14-1 World Aeronautical Charts 14-1 Latitude and Longitude (Meridians and Parallels) 14-2 Time Zones 14-2 Measurement of Direction 14-3 Variation 14-4 Deviation 14-5 Effect of Wind 14-6 Basic Calculations 14-8 Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours 14-8 Converting Knots to Miles Per Hour 14-8 Fuel Consumption 14-8 Flight Computers 14-8 Plotter 14-8 Pilotage 14-10 Front Matter.qxd 10/28/03 6:13 AM Page ix [...]... its center of pressure was at the airplane’s center of gravity, the airplane would always balance The difficulty arises, however, that the location of the center of pressure changes with change in the airfoil’s angle of attack [Figure 2-10] -8° Angle of Attack Angle of Attack Page 2-7 +4° CP Angle of Attack +10° Angle of Attack CG CP Figure 2-8 Pressure distribution on an airfoil center of pressure... along an airfoil at three different angles of attack In general, at high angles of attack the 10/24/03 6:43 AM angle of attack, the center of pressure is the point where the resultant force crosses the chord line This point is expressed as a percentage of the chord of the airfoil A center of pressure at 30 percent of a 60inch chord would be 18 inches aft of the wing’s leading edge It would appear then... principle of pressure by itself does not explain the distribution of pressure over the upper surface of the airfoil A discussion of the influence of momentum of the air as it flows in various curved paths near the airfoil will be presented [Figure 2-7] Momentum is the resistance a moving body offers to having its direction or amount of motion changed When a body is forced to move in a circular path, it offers... low angles of attack the center of pressure moves aft In the design of wing structures, this center of pressure travel is very important, since it affects the position of the airloads imposed on the wing structure in low angle -of- attack conditions and high angle -of- attack conditions The airplane’s aerodynamic balance and controllability are governed by changes in the center of pressure Angle of Attack... The point of application of this force vector is termed the “center of pressure” (CP) For any given Cho rd L ine sul ta For nt ce Lift Re ch 02.qxd Angle of Attack Figure 2-10 CP changes with an angle of attack In the airplane’s normal range of flight attitudes, if the angle of attack is increased, the center of pressure moves forward; and if decreased, it moves rearward Since the center of gravity... longitudinally Drag Relative Wind Center of Pressure Figure 2-9 Force vectors on an airfoil The balance of an airplane in flight depends, therefore, on the relative position of the center of gravity (CG) and the center of pressure (CP) of the airfoil Experience has shown that an airplane with the center 2-7 ch 02.qxd 10/24/03 6:43 AM Page 2-8 of gravity in the vicinity of 20 percent of the wing chord can be made... center of gravity is fixed at one point, it is evident that as the angle of attack increases, the center of lift (CL) moves ahead of the center of gravity, creating a force which tends to raise the nose of the airplane or tends to increase the angle of attack still more On the other hand, if the angle of attack is decreased, the center of lift (CL) moves aft and tends to decrease the angle a greater amount... limits of the container The atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and 1 percent other gases, such as argon or helium As some of these elements are heavier than others, there is a natural tendency of these heavier elements, such as oxygen, to settle to the surface of the earth, while the lighter elements are lifted up to the region of higher altitude This explains why most of. .. and as a body, it reacts to the scientific laws of bodies in the same manner as other gaseous bodies This body of air resting upon the surface of the earth has weight and at sea level develops an average pressure of 14.7 pounds on each square inch of surface, or 29.92 inches of 2-1 10/24/03 6:43 AM Page 2-2 Standard Sea Level Pressure 30 29.92 25 Inches of Mercury ch 02.qxd 20 15 10 5 0 Atmospheric Pressure... hose of constant diameter exerts a uniform pressure on the hose; but if the diameter of a section of the hose is increased or decreased, it is certain to change the pressure of the water at that point Suppose the hose was pinched, thereby constricting the area through which the water flows Assuming that the same volume of water flows through the constricted portion of the hose in the same period of time . Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge FAA- H-8083-25 PILOT’S HANDBOOK of Aeronautical Knowledge 2003 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight. ii iii PREFACE The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This hand- book introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be. Circular (AC) 61-23C, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, dated 1997. This publication may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington,